Collagen V deficiency during murine tendon healing results in distinct healing outcomes based on knockdown severity

Tendon function is dependent on proper organization and maintenance of the collagen I tissue matrix. Collagen V is a critical regulator of collagen I fibrils, and while prior studies have shown a negative impact of collagen V deficiency on tendon healing outcomes, these studies are confounded by collagen V deficiency through tendon development. The specific role of collagen V in regulating healing tendon properties is therefore unknown. By using inducible Col5a1 knockdown models and analyzing gene expression, fibril and histological tendon morphology, and tendon mechanical properties, this study defines the isolated role of collagen V through tendon healing. Patellar tendon injury caused large changes in tendon gene expression, and Col5a1 knockdown resulted in dysregulated expression of several genes through tendon healing. Col5a1 knockdown also impacted collagen fibril size and shape without observable changes in scar tissue formation. Surprisingly, heterozygous Col5a1 knockdown resulted in improved stiffness of healing tendons that was not observed with homozygous Col5a1 knockdown. Together, these results present an unexpected and dynamic role of collagen V deficiency on tendon healing outcomes following injury. This work suggests a model of tendon healing in which quasi-static mechanics may be improved through titration of collagen fibril size and shape with modulation of collagen V expression and activity.

Supraspinatus Tendons Have Different Mechanical Properties Across Sex

Sex differences in the mechanical properties of different musculoskeletal tissues and their impact on tendon function and disease are becoming increasingly recognized. Tendon mechanical properties are influenced by the presence or absence of sex hormones and these effects appear to be tendon- or ligament-specific. The objective of this study was to determine how sex and hormone differences in rats affect supraspinatus tendon and muscle properties. We hypothesized that male supraspinatus tendons would have increased cross-sectional area but no differences in tendon material properties or muscle composition when compared to supraspinatus tendons from female or ovariectomized (OVX) female rats. Uninjured supraspinatus tendons and muscles from male, female, and OVX female rats were collected and mechanical and histological properties were determined. Our analysis demonstrated decreased dynamic modulus and increased hysteresis and cross-sectional area in male tendons. We found that male tendons exhibited decreased dynamic modulus (during low strain frequency sweep and high strain fatigue loading), increased hysteresis, and increased cross-sectional area compared to female and OVX female tendons. Despite robust mechanical differences, tendon cell density and shape, and muscle composition remained unchanged between groups. Interestingly, these differences were unique compared to previously reported sex differences in rat Achilles tendons, which further supports the concept that the effect of sex on tendon varies anatomically. These differences may partially provide a mechanistic explanation for the increased rate of acute supraspinatus tendon ruptures seen in young males.

Aging leads to inferior Achilles tendon mechanics and altered ankle function in rodents

Spontaneous rupture of the Achilles tendon is increasingly common in the middle aged population. However, the cause for the particularly high incidence of injury in this age group is not well understood. Therefore, the objective of this study was to identify age-specific differences in the Achilles tendon-muscle complex using an animal model. Functional measures were performed in vivo and tissues were harvested following euthanasia for mechanical, structural, and histological analysis from young, middle aged, and old rats. Numerous alterations in tendon properties were detected across age groups, including inferior material properties (maximum stress, modulus) with increasing age. Differences in function were also observed, as older animals exhibited increased ankle joint passive stiffness and decreased propulsion force during locomotion. Macroscale differences in tendon organization were not observed, although cell density and nuclear shape did vary between age groups. Muscle fiber size and type distribution were not notably affected by age, indicating that other factors may be more responsible for age-specific Achilles tendon rupture rates. This study improves our understanding of the role of aging in Achilles tendon biomechanics and ankle function, and helps provide a potential explanation for the disparate incidence of Achilles tendon ruptures in varying age groups.

Nonsurgical treatment and early return to activity leads to improved Achilles tendon fatigue mechanics and functional outcomes during early healing in an animal model

Achilles tendon ruptures are common and devastating injuries; however, an optimized treatment and rehabilitation protocol has yet to be defined. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the effects of surgical repair and return to activity on joint function and Achilles tendon properties after 3 weeks of healing. Sprague-Dawley rats (N = 100) received unilateral blunt transection of their Achilles tendon. Animals were then randomized into repaired or non-repaired treatments, and further randomized into groups that returned to activity after 1 week (RTA1) or after 3 weeks (RTA3) of limb casting in plantarflexion. Limb function, passive joint mechanics, and tendon properties (mechanical, organizational using high frequency ultrasound, histological, and compositional) were evaluated. Results showed that both treatment and return to activity collectively affected limb function, passive joint mechanics, and tendon properties. Functionally, RTA1 animals had increased dorsiflexion ROM and weight bearing of the injured limb compared to RTA3 animals 3-weeks post-injury. Such functional improvements in RTA1 tendons were evidenced in their mechanical fatigue properties and increased cross sectional area compared to RTA3 tendons. When RTA1 was coupled with nonsurgical treatment, superior fatigue properties were achieved compared to repaired tendons. No differences in cell shape, cellularity, GAG, collagen type I, or TGF-β staining were identified between groups, but collagen type III was elevated in RTA3 repaired tendons. The larger tissue area and increased fatigue resistance created in RTA1 tendons may prove critical for optimized outcomes in early Achilles tendon healing following complete rupture. © 2016 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 34:2172-2180, 2016.

Ground reaction forces are more sensitive gait measures than temporal parameters in rodents following rotator cuff injury

Gait analysis is a quantitative, non-invasive technique that can be used to investigate functional changes in animal models of musculoskeletal disease. Changes in ground reaction forces following injury have been observed that coincide with differences in tissue mechanical and histological properties during healing. However, measurement of these kinetic gait parameters can be laborious compared to the simpler and less time-consuming analysis of temporal gait parameters alone. We compared the sensitivity of temporal and kinetic gait parameters in detecting functional changes following rotator cuff injury in rats. Although these parameters were strongly correlated, temporal measures were unable to detect greater than 50% of the functional gait differences between injured and uninjured animals identified simultaneously by ground reaction forces. Regression analysis was used to predict ground reaction forces from temporal parameters. This model improved the ability of temporal parameters to identify known functional changes, but only when these differences were large in magnitude (i.e., between injured vs. uninjured animals, but not between different post-operative treatments). The results of this study suggest that ground reaction forces are more sensitive measures of limb/joint function than temporal parameters following rotator cuff injury in rats. Therefore, although gait analysis systems without force plates are typically efficient and easy to use, they may be most appropriate for use when major functional changes are expected.

The role of animal models in tendon research

Tendinopathy is a debilitating musculoskeletal condition which can cause significant pain and lead to complete rupture of the tendon, which often requires surgical repair. Due in part to the large spectrum of tendon pathologies, these disorders continue to be a clinical challenge. Animal models are often used in this field of research as they offer an attractive framework to examine the cascade of processes that occur throughout both tendon pathology and repair. This review discusses the structural, mechanical, and biological changes that occur throughout tendon pathology in animal models, as well as strategies for the improvement of tendon healing.

Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2014;3:193–202.

Rotator cuff tears: what have we learned from animal models?

Rotator cuff tendon tears are among the most common soft tissue injuries that occur at the shoulder. Despite advancements in surgical repair techniques, rotator cuff repairs experience a high rate of failure. The common occurrence of tears and the frequency of re-tears require a further understanding of the mechanisms associated with injuries, healing, and regeneration of the rotator cuff. This paper reviews in vivo studies using the various animal shoulder models of the rat, rabbit, sheep, canine, and primate. These animal models have been used to study intrinsic and extrinsic factors leading to shoulder degeneration, various suture techniques, effects of post-surgical treatment, numerous biologic and synthetic scaffolds, and an assortment of biologic augmentations used to accelerate healing. These effects can be examined in a controlled manner using animal models without other confounding factors that sometimes limit clinical studies. The clinically impactful results will be explained to highlight the specific knowledge gained from using animal models in rotator cuff research.

Long durations of immobilization in the rat result in enhanced mechanical properties of the healing supraspinatus tendon insertion site

Rotator cuff tears frequently occur and can lead to pain and decreased shoulder function. Repair of the torn tendon back to bone is often successful in relieving pain, but failure of the repair commonly occurs. Post-operative activity level is an important treatment component that has received minimal attention for the shoulder, but may have the potential to enhance tendon to bone healing. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of short and long durations of various activity levels on the healing supraspinatus tendon to bone insertion site. Rotator cuff tears were surgically created in Sprague-Dawley rats by detaching the supraspinatus tendon from its insertion on the humerus and these tears were immediately repaired back to the insertion site. The post-operative activity level was controlled through shoulder immobilization (IM), cage activity (CA), or moderate exercise (EX) for durations of 4 or 16 weeks. The healing tissue was evaluated utilizing biomechanical testing and a quantitative polarized light microscopy method. We found that activity level had no effect on the elastic properties (stiffness, modulus) of the insertion site at four weeks post injury and repair, and a decreased activity level had a positive effect on these properties at 16 weeks (IM>CA=EX). Furthermore, a decreased activity level had the greatest positive effect on these properties over time (IM>CA=EX). The angular deviation of the collagen, a measure of disorganization, was decreased with a decrease in activity level at 4 weeks (IM<CA=EX), but was similar between groups at 16 weeks (IM=CA=EX). It appears from this study that decreasing the activity level by immobilizing the shoulder improves tendon to bone healing, which progresses by first increasing the organization of the collagen and then increasing the mechanical properties. Future studies in this area will investigate the effect of passive motion and remobilization on both tendon to bone healing and shoulder function.

Rat supraspinatus tendon expresses cartilage markers with overuse

The goals of this study were to investigate the response of the rat supraspinatus tendon to overuse at the molecular level using transcriptional profiling, and to identify potential markers of tendinopathy. Adult rats were subjected to an overuse protocol that consists of downhill running (10% grade) at 17 m/min for 1 h/day, 5 days/week, for a total of either 1, 2, or 4 weeks. Another group of rats served as nonrunning time 0 controls. Transcriptional profiling was performed on the supraspinatus and patellar tendons using an Affymetrix rat genome array. A gene was considered to be differentially expressed if the p value from an ANOVA test was less than 0.01 and the difference between runners and controls was at least twofold at any time point. The supraspinatus tendon had increased expression of well-known cartilage genes such as col2a1, aggrecan, and sox9. These genes were not regulated in the patellar tendon, an internal comparator. Few genes associated with inflammation, or angiogenesis, were differentially expressed, and no significant change in the regulation of matrix metalloproteinases was detected. The results of this study suggest that by expressing more cartilage genes, the tendon is converting toward a fibrocartilage phenotype as a result of the repetitive loading and repeated compression of the tendon as it passes through the acromial arch.

Development of tendon structure and function: regulation of collagen fibrillogenesis

In the tendon, the development of mature mechanical properties is dependent on the assembly of a tendon-specific extracellular matrix. This matrix is synthesized by the tendon fibroblasts and composed of collagen fibrils organized as fibers, as well as fibril-associated collagenous and non-collagenous proteins. All of these components are integrated, during development and growth, to form a functional tissue. During tendon development, collagen fibrillogenesis and matrix assembly progress through multiple steps where each step is regulated independently, culminating in a structurally and functionally mature tissue. Collagen fibrillogenesis occurs in a series of extracellular compartments where fibril intermediates are assembled and mature fibrils grow through a process of post-depositional fusion of the intermediates. Linear and lateral fibril growth occurs after the immature fibril intermediates are incorporated into fibers. The processes are regulated by interactions of extracellular macromolecules with the fibrils. Interactions with quantitatively minor fibrillar collagens, fibril-associated collagens and proteoglycans influence different steps in fibrillogenesis and the extracellular microdomains provide a mechanism for the tendon fibroblasts to regulate these extracellular interactions.

Tendon to bone healing: differences in biomechanical, structural, and compositional properties due to a range of activity levels

Little knowledge exists about the healing process of the tendon to bone insertion, and hence little can be done to improve tissue healing. The goal of this study is to describe the healing of the supraspinatus tendon to its bony insertion under a variety of loading conditions. Tendons were surgically detached and repaired in rats. Rat shoulders were then immobilized, allowed cage activity, or exercised. Shoulders that were immobilized demonstrated superior structural (significantly higher collagen orientation), compositional (expression of extracellular matrix genes similar to the uninjured insertion), and quasilinear viscoelastic properties (A = 0.30 +/- 0.10 MPa vs. 0.16 +/- 0.08 MPa, B = 17.4 +/- 2.9 vs. 15.1 +/- 0.9, and tau 2 = 344 +/- 161 s vs. 233 +/- 40 s) compared to those that were exercised, contrary to expectations. With this knowledge of the healing response, treatment modalities for rotator cuff tears can be developed.

The localized expression of extracellular matrix components in healing tendon insertion sites: an in situ hybridization study

The localized expression of a number of extracellular matrix genes was evaluated over time in a novel rat rotator cuff injury model. The supraspinatus tendons of rats were severed at the bony insertion and repaired surgically. The healing response was evaluated at 1, 2, 4, and 8 weeks post-injury using histologic and in situ hybridization techniques. Expression patterns of collagens (I, II, III, IX, X, XII), proteoglycans (decorin, aggrecan, versican, biglycan, fibromodulin), and other extracellular matrix proteins (elastin, osteocalcin, alkaline phosphatase) were evaluated at the healing tendon to bone insertion site. Histologic results indicate a poor healing response to the injury, with only partial recreation of the insertion site by 8 weeks. In situ hybridization results indicate a specific pattern of genes expressed in each zone of the insertion site (i.e., tendon, fibrocartilage, mineralized cartilage, bone). Overall, expression of collagen types I and XII, aggrecan, and biglycan was increased, while expression of collagen type X and decorin was decreased. Expression of collagen type I, collagen type XII, and biglycan decreased over time, but remained above normal at 8 weeks. Results indicate that the rat supraspinatus tendon is ineffective in recreating the original insertion site, even at 8 weeks post-injury, in the absence of biological or biomechanical enhancements.

A noncontact, nondestructive method for quantifying intratissue deformations and strains

The function of soft connective tissues is frequently characterized by quantifying tissue strain (e.g., during joint motion). Conventional techniques for quantifying tendon and ligament strain typically provide surface measures, using markers, stain lines or instrumentation that may influence the tissue. An alternative approach is to quantify intratendinous strain by applying texture correlation analysis to magnetic resonance (MR) images. This paper reports the accuracy and reproducibility of this approach by (1) assessing the reproducibility of MR images, (2) assessing texture correlation accuracy using simulated displacements, and (3) comparing texture correlation measures of displacement and strain from MR images to conventional techniques.

Total strain fields of the antero-inferior shoulder capsule under subluxation: a stereoradiogrammetric study

The antero-inferior capsule (AIC) is the primary restraint to antero-inferior glenohumeral dislocation. This study utilizes a biomechanical model to determine the total strain field of the AIC in a subluxed shoulder. Strains were calculated from two capsule states: a nominal strain state set by inflation and a strained state set by subluxation. Marker coordinates on the AIC were reconstructed from stereoradiographs and strain fields calculated. Peak strain on the glenoid side of the AIC was significantly greater than the humeral side and strain fields were highly variable. This study reports an accurate method for measuring planar strains in a three-dimensional membrane.

Chondrocyte differentiation is modulated by frequency and duration of cyclic compressive loading

As part of a program of research aimed at determining the role of mechanical forces in connective tissue differentiation, we have developed a model for investigating the effects of dynamic compressive loading on chondrocyte differentiation in vitro. In the current study, we examined the influence of cyclic compressive loading of chick limb bud mesenchymal cells to a constant peak stress of 9.25 kPa during each of the first 3 days in culture. Cells embedded in agarose gel were subjected to uniaxial, cyclic compression at 0.03, 0.15, or 0.33 Hz for 2 h. In addition, load durations of 12, 54, or 120 min were evaluated while holding frequency constant at 0.33 Hz. For a 2 h duration, there was no response to loading at 0.03 Hz. A significant increase in chondrocyte differentiation was associated with loading at 0.15 Hz, and an even greater increase with loading at 0.33 Hz. Holding frequency constant at 0.33 Hz, a loading duration of 12 min elicited no response, whereas chondrocyte differentiation was enhanced by loading for either 54 or 120 min. Although not statistically significant from the 120 min response, average cartilage nodule density and glycosaminoglycan synthesis rate were highest in the 54 min duration group. This result suggests that cells may be sensitive to the level of cumulative (nonrecoverable) compressive strain, as well as to the dynamic strain history.

Proteoglycans and glycosaminoglycan fine structure in the mouse tail tendon fascicle

The isolated mouse tail tendon fascicle, a functional and homogenous volume of tendon extracellular matrix, was utilized as an experimental system to examine the structure function relationships in tendon. Our previous work using this model system demonstrated relationships between mean collagen fibril diameter and fascicle mechanical properties in isolated tail tendon fascicles from three different groups of mice (3-week and 8-week control and 8-week Mov13 transgenic) K.A. Derwin, L.J. Soslowsky, J. Biomech. Eng. 121 (1999) 598-604. These groups of mice were chosen to obtain tendon tissues with varying collagen fibril structure and/or biochemistry, such that relationships with material properties could be investigated. To further investigate the molecular details of matrix composition and organization underlying tendon function, we report now on the preparation, characterization, and quantitation of fascicle PGs (proteoglycans) from these three groups. The chondroitin sulfate/dermatan sulfate (CS/DS)-substituted PGs, biglycan and decorin, which are the abundant proteoglycans of whole tendons, were also shown to be the predominant PGs in isolated fascicles. Furthermore, similar to the postnatal maturation changes in matrix composition previously reported for whole tendons, isolated fascicles from 8-week mice had lower CS/DS PG contents (both decorin and biglycan) and a higher collagen content than 3-week mice. In addition, CS/DS chains substituted on PGs from 8-week fascicles were shorter (based on a number average) and richer in disulfated disaccharide residues than chains from 3-week mice. Fascicles from 8-week Mov13 transgenic mice were found to contain similar amounts of total collagen and total CS/DS PG as age-matched controls, and CS/DS chain lengths and sulfation also appeared normal. However, both decorin and biglycan in Mov13 tissue migrated slightly faster on sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electorphoresis (SDS-PAGE) than the corresponding species from 8-week control, and biglycan from the 8-week Mov 13 fascicles appeared to migrate as a more polydisperse band, suggesting the presence of a unique PG population in the transgenic tissue. These observations, together with our biomechanical data [Derwin and Soslowsky, 1999] suggest that compensatory pathways of extracellular matrix assembly and maturation may exist, and that tissue mechanical properties may not be simply determined by the contents of individual matrix components or collagen fibril size.

Ligamentous restraints to external rotation of the humerus in the late-cocking phase of throwing. A cadaveric biomechanical investigation

The late-cocking phase of throwing is characterized by extreme external rotation of the abducted arm; repeated stress in this position is a potential source of glenohumeral joint laxity. To determine the ligamentous restraints for external rotation in this position, 20 cadaver shoulders (mean age, 65 +/- 16 years) were dissected, leaving the rotator cuff tendons, coracoacromial ligament, glenohumeral capsule and ligaments, and coracohumeral ligament intact. The combined superior and middle glenohumeral ligaments, anterior band of the inferior glenohumeral ligament, and the entire inferior glenohumeral ligament were marked with sutures during arthroscopy. Specimens were mounted in a testing apparatus to simulate the late-cocking position. Forces of 22 N were applied to each of the rotator cuff tendons. An external rotation torque (0.06 N x m/sec to a peak of 3.4 N x m) was applied to the humerus of each specimen with the capsule intact and again after a single randomly chosen ligament was cut (N = 5 in each group). Cutting the entire inferior glenohumeral ligament resulted in the greatest increase in external rotation (10.2 degrees +/- 4.9 degrees). This was not significantly different from sectioning the coracohumeral ligament (8.6 degrees +/- 7.3 degrees). The anterior band of the inferior glenohumeral ligament (2.7 degrees +/- 1.5 degrees) and the superior and middle glenohumeral ligaments (0.7 degrees +/- 0.3 degrees) were significantly less important in limiting external rotation.

Neer Award 1999. Overuse activity injures the supraspinatus tendon in an animal model: a histologic and biomechanical study

Overuse activity has been implicated as an etiologic factor in injury to the rotator cuff and to the supraspinatus tendon in particular. Due in part to the lack of an appropriate animal model, expex85ental studies have not addressed this issue. With the use of a rat model, we measured the effects of an overuse running regimen on 36 Sprague-Dawley rats after 4 (n = 12), 8 (n = 12), or 16 (n = 12) weeks of exercise and compared them with a control group of rats (n = 10) who were allowed normal cage activity. The histologic characteristics, the gross morphologic characteristics, and the mechanical properties of the tendon tissue were evaluated. The supraspinatus tendons in the exercised animals demonstrated significant changes as a result of overuse at all time points compared with the normal group. There was an increase in cellularity and a loss of the normal collagen fiber organization consistent with what has been seen in human tendinopathy. The tendons from the exercise groups were larger than normal in cross-sectional analysis at 4 weeks (129% of control, P < .01) and continued to increase in size with time to 16 weeks (164% of control, P = .01). The mechanical properties of the tendons deteriorated in response to overuse exercise with a decreased modulus of elasticity ranging from 52% to 61% of control (P = .07 at 4 weeks, P < .05 at 8 and 16 weeks) and a decreased maximum stress of failure ranging from 51% to 63% of control (P < .007). These findings support overuse activity as an etiologic factor in the development of supraspinatus tendinopathy and begin to describe the changes in the tendons as a result of such activity. This model can now be used to study the effect of various treatment modalities on these injuries.

Effect of compressive loading on chondrocyte differentiation in agarose cultures of chick limb-bud cells

It is well established that mechanical loading is important to homeostasis of cartilage tissue, and growing evidence suggests that it influences cartilage differentiation as well. Whereas the effect of mechanical forces on chondrocyte biosynthesis and gene expression has been vigorously investigated, the effect of the mechanical environment on chondrocyte differentiation has received little attention. The long-term objective of this research is to investigate the regulatory role of mechanical loading in cell differentiation. The goal of this study was to determine if mechanical compression could modulate chondrocyte differentiation in vitro. Stage 23/24 chick limb-bud cells, embedded in agarose gel, were subjected to either static (constant 4.5-kPa stress) or cyclic (9.0-kPa peak stress at 0.33 Hz) loading in unconfined compression during the initial phase of commitment to a phenotypic lineage. Compared with nonloaded controls, cyclic compressive loading roughly doubled the number of cartilage nodules and the amount of sulfate incorporation on day 8, whereas static compression had little effect on these two measures. Neither compression protocol significantly affected overall cell viability or the proliferation of cells within nodules. Since limb-bud mesenchymal cells were seeded directly into agarose, an assessment of cartilage nodules in the agarose reflects the proportion of the original cells that had given rise to chondrocytes. Thus, the results indicate that about twice as many mesenchymal cells were induced to enter the chondrogenic pathway by cyclic mechanical compression. The coincidence of the increase in sulfate incorporation and nodule density indicates that the primary effect of mechanical compression on mesenchymal cells was on cellular differentiation and not on their subsequent metabolism. Further studies are needed to identify the primary chondrogenic signal associated with cyclic compressive loading and to determine the mechanism by which it influences commitment to or progression through the chondrogenic lineage, or both.

A quantitative investigation of structure-function relationships in a tendon fascicle model

These studies sought to investigate quantitative relationships between the complex composite structure and mechanical properties of tendon. The isolated mouse tail tendon fascicle was chosen as an appropriate model for these so-called "structure-function" investigations. Specifically, collagen fibril diameters and mechanical properties were measured in fascicles from immature (3 week) control, adult (8 week) control, and adult (8 week) MovI3 transgenic mice. Results demonstrated a moderate correlation between mean fibril diameter and fascicle stiffness (r = 0.73, p = 0.001) and maximum load (r = 0.75, p < 0.001), whereas a weak correlation with fascicle modulus (r = 0.39, p = 0.11) and maximum stress (r = 0.48, p = 0.04). An analysis of pooled within-group correlations revealed no strong structure-function trends evidenced at the local or group level, indicating that correlations observed in the general structure-function analyses were due primarily to having three different experimental groups, rather than significant correlations of parameters within the groups.

Animal models of tendon and ligament injuries for tissue engineering applications

Improved methods are needed for prevention and treatment of injuries to the musculoskeletal soft tissues. Tissue engineering techniques have led to more effective clinical protocols for treating these injuries. Improvement of tissue healing through the addition of biologic factors, and the development of biologically active tissue engineered replacements, are two promising areas of research. An essential component of progress in this field is the use of animal models of tendon and ligament injuries, which allows for rigorous testing of hypotheses related to disease pathogenesis and treatment. Because these animal models must be appropriate for the condition being studied, no single model exists that is appropriate for all investigations. It generally is necessary to differentiate between tendon and ligament tissues. Furthermore, ligaments should be divided into intraarticular and extraarticular models, whereas tendons should be divided into intrasynovial and extrasynovial models. Other important factors in the appropriate use of an animal model include size of the animal, anatomic features, and techniques available for tissue analysis. The tissues used should be large enough to allow for accurate and reproducible manipulations (injury creation, repair, reconstruction). In addition, it is preferable to use tissues that are amenable to quantitative analysis.

Rotator cuff defect healing: a biomechanical and histologic analysis in an animal model

Rotator cuff tears are one of the most common causes of pain and disability in the upper extremity. With the use of an animal model, we studied the healing response of a controlled defect in the normal supraspinatus tendon and in a tendon with a reduced intrinsic healing capacity. In 36 Sprague-Dawley rats, defects (2 mm x 2 mm) were created in the supraspinatus tendons bilaterally. To model a tendon with an intrinsically reduced capacity to heal, the tissue adjacent to the defect area in the left shoulder was treated with in situ freezing. The contralateral tendon was not frozen. After 3 (n = 12), 6 (n = 12), and 12 (n = 12) weeks, animals were killed and underwent histologic (n = 4 from each group) and biomechanical (n = 8 from each group) evaluation. An additional group of untreated animals served as a normal control group. On histologic evaluation 78% of tendons had persistent defects (defined as incomplete closure of the defect site). Over time, the tissue from both groups demonstrated an improved histologic grade but did not reach normal levels, even at 12 weeks. No histologic differences were found between defect healing in normal tendons and in those treated with in situ freezing. On biomechanical evaluation there were also no significant differences between treatment groups. Over time, an improvement occurred in tissue properties, indicating that some healing of the defects had occurred. However, these tissue properties remained an order of magnitude lower than those of normal control tendons. These findings indicate that there is an active but inadequate repair response to the defect in the rat supraspinatus tendon, which is not significantly worsened by in situ freezing of the tissue around the defect. This model has applications toward the study of techniques to improve or accelerate cuff defect healing.

The effects of overuse combined with intrinsic or extrinsic alterations in an animal model of rotator cuff tendinosis

An in vivo animal model was used to evaluate overuse and overuse plus intrinsic tendon injury or extrinsic tendon compression in the development of rotator cuff injury. Forty-four male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into groups of 22. Each left shoulder received an intrinsic or extrinsic injury plus overuse (treadmill running), and each right shoulder received only overuse. Eleven rats from each group were sacrificed at 4 and 8 weeks. Supraspinatus tendons were evaluated histologically or geometrically and biomechanically. Ten rats constituted a cage-activity control group. Both supraspinatus tendons of the experimental groups had increases in cellularity and collagen disorganization and changes in cell shape compared with control tendons. Tendons with injury plus overuse exhibited a worse histologic grade than those with overuse alone. The cross-sectional area of both supraspinatus tendons of the experimental rats was significantly more than in control tendons. The area of the injury plus overuse tendons was increased on average compared with overuse-alone tendons. Biomechanically, the tissue moduli of overuse/intrinsic injury tendons at 4 weeks and those of the overuse/extrinsic injury tendons at 8 weeks were significantly lower than in control tendons. Tissue moduli of the overuse/injury tendons were significantly lower than in the overuse-alone tendons at 8 weeks. This study demonstrated that damage to the supraspinatus tendon can be caused by overuse and intrinsic injury, overuse and extrinsic compression, and overuse alone.

The mechanism of creation of superior labrum, anterior, and posterior lesions in a dynamic biomechanical model of the shoulder: the role of inferior subluxation

Lesions of the superior glenoid labrum are a source of shoulder disease. However, the mechanisms of injury to this region are unknown, and controversy exists regarding the role of shoulder instability in creation of this lesion. With a cadaver model that simulates physiologic rotator cuff forces and produces traction on the biceps tendon, the creation of type II superior labrum, anterior, and posterior (SLAP) lesions and the role of glenohumeral subluxation were investigated: Left and right shoulders from each of 8 paired cadavers (age 62 +/- 7.2 years, 5 male and 3 female) were randomized to be tested in either a 20 mm inferiorly subluxed position or in a reduced position. The long head of the biceps tendon was held near the musculotendinous junction with a novel cryogenic clamp. Traction on the long head of the biceps tendon was applied at a fast rate of 12.7 cm/sec with a servohydraulic testing machine. A load cell was used to monitor the biceps tendon load. After testing to failure, the presence or absence of a type II SLAP lesion was determined by 2 experienced shoulder surgeons masked to the test group. The production of type II SLAP lesions differed significantly (P = .03) between reduced shoulders (2 SLAP lesions out of 8 tests) and the shoulders with inferior subluxation (7 SLAP lesions out of 8 tests). This experiment has shown that traction on the biceps tendon in this biomechanical model can reproducibly create type II SLAP lesions, and inferior subluxation facilitates the generation of such lesions.

Active and passive factors in inferior glenohumeral stabilization: a biomechanical model

This study examines the stabilizing factors of the glenohumeral joint against inferior translation over a range of subluxations. Factors examined included the glenohumeral capsular ligaments, the coracohumeral ligament, the rotator cuff forces, and the long head of the biceps force. Simulated muscle forces were applied to eight shoulder specimens with the arm near 0 degrees abduction. Stability was defined as the force required to inferiorly sublux the joint to a specified translation from the centered position and was evaluated under varying configurations of capsule cuts, humeral rotation, and muscle loads. The supraspinatus and biceps muscle forces were found to be important active stabilizers. Thus, tension in the long head of the biceps did not tend to depress the humeral head. The inferior glenohumeral ligament was an important passive stabilizer in external rotation. Understanding the effects of these factors adds insight into the underlying biomechanics of clinical shoulder instability.

Posterior glenohumeral subluxation: active and passive stabilization in a biomechanical model

We examined the role of the glenohumeral and coracohumeral ligaments as well as the forces provided by the rotator cuff muscles, the long head of the biceps, the anterior and middle deltoids, and the pectoralis major in the stabilization of the glenohumeral joint in the posterior direction. Simulated muscle forces were mechanically applied to eight shoulder specimens. The humeroscapular position for testing simulated the 90-degree forward-flexion (humerothoracic) position used clinically for the so-called jerk test, which is the most clinically important position with regard to posterior instability of the shoulder. Experiments were performed with a variety of configurations of ligamentous and capsular cuts, humeral rotation, and levels of muscle force. Stability was investigated by measuring the force required to subluxate the humeral head a specified amount from its reduced position. Of the muscles and ligaments tested, the subscapularis muscle contributed the most to this subluxation force. The coracohumeral ligament was an effective contributor in neutral humeral rotation, and the inferior glenohumeral ligament was an effective contributor in internal humeral rotation. The long head of the biceps was found to reduce the subluxation force in certain positions.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

It is widely agreed that a complex interaction of passive and active stabilizing structures and forces is necessary for clinical stability of the shoulder. The present study identified the contributions of ligaments and muscles to posterior stability of the shoulder in the position of greatest clinical importance--posterior subluxation with the shoulder in forward flexion.

Biomechanics of the rotator cuff

Thorough understanding of rotator cuff mechanics is important for effective treatment and/or prevention of cuff injuries. This understanding is achieved through knowledge of normal cuff structure and mechanics. Only then, can the effects of injuries and pathologic processes on normal cuff function be carefuly assessed. Rotator cuff structures are viewed and analyzed on a number of different levels. This article presents current knowledge of rotator cuff mechanics through review of cuff structure and anatomy, corocoacromial arch structure and biomechanics, and biomechanical models.

Coracoacromial ligament: in situ load and viscoelastic properties in rotator cuff disease

The coracoacromial ligament plays a role in rotator cuff disease. The changes in the in situ load and viscoelastic properties of the coracoacromial ligament in shoulders with rotator cuff tears were evaluated. Coracoacromial ligaments from 16 cadaveric shoulders (8 with rotator cuff tears, 8 without tears) were evaluated via biomechanical testing of bone ligament bone specimens. An in situ load existed in the coracoacromial ligaments of 19.6 +/- 15.4 N (rotator cuff tear) and 18.3 +/- 9.8 N (no rotator cuff tear). This difference was not statistically significant. Cyclic loading of the ligaments demonstrated a greater drop in peak stress in rotator cuff tear shoulders than in normal shoulders, whereas the stress relaxation response was not different. These changes in the coracoacromial ligament in shoulders with cuff tears may be attributable to ultrastructural changes within the ligament as a result of an altered loading environment. It remains unknown whether they occur as a result of a rotator cuff tear or if they contribute to the pathogenesis of cuff disease.

Development and use of an animal model for investigations on rotator cuff disease

Although both intrinsic and extrinsic factors have been implicated in the cause of rotator cuff disease, previous studies have not been designed to test hypotheses of this disease, partly because of the lack of an appropriate animal model. Thirty-three animals were evaluated according to a 34 item checklist of criteria to determine their appropriateness as an animal model for investigations on the rotator cuff. Only the rat shoulder satisfactorily fulfilled all criteria, with a prominent supraspinatus tendon passing under an enclosed arch. Once the rat was identified, 36 rats were randomized to three experimental groups. One group (n = 12) was treated with an intratendinous injection of bacterial collagenase simulating an acute intrinsic injury, another group (n = 12) was treated with an acromial alteration to reduce the subacromial space simulating an external compression, and the third group (n = 12) was treated with a combination of both modifications. Significant increases in cellularity, number of fibroblasts, and collagen disorganization were seen in all experimental tendons compared with a contralateral control group. Semiquantitative grading of histologic sections revealed marked changes in all groups at 4 and 8 weeks. Injuries appeared to be healing at 12 weeks except in the combination group, which seemed to demonstrate persistent alterations. This study supports the rat as an appropriate model for investigating rotator cuff disease. In addition, this study demonstrates that both intrinsic and extrinsic alterations can induce changes in the supraspinatus tendon, which may have similarities to human tendon disease.

Inferior glenohumeral ligament: geometric and strain-rate dependent properties

The inferior glenohumeral ligament (IGHL) is an important structure for maintaining shoulder stability. This study was aimed at determining the geometric and anatomic characteristics of the IGHL and its tensile properties at a higher strain rate than previously tested. Eight fresh-frozen human cadaver shoulders (average age 69 years, age range 62 to 73 years) from four female and four male cadavers were used to harvest bone-ligament-bone specimens from the three regions of the IGHL (superior band, anterior axillary pouch, and posterior axillary pouch). Uniaxial tensile tests were performed at the moderately high strain rate of approximately 10% per second with a servo-hydraulic testing machine. This represented a strain rate that was approximately 100 to 1000 times faster than that previously reported. During tensile testing, bone-ligament-bone strains were calculated from grip-to-grip motion on the testing machine, and mid-substance strains were determined by a video dimensional analyzer. Although all regions of the IGHL had similar lengths (averaging 43.4 mm), their thickness varied by region and by proximal-to-distal location. The superior band was the thickest (2.23 +/- 0.38 mm) of the three regions. Of the remaining two regions the anterior axillary pouch (1.94 +/- 0.38 mm) was thicker than the posterior axillary pouch (1.59 +/- 0.64 mm). By proximal-to-distal location the IGHL was thicker for all three regions near the glenoid (2.30 +/- 0.57 mm) than near the humerus (1.61 +/- 0.52 mm). The superior band had a greater stiffness (62.63 +/- 9.78 MPa) than either the anterior axillary pouch (47.75 +/- 17.89 MPa) or the posterior axillary pouch (39.97 +/- 13.29 MPa). Tensile stress at failure was greater in the superior band (8.4 +/- 2.2 MPa) and the anterior axillary pouch (7.8 +/- 3.1 MPa) than the posterior axillary pouch (5.9 +/- 1.7 MPa). The anterior axillary pouch demonstrated greater bone-to-bone and mid-substance strains (30.4% +/- 4.3% and 10.8% +/- 2.4%, respectively) before failure than the other two regions (superior band: 20.8% +/- 3.8% and 9.1% +/- 2.8%, respectively; posterior axillary pouch: 25.2% +/- 5.8% and 7.8% +/- 2.6%, respectively). Bone-to-bone strain was always greater than mid-substance strain, indicating that when the IGHL is stretched, the tissue near the insertion sites will experience much greater strain than the tissue in the mid-substance. insertion failures were more likely at slower strain rates, and ligamentous failures were predominant at the fast strain rate. When compared with other tensile studies of the IGHL at slower strain rates (0.01% per second and 0.1% per second), the superior band and the anterior axillary pouch demonstrated the viscoelastic effects of increased stiffness and failure stress. This superior band and anterior axillary pouch pouch viscoelastic stiffening effect suggests that these two regions may function to restrain the humeral head from rapid abnormal anterior displacement in the clinically vulnerable position of abduction and external rotation.

Anterior glenohumeral stabilization factors: progressive effects in a biomechanical model

The aim of this study was to evaluate the anterior stabilizing factors of the glenohumeral joint over a range of translations. The stabilizers examined included the capsular ligaments, the coracohumeral ligament, the rotator cuff muscles, and the long head of the biceps. Simulated muscle forces were applied to eight shoulder specimens to produce 90 degrees of total elevation of the arm in the scapular plane. Stability, defined as the force required to reach a specified subluxation, then was evaluated under varying configurations of capsule cuts, humeral rotation, and muscular loads. The overall force-displacement relationship of the subluxation was found to increase exponentially in external rotation to 239 N at 10 mm of displacement and to level off in neutral rotation to 172 N at 10 mm of displacement. Among the muscles, the biceps was the most important stabilizer in neutral rotation, providing more than 30 N of stabilization; the subscapularis provided the greatest degree of stabilization in external rotation, increasing to approximately 20 N. The subscapularis and supraspinatus were the most consistently important stabilizers in both types of rotation. In external rotation, the superior, middle, and inferior glenohumeral ligaments were the most effective ligamentous stabilizers, and all provided progressively more stabilization as higher displacements were reached. The stability provided by some of the ligaments reached nearly 50 N at 10 mm of displacement.

Contact areas in the thumb carpometacarpal joint

The thumb carpometacarpal joint is a common site of osteoarthritis. It has been hypothesized that peaks of localized stress on the dorsoradial or volar-ulnar regions, or both, of the articular surfaces of the trapezium and metacarpal lead to erosion of cartilage and may be responsible for the progression of the disease. The objective of this study was to determine the contact areas in this joint under the functional position of lateral (key) pinch and in the extremes of range of motion of the joint. These contact areas were assessed relative to the observed sites of cartilage thinning. Eight hands from cadavers of women and five from cadavers of men were tested in vitro with the thumb under a 25 N load in the lateral pinch position, and under small muscle loads (0-5 N) with the thumb in flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and neutral positions. Contact areas of articular surfaces of the thumb carpometacarpal joint were determined for these positions using a stereophotogrammetric technique. The lateral pinch position produced contact areas predominantly on the central, volar, and volar-ulnar regions of the trapezium and the metacarpal. In three specimens, contact areas were distinctly separated between the dorsoradial and volar-ulnar regions, and in one specimen, from a man, contact occurred exclusively on the dorsoradial region of the trapezium. Using stereophotogrammetry, maps of cartilage thickness also were determined for a subset of nine specimens. The volar-ulnar, ulnar, and dorsoradial regions of the trapezium were the most common sites of thin cartilage, and these may be sites of cartilage wear.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Excursion of the rotator cuff under the acromion. Patterns of subacromial contact

Nine fresh-frozen, human cadaveric shoulders were elevated in the scapular plane in two different humeral rotations by applying forces along action lines of rotator cuff and deltoid muscles. Stereophotogrammetry determined possible regions of subacromial contact using a proximity criterion; radiographs measured acromiohumeral interval and position of greater tuberosity. Contact starts at the anterolateral edge of the acromion at 0 degrees of elevation; it shifts medially with arm elevation. On the humeral surface, contact shifts from proximal to distal on the supraspinatus tendon with arm elevation. When external rotation is decreased, distal and posterior shift in contact is noted. Acromial undersurface and rotator cuff tendons are in closest proximity between 60 degrees and 120 degrees of elevation; contact was consistently more pronounced for Type III acromions. Mean acromiohumeral interval was 11.1 mm at 0 degrees of elevation and decreased to 5.7 mm at 90 degrees, when greater tuberosity was closest to the acromion. Radiographs show bone-to-bone relationship; stereophotogrammetry assesses contact on soft tissues of the subacromial space. Contact centers on the supraspinatus insertion, suggesting altered excursion of the greater tuberosity may initially damage this rotator cuff region. Conditions limiting external rotation or elevation may also increase rotator cuff compression. Marked increase in contact with Type III acromions supports the role of anterior acromioplasty when clinically indicated, usually in older patients with primary impingement.

A new optical system for the determination of deformations and strains: calibration characteristics and experimental results

Many types of optical strain measurement systems have been used for the determination of deformations and strains in soft biological tissues. The purpose of this investigation is to report a new optical strain measurement system developed in our laboratory which offers distinct advantages over systems developed in the past. Our optical strain system has demonstrated excellent performance in calibration and experimental tests. Calibration tests illustrate the system's accuracy to 0.05% strain at 3.52% strain and 0.18% strain at 11.74% strain. Further, this system can measure strains to within 2% measurement error for strains in a 0-11.74% range when 100 microns increments of motion are used for calibration. The resolution of our system appears to be at least as good as the linear micrometer (2 microns) used as a calibrating standard. Errors in strain measurement due to whole specimen rotation or translation are quantified. Rotations about an in-plane axis perpendicular to the direction of strain and translations in/out of the plane of focus result in the largest sources of error. Finally, in an in vitro biomechanical study of the rabbit Achilles tendon, experimental failure strains are 4.3 +/- 0.9% using this system.

Computer simulation of glenohumeral and patellofemoral subluxation. Estimating pathological articular contact

Analytic stereophotogrammetry and an interactive computer graphics program were used to obtain first order assessments of joint contact patterns in patellofemoral and glenohumeral joints, simulating normal and abnormal articulations. Precise (90 microns accuracy) computer graphic representations of the humeral head, glenoid, patella, and femoral articular surfaces were obtained from cadaver knees and shoulders. These surface representations were then manipulated into an articulated position, and joint contact areas computed by a proximity criterion. Pathologic states were then simulated, and contact recomputed. Simulated glenohumeral subluxations dramatically reduced contact area, and focused it eccentrically on the glenoid rim. Simulated size mismatch of humeral heads to glenoids reduced contact area, producing a pattern of peripheral contact on the glenoid if the humeral head had a larger radius of curvature, and central contact on the glenoid if the humeral head had a smaller radius of curvature. At 30 degrees knee flexion, the patellofemoral joint demonstrated a broad distribution of contact along the distal aspect of the patella and proximal aspect of the trochlea. Simulated lateral tilt (5 degrees) and translation (5 mm) of the patella resulted in shift of the predominant contact area laterally, along with a drastic decrease in the contact area. These results have implications for prosthetic sizing and biomechanical modeling of the glenohumeral and patellofemoral joints, and in selecting models for more rigorous empiric studies of joint contact. Furthermore, this technique allows a first order assessment of the effects of specific surgical reconstructions on articular mechanics.

Geometric and mechanical properties of the coracoacromial ligament and their relationship to rotator cuff disease

One of the most common causes of pain and disability in the upper limb is inflammation of the rotator cuff tendons. When no significant bony abnormality exists in the surrounding structures, the coracoacromial ligament has been implicated as a possible cause of impingement on the cuff tendons. Geometric and mechanical properties of 20 coracoacromial ligaments, 10 from shoulders with rotator cuff tears and 10 from normal shoulders, were accurately determined. In comparing rotator cuff tear and normal specimens, statistically significant changes in geometric properties were measured in the lateral band, but not in the medial band, of the ligament. The lateral band, which is the region most likely to impinge on the rotator cuff, was shorter and had a larger cross-sectional area in specimens with rotator cuff tears. Although there were no statistical differences in structural properties of the ligament between normal and rotator cuff tear groups, significant changes were evident in material properties. Previously reported histologic differences in the ligament in shoulders with rotator cuff tears are supported by the decreased material properties measured in the current study. Whether the differences in the coracoacromial ligament cause impingement or are due to impingement is still unknown at this time.

A stereophotogrammetric method for determining in situ contact areas in diarthrodial joints, and a comparison with other methods

Determination of contact areas in diarthrodial joints is necessary for understanding the state of stress within the articular cartilage layers and the supporting bony structures. The present study describes the use of a stereophotogrammetry (SPG) system [Huiskes et al., J. Biomechanics 18, 559-570 (1985) and Ateshian et al., J. Biomechanics 24, 761-776 (1991)] for determining contact areas in diarthrodial joints, using a surface proximity concept similar to the one used by Scherrer et al. [ASME J. biomech. Engng 101, 271-278 (1979)]. This method consists of evaluating the proximity of the articular surfaces to determine joint contact areas using precise geometric models of the joint surfaces obtained from the SPG system, and precise kinematic data, also obtained from SPG. In this study, the SPG method for determining contact areas is compared to other commonly used methods such as dye staining, silicone rubber casting and Fuji film contact measurement techniques which have been often used and reported by other investigators. The bovine glenohumeral joint and the bovine lateral tibiofemoral articulation (without the meniscus) were used to represent congruent and incongruent joints, respectively. While all the methods yielded consistent contact patterns for the incongruent tibiofemoral articulations, the results for the congruent bovine glenohumeral joints showed that the SPG and Fuji film methods were in better agreement than those obtained from the dye staining and silicone rubber casting methods. The advantages of the new SPG method are that it can be used for intact joints, and used repeatedly and quickly thus making contact-area movement analyses possible [Soslowsky et al., J. orthop. Res. 10, 524-534 (1992)]. The results of this comparison study show that the SPG technique is a reliable and versatile method for determining contact areas in diarthrodial joints.

Articular geometry of the glenohumeral joint

Little quantitative data exists defining the true shape of the humeral head and glenoid articular surfaces. This study uses a precise stereophotogrammetry (SPG) technique and provides highly accurate quantitative results for determining the three-dimensional geometry of glenohumeral joint articular surfaces, including their "sphericity", surface areas, cartilage thickness, and the difference in these quantities between the genders. Results indicate that glenohumeral joint surfaces may be approximated by a section of a sphere with small deviations from sphericity of less than 1% of the radius. Furthermore, results indicate that mating humeral head and glenoid articular surfaces are quite congruent and have radii within 2 mm in 88% of cases, and within 3 mm in all cases measured. The lack of anatomic stability of this joint is therefore not attributable to the relative shallowness or lack of congruence of the joint but rather to the small surface area of the glenoid which does not enclose the humeral head. Cartilage thickness results may partially explain perceptions of glenohumeral incongruity obtained from roentgenographic measurements where the glenoid appears flatter than the corresponding humeral head. Only when the actual articular cartilage surfaces are analyzed is it determined that the actual articulating surfaces do conform.

Quantitation of in situ contact areas at the glenohumeral joint: a biomechanical study

Glenohumeral arthritis may result from abnormal articular mechanics, and shoulder reconstructive procedures often rely implicitly on the belief that the restoration of normal articular mechanics is required to obtain satisfactory clinical results. Despite this, limited knowledge of normal or pathologic glenohumeral joint articular mechanics and contact is available. This study uses a stereophotogrammetry technique to determine contact areas in normal cadaver glenohumeral joints with intact ligaments and capsule through a large range of motion using simulated forces of the four rotator cuff muscles and three deltoid heads. All shoulders were first elevated to their maximum elevation in the scapular plane at an external rotation (starting rotation = 40 +/- 8 degrees), which allowed each shoulder to attain its maximal elevation in the scapular plane, and then repeated at 20 degrees internal to this rotation. Contact areas consistently increased with increasing elevation until 120 degrees to an average of 5.07 cm2 before decreasing with further increased elevation to an average of 2.59 cm2 at 180 degrees of total arm elevation. At 20 degrees internal to the starting rotation, contact areas reached high values 60 degrees earlier (averaged 4.56 cm2 at 60 degrees of total arm elevation) and then remained fairly constant through 120 degrees before decreasing with further increased elevation to 2.51 cm2 at 180 degrees total arm elevation. With increasing elevation in the external starting rotation, humeral head contact dramatically migrates from an inferior region to a superocentral-posterior region while glenoid contact shifts posteriorly. When the humeral shaft is positioned 20 degrees internal to the starting rotation, humeral head contact shifts from inferocentral-anterior to superocentral-posterior regions. Simultaneously, a similar posterior shift in glenoid contact is observed. Furthermore, whereas only a small portion of the humeral head surface area is in contact in any given position, contact on the glenoid surface is much more uniformly distributed over its entire articulating surface.

Tensile properties of the inferior glenohumeral ligament

The tensile properties of the inferior glenohumeral ligament have been determined in 16 freshly frozen cadaver shoulders. The inferior glenohumeral ligament was divided into three anatomical regions: a superior band, an anterior axillary pouch, and a posterior axillary pouch. This yielded 48 bone-ligament-bone specimens, which were tested to failure in uniaxial tension. The superior band was consistently the thickest region, averaging 2.79 mm. The thickness of the inferior glenohumeral ligament decreased from antero-superiorly to postero-inferiorly. The resting length of all three anatomical regions was not statistically different. Total specimen strain to failure for all bone-ligament-bone specimens averaged 27%. Variations occurred between the three regions, with the anterior pouch specimens failing at a higher strain (34%) than those from the superior band (24%) or the posterior pouch (23%). Strain to failure for the ligament midsubstance (11%) was found to be significantly less than that for the entire specimen (27%). Thus, larger strain must occur near the insertion sites of the inferior glenohumeral ligament. Stress at failure was found to be nearly identical for the three regions of the ligament, averaging 5.5 MPa. These values are lower than those reported for other soft tissues, such as the anterior cruciate ligament and patellar tendon. The anterior pouch was found to be less stiff than the other two regions, perhaps suggesting that it is composed of more highly crimped collagen fibers. Three failure sites were seen for the inferior glenohumeral ligament: the glenoid insertion (40%), the ligament substance (35%), and the humeral insertion (25%). In addition, significant capsular stretching occurred before failure, regardless of the failure mode.

[Relationship of acromial architecture and diseases of the rotator cuff]

Variations in the architecture of the coraco-acromial arch can lead to a clinically symptomatic rotator cuff lesion. Differences in the shape and slope of the acromion, anterior acromial spurs and inferior protruding acromio-clavicular osteophytes decrease the volume of the subacromial space, leading to impingement. Recent anatomic, radiographic, biomechanic and stereophotogrammetric studies have confirmed these architectural variations and their effect on the contents of the subacromial space. Abnormal contact between the acromion and these soft tissues can result in pathological lesions. Surgical procedures should be aimed at increasing the space beneath the coraco-acromial arch to reduce wear on the rotator cuff.

The relationship of acromial architecture to rotator cuff disease

Variations in the architecture of the coracoacromial arch can lead to a clinically symptomatic rotator cuff lesion. Differences in the development and morphology of the acromion, and the presence of anterior acromial spurs and inferior acromioclavicular osteophytes decrease the volume of the subacromial space, leading to impingement. Recent anatomic, radiographic, biomechanical, and SPG studies have confirmed these architectural variations and their effects on the contents of the subacromial space. Abnormal contact between the acromion and these soft tissues can lead to pathologic lesions. Surgical procedures should be directed at increasing the space beneath the coracoacromial arch to reduce wear on the rotator cuff.

Quantitation of articular surface topography and cartilage thickness in knee joints using stereophotogrammetry

An analytical stereophotogrammetry (SPG) technique has been developed based upon some of the pioneering work of Selvik [Ph.D. thesis, University of Lund, Sweden (1974)] and Huiskes and coworkers [J. Biomechanics 18, 559-570 (1985)], and represents a fundamental step in the construction of biomechanical models of diarthrodial joints. Using this technique, the precise three-dimensional topography of the cartilage surfaces of various diarthrodial joints has been obtained. The system presented in this paper delivers an accuracy of 90 microns in the least favorable conditions with 95% coverage using the same calibration method as Huiskes et al. (1985). In addition, a method has been developed, using SPG, to quantitatively map the cartilage thickness over the entire articular surface of a joint with a precision of 134 microns (95% coverage). In the present study, our SPG system has been used to quantify the topography, including surface area, of the articular surfaces of the patella, distal femur, tibial plateau, and menisci of the human knee. Furthermore, examples of cartilage thickness maps and corresponding thickness data including coefficient of variation, minimum, maximum, and mean cartilage thickness are also provided for the cartilage surfaces of the knee. These maps illustrate significant variations over the joint surfaces which are important in the determination of the stresses and strains within the cartilage during diarthrodial joint function. In addition, these cartilage surface topographies and thickness data are essential for the development of anatomically accurate finite element models of diarthrodial joints.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)