Can Outreach Training and Supportive Supervision Improve Competency in Malaria Service Delivery? An Evaluation in Cameroon, Ghana, Niger, and Zambia

Outreach Training and Supportive Supervision (OTSS) of malaria services at health facilities has been adopted by numerous malaria-endemic countries. The OTSS model is characterized by a hands-on method to enhance national guidelines and supervision tools, train supervisors, and perform supervision visits. An independent evaluation was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of OTSS on health worker competence in the clinical management of malaria, parasitological diagnosis, and prevention of malaria in pregnancy. From 2018 to 2021, health facilities in Cameroon, Ghana, Niger, and Zambia received OTSS visits during which health workers were observed directly during patient consultations, and supervisors completed standardized checklists to assess their performance. Mixed-effects logistic regression models were developed to assess the impact of increasing OTSS visit number on a set of eight program-generated outcome indicators, including overall competency and requesting a confirmatory malaria test appropriately. Seven of eight outcome indicators showed evidence of beneficial effects of increased OTSS visits. Odds of health workers reaching competency thresholds for the malaria-in-pregnancy checklist increased by more than four times for each additional OTSS visit (odds ratio [OR], 4.62; 95% CI, 3.62-5.88). Each additional OTSS visit was associated with almost four times the odds of the health worker foregoing antimalarial prescriptions for patients who tested negative for malaria (OR, 3.80; 95% CI, 2.35-6.16). This evaluation provides evidence that successive OTSS visits result in meaningful improvements in indicators linked to quality case management of patients attending facilities for malaria diagnosis and treatment, as well as quality malaria prevention services received by women attending antenatal services.

Outreach Training and Supportive Supervision for Quality Malaria Service Delivery: A Qualitative Evaluation in 11 Sub-Saharan African Countries

Quality improvement of malaria services aims to ensure that more patients receive accurate diagnosis, appropriate treatment, and referral. The Outreach Training and Supportive Supervision Plus (OTSS+) approach seeks to improve health facility readiness and provider competency through onsite supportive supervision, troubleshooting, and on-the-job training. As part of a multicomponent evaluation, qualitative research was conducted to understand the value of the OTSS+ approach for malaria quality improvement. Semistructured key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and structured health facility-based interviews were used to gather stakeholder perspectives at subnational, national, and global levels. Data were collected globally and in 11 countries implementing OTSS+; in-depth data collection was done in four: Cameroon, Ghana, Niger, and Zambia. Study sites and participants were selected purposively. Verbatim transcripts were analyzed thematically, following the Framework approach. A total of 262 participants were included in the analysis; 98 (37.4%) were supervisees, 99 (37.8%) were supervisors, and 65 (24.8%) were other stakeholders. The OTSS+ approach was perceived to improve provider knowledge and skills in malaria service delivery and to improve data and supply management indirectly. Improvements were attributed to a combination of factors. Participants valued the relevance, adaptation, and digitization of supervision checklists; the quality and amount of contact with problem-solving supervisors; and the joint identification of problems and solutions, and development of action plans. Opportunities for improvement were digitized checklist refinement, assurance of a sufficient pool of supervisors, prioritization of health facilities, action plan dissemination and follow-up, and data review and use. The OTSS+ approach was perceived to be a useful quality improvement approach for malaria services.

Area-specific covid-19 effects on health services utilization in the Democratic Republic of the Congo using routine health information system data

BACKGROUND

Since March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic has shocked health systems worldwide. This analysis investigated the effects of the pandemic on basic health services utilization in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and examined the variability of COVID effects in the capital city Kinshasa, in other urban areas, and in rural areas.

METHODS

We estimated time trends models using national health information system data to replicate pre-COVID-19 (i.e., January 2017-February 2020) trajectories of health service utilization, and then used those models to estimate what the levels would have been in the absence of COVID-19 during the pandemic period, starting in March 2020 through March 2021. We classified the difference between the observed and predicted levels as the effect of COVID-19 on health services. We estimated 95% confidence intervals and p-values to examine if the effect of the pandemic, nationally and within specific geographies, was statistically significant.

RESULTS

Our results indicate that COVID-19 negatively impacted health services and subsequent recovery varied by service type and by geographical area. COVID-19 had a lasting impact on overall service utilization as well as on malaria and pneumonia-related visits among young children in the DRC. We also found that the effects of COVID-19 were even more immediate and stronger in the capital city of Kinshasa compared with the national effect. Both nationally and in Kinshasa, most affected services had slow and incomplete recovery to expected levels. Therefore, our analysis indicates that COVID-19 continued to affect health services in the DRC throughout the first year of the pandemic.

CONCLUSIONS

The methodology used in this article allows for examining the variability in magnitude, timing, and duration of the COVID effects within geographical areas of the DRC and nationally. This analytical procedure based on national health information system data could be applied to surveil health service disruptions and better inform rapid responses from health service managers and policymakers.

Impact of a free care policy on routine health service volumes during a protracted Ebola virus disease outbreak in the Democratic Republic of Congo

BACKGROUND

In response to the DRC's 10th Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) outbreak, the government subsidized routine health services in select health zones with the goal of maintaining routine service volumes. We assess the impact of the initial and revised Free Care Policies (FCP) on total clinic visits, uncomplicated malaria, simple pneumonia, fourth antenatal care clinic visits, and measles vaccinations, testing the hypothesis that routine services would not significantly decrease during the FCP.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

We used data from the DRC's national health information system spanning January 2017 to November 2020. Intervention facilities were those that were initially and secondarily enrolled in the FCP, which occurred in August 2018 and November 2018, respectively. Comparison facilities were limited to the North Kivu Province and were from health zones that recorded at least one case of Ebola. A controlled interrupted time series analysis was conducted. The FCP appeared to have a positive effect in increasing overall clinic attendance rates, uncomplicated malaria case rates, and simple pneumonia case rates in those health zones where the policy was enacted relative to comparison sites. The longer-term effects of the FCP were mostly non-significant or, if significant, relatively modest in nature. Rates for measles vaccinations and fourth ANC clinic visits appeared to be unaffected or minimally affected, respectively, by the implementation of the FCP and relative to comparison sites. We did not observe the decrease in measles vaccinations that has been observed elsewhere. The study is limited in that we were unable to account for health facility bypassing and service volumes at private health facilities.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings provide evidence that FCPs can be used to maintain routine service provision during outbreaks. Additionally, the study design demonstrates that routinely reported health information from the DRC are sensitive enough to detect changes in health policy.

Estimating population ITN access at council level in Tanzania

BACKGROUND

Since 2013, the National Malaria Control Programme in mainland Tanzania and the Zanzibar Malaria Elimination Programme have implemented mass insecticide-treated net (ITN) distribution campaigns, routine ITN distribution to pregnant women and infants, and continuous distribution through primary schools (mainland) and community leaders (Zanzibar) to further malaria control efforts. Mass campaigns are triggered when ITN access falls below 40%. In this context, there is a need to monitor ITN access annually to assess whether it is below threshold and inform quantification of ITNs for the following year. Annual estimates of access are needed at the council level to inform programmatic decision-making.

METHODS

An age-structured stock and flow model was used to predict annual net crops from council-level distribution data in Tanzania from 2012 to 2020 parameterized with a Tanzania-specific net median lifespan of 2.15 years. Annual nets-per-capita (NPC) was calculated by dividing each annual net crop by mid-year council projected population. A previously fit nonparametric conditional quantile function for the proportion of the population with access to an ITN (ITN access) as a function of NPC was used to predict ITN access at the council level based on the predicted NPC value. These estimates were compared to regional-level ITN access from large household surveys.

RESULTS

For regions with the same ITN strategy for all councils, predicted council-level ITN access was consistent with regional-level survey data for 79% of councils. Regions where ITN strategy varied by council had regional estimates of ITN access that diverged from the council-specific estimates. Predicted ITN access reached 60% only when "nets issued as a percentage of the council population" (NPP) exceeded 15%, and approached 80% ITN access when NPP was at or above 20%.

CONCLUSION

Modelling ITN access with country-specific net decay rates, council-level population, and ITN distribution data is a promising approach to monitor ITN coverage sub-regionally and between household surveys in Tanzania and beyond.

Estimation of bed net coverage indicators in Tanzania using mobile phone surveys: a comparison of sampling approaches

BACKGROUND

Threats to maintaining high population access with effective bed nets persist due to errors in quantification, bed net wear and tear, and inefficiencies in distribution activities. Monitoring bed net coverage is therefore critical, but usually occurs every 2-3 years through expensive, large-scale household surveys. Mobile phone-based survey methodologies are emerging as an alternative to household surveys and can provide rapid estimates of coverage, however, little research on varied sampling approaches has been conducted in sub-Saharan Africa.

METHODS

A nationally and regionally representative cross-sectional mobile phone survey was conducted in early 2021 in Tanzania with focus on bed net ownership and access. Half the target sample was contacted through a random digit dial methodology (n = 3500) and the remaining half was reached through a voluntary opt-in respondent pool (n = 3500). Both sampling approaches used an interactive voice response survey. Standard RBM-MERG bed net indicators and AAPOR call metrics were calculated. In addition, the results of the two sampling approaches were compared.

RESULTS

Population access (i.e., the percent of the population that could sleep under a bed net, assuming one bed net per two people) varied from a regionally adjusted low of 48.1% (Katavi) to a high of 65.5% (Dodoma). The adjusted percent of households that had a least one bed net ranged from 54.8% (Pemba) to 75.5% (Dodoma); the adjusted percent of households with at least one bed net per 2 de facto household population ranged from 35.9% (Manyara) to 55.7% (Dodoma). The estimates produced by both sampling approaches were generally similar, differing by only a few percentage points. An analysis of differences between estimates generated from the two sampling approaches showed minimal bias when considering variation across the indicator for households with at least one bed net per two de facto household population.

CONCLUSION

The results generated by this survey show that overall bed net access in the country appears to be lower than target thresholds. The results suggest that bed net distribution is needed in large sections of the country to ensure that coverage levels remain high enough to sustain protection against malaria for the population.

Aedes aegypti anti-salivary proteins IgG levels in a cohort of DENV-like symptoms subjects from a dengue-endemic region in Colombia

Dengue fever, caused by the dengue virus (DENV), is currently a threat to about half of the world's population. DENV is mainly transmitted to the vertebrate host through the bite of a female Aedes mosquito while taking a blood meal. During this process, salivary proteins are introduced into the host skin and blood to facilitate blood acquisition. These salivary proteins modulate both local (skin) and systemic immune responses. Several salivary proteins have been identified as immunogenic inducing the production of antibodies with some of those proteins also displaying immunomodulatory properties enhancing arboviral infections. IgG antibody responses against salivary gland extracts of a diverse number of mosquitoes, as well as antibody responses against the Ae. aegypti peptide, Nterm-34 kDa, have been suggested as biomarkers of human exposure to mosquito bites while antibodies against AgBR1 and NeSt1 proteins have been investigated for their potential protective effect against Zika virus (ZIKV) and West Nile virus infections. Thus, we were interested in evaluating whether IgG antibodies against AgBR1, NeSt1, Nterm-34 kDa peptide, and SGE were associated with DENV infections and clinical characteristics. For this, we tested samples from volunteers living in a dengue fever endemic area in Colombia in 2019 for the presence of IgG antibodies against those salivary proteins and peptides using an ELISA test. Results from this pilot study suggest an involvement of antibody responses against salivary proteins in dengue disease progression.

Annual distributions of insecticide-treated nets to schoolchildren and other key populations to maintain higher ITN access than with mass campaigns: a modelling study for mainland Tanzania

Background

Since 2013, the National Malaria Control Programme in mainland Tanzania has deployed annual distributions of insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) through primary schools to maintain ITN access and use. This School Net Programme (SNP) is slated to be used throughout mainland Tanzania by 2023. This modelling study projects ITN access under different ITN distribution strategies and quantification approaches.

Methods

A stock and flow model with a Tanzania-specific ITN decay rate was used to calculate annual net crops for four different ITN distribution strategies, varying quantification approaches within each strategy. Annual nets-per-capita (NPC) was derived from net crop and a standardized population projection. Nonparametric conditional quartile functions for the proportion of the population with access to an ITN (ITN access) as a function of NPC were used to predict ITN access and its variability. The number of ITNs required under the varying quantification approaches for the period 2022–2030 was calculated.

Results

Annual SNP quantified using a “population times 15%” approach maintained ITN access between 80 and 90%, when combined with reproductive and child health (RCH) ITN distribution, requiring 133.2 million ITNs. The same strategy quantified with “population times 22%” maintained ITN access at or above 90%, requiring 175.5 million ITNs. Under 5-year mass campaigns with RCH distribution for pregnant women and infants, ITN access reached 90% post-campaign and fell to 27–35% in the 4th year post-campaign, requiring 120.5 million ITNs over 8 years. 3-yearly mass campaigns with RCH reached 100% ITN access post-campaign and fell to 70% in the 3rd year post-campaign, requiring 154.4 million ITNs.

Conclusion

Given an ITN retention time in Tanzania of 2.15 years, the model predicts that mass campaigns conducted every 3 years in mainland Tanzania will not maintain ITN access at target levels of 80%, even with strong RCH channels. Mainland Tanzania can however expect to maintain ITN access at 80% or above by quantifying SNP using “population × 15%”, in addition to RCH ITN delivery. This strategy requires 14% fewer ITNs than a 3-year campaign strategy while providing more consistent ITN coverage. Meeting the targets of 80% ITN use would require maintaining 90% ITN access, achievable using a “population times 22%” quantification approach for SNP.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12936-022-04272-w.

A practical approach for geographic prioritization and targeting of insecticide-treated net distribution campaigns during public health emergencies and in resource-limited settings

BACKGROUND

The use of data in targeting malaria control efforts is essential for optimal use of resources. This work provides a practical mechanism for prioritizing geographic areas for insecticide-treated net (ITN) distribution campaigns in settings with limited resources.

METHODS

A GIS-based weighted approach was adopted to categorize and rank administrative units based on data that can be applied in various country contexts where Plasmodium falciparum transmission is reported. Malaria intervention and risk factors were used to rank local government areas (LGAs) in Nigeria for prioritization during mass ITN distribution campaigns. Each factor was assigned a unique weight that was obtained through application of the analytic hierarchy process (AHP). The weight was then multiplied by a value based on natural groupings inherent in the data, or the presence or absence of a given intervention. Risk scores for each factor were then summated to generate a composite unique risk score for each LGA. This risk score was translated into a prioritization map which ranks each LGA from low to high priority in terms of timing of ITN distributions.

RESULTS

A case study using data from Nigeria showed that a major component that influenced the prioritization scheme was ITN access. Sensitivity analysis results indicate that changes to the methodology used to quantify ITN access did not modify outputs substantially. Some 120 LGAs were categorized as 'extremely high' or 'high' priority when a spatially interpolated ITN access layer was used. When prioritization scores were calculated using DHS-reported state level ITN access, 108 (90.0%) of the 120 LGAs were also categorized as being extremely high or high priority. The geospatial heterogeneity found among input risk factors suggests that a range of variables and covariates should be considered when using data to inform ITN distributions.

CONCLUSION

The authors provide a tool for prioritizing regions in terms of timing of ITN distributions. It serves as a base upon which a wider range of vector control interventions could be targeted. Its value added can be found in its potential for application in multiple country contexts, expediated timeframe for producing outputs, and its use of systematically collected malaria indicators in informing prioritization.

The Immediate Effects of a Combined Mass Drug Administration and Indoor Residual Spraying Campaign to Accelerate Progress towards Malaria Elimination in Grande-Anse, Haiti

Background

Haiti is planning targeted interventions to accelerate progress toward malaria elimination. In the most affected department (Grande-Anse), a combined mass drug administration (MDA) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) campaign was launched in October 2018. This study assessed the intervention’s effectiveness in reducing Plasmodium falciparum prevalence.

Methods

An ecological quasi-experimental study was designed, using a pretest and posttest with a nonrandomized control group. Surveys were conducted in November 2017 in a panel of easy access groups (25 schools and 16 clinics) and were repeated 2–6 weeks after the campaign, in November 2018. Single-dose sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine and primaquine was used for MDA, and pirimiphos-methyl as insecticide for IRS.

Results

A total of 10 006 participants were recruited. Fifty-two percent of the population in the intervention area reported having received MDA. Prevalence diminished between 2017 and 2018 in both areas, but the reduction was significantly larger in the intervention area (ratio of adjusted risk ratios, 0.32 [95% confidence interval, .104–.998]).

Conclusions

Despite a moderate coverage, the campaign was effective in reducing P. falciparum prevalence immediately after 1 round. Targeted MDA plus IRS is useful in preelimination settings to rapidly decrease the parasite reservoir, an encouraging step to accelerate progress toward malaria elimination.

Risk Factors for Malaria Infection and Seropositivity in the Elimination Area of Grand'Anse, Haiti: A Case-Control Study among Febrile Individuals Seeking Treatment at Public Health Facilities

The island of Hispaniola aims to eliminate malaria by 2025; however, there are limited data to describe epidemiologic risk factors for malaria in this setting. A prospective case–control study was conducted at four health facilities in southwest Haiti, aiming to describe factors influencing the risk of current and past malaria infection. Cases were defined as individuals attending facilities with current or recent fever and positive malaria rapid diagnostic test (RDT), while controls were those with current or recent fever and RDT negative. Serological markers of recent and cumulative exposure to Plasmodium were assessed using the multiplex bead assay from dried blood spots and used for alternate case definitions. Kuldorff’s spatial scan statistic was used to identify local clusters of infection or exposure. Logistic regression models were used to assess potential risk factors for RDT positivity and recent exposure markers, including age-group, gender, and recruiting health facility as group-matching variables. A total of 192 cases (RDT positive) and 915 controls (RDT negative) were recruited. Consistent spatial clusters were identified for all three infection and exposure metrics, indicating temporal stability of malaria transmission at these sites. Risk factors included remoteness from health facilities and household construction, furthermore, insecticide-treated net ownership or use was associated with reduced odds of RDT positivity. These findings indicate the malaria risk in Grand’Anse is driven primarily by location. Travel, occupation, and other behavioral factors were not associated with malaria. These data can support the National Malaria Program to refine and target their intervention approaches, and to move toward elimination.

Performance Outcomes from Africa-Based Malaria Diagnostic Competency Assessment Courses

The U.S. President's Malaria Initiative-funded MalariaCare project implemented an external quality assurance scheme to support malaria diagnostics and case management across a spectrum of health facilities in participating African countries. A component of this program was a 5-day, malaria diagnostic competency assessment (MDCA) course for health facility laboratory staff conducting malaria microscopy. The MDCA course provided a method to quantify participant skill levels in microscopic examination of malaria across three major diagnosis areas: parasite detection, species identification, and parasite quantification. A total of 817 central-, regional-, and peripheral-level microscopists from 45 MDCA courses across nine African countries were included in the analysis. Differences in mean scores with respect to daily marginal performance were positive and statistically significant (P < 0.001) for each challenge type across all participants combined. From pretest to assessment day 4, mean scores for parasite detection, species identification, and parasite quantification increased by 19.1, 34.9, and 38.2 percentage points, respectively. In addition, sensitivity and specificity increased by 20.8 and 13.8 percentage points, respectively, by assessment day 4. Furthermore, the ability of MDCA participants to accurately report Plasmodium falciparum species when present increased from 44.5% at pretest to 67.1% by assessment day 4. The MDCA course rapidly improved the microscopy performance of participants over a short period of time. Because of its rigor, the MDCA course could serve as a mechanism for measuring laboratory staff performance against country-specific minimum competency standards and could easily be adapted to serve as a national certification course.

Malaria case management in Zambia: A cross-sectional health facility survey

Misdiagnosis of malaria could lead to the overuse of antimalarials resulting in the progression of underlying illness as well as increased risk of mortality. Misdiagnosis is an important consideration as a significant proportion of febrile illnesses in sub-Saharan Africa are attributable to conditions other than malaria. A health facility survey was carried out for a simple random sample of health facilities across 4 provinces of central Zambia in 2014. Twenty-nine facilities with at least 10 outpatients per day were included in the final sample. A modified service provision assessment questionnaire was used for data collection along with several other instruments. Primary outcomes included the quality and accuracy of diagnostic testing for malaria as well as health worker diagnostic and treatment practices. Laboratory technicians displayed 65.5% sensitivity and 86.0% specificity in performing malaria microscopy. Rapid diagnostic test results as reported by health workers were cross-checked by survey staff revealing 99.8% (95% CI: 98.0%-100.0%) concordance. Overall, 69.5% (177/286) (95% CI [58.8%-78.4%]) of patients were reported as febrile of which 37.0% (68/177) (95% CI [21.0%-56.6%]) had a malaria test requested or conducted by their health worker. Appropriate health worker adherence to recommended malaria case management practices (i.e. requesting/conducting malaria tests for febrile patients and providing appropriate antimalarial treatment for test positive cases or forgoing antimalarial treatment for test negative cases) was 30.5% (57/177) (95% CI [17.1%-48.4%]). Presence of fever (aOR = 10.6; 95% CI [3.6-31.2]) and self-reported headache (aOR = 2.2; 95% CI [1.0-4.9]) were significant factors in explaining health worker practices of requesting or performing malaria tests. Routine practice of IQA activities (aOR = 4.8; 95% CI [1.5-15.1]) and self-reported headache (aOR = 3.3; 95% CI [1.1-10.1])) were both significant predictors of antimalarial drug treatment or prescription among malaria untested patients. Prescriber adherence to malaria diagnostic test results in central Zambia is good, but the overall testing rate of febrile patients was low. Additionally, a number of patients observed during this survey were found to have received a clinical diagnosis of malaria without parasitological confirmation and many patients without test results received antimalarial treatment.

Outreach training and supportive supervision for malaria case management in Zambia: the effects of focused capacity building on indicators of diagnostic and clinical performance

BACKGROUND

Accurate diagnosis of malaria and reduced reliance on presumptive treatment are crucial components of quality case management. From 2008 to 2012, the Improving Malaria Diagnostics project, in collaboration with the Zambia National Malaria Control Centre, implemented an external quality assurance scheme partially comprised of outreach training and supportive supervision (OTSS) in an effort to improve malaria case management across a spectrum of health facilities performing laboratory-based malaria diagnostics. OTSS assessments were conducted by project-trained laboratory and clinical supervisors on a regular basis and measured changes in health facility staff performance over time. Standardized supervision tools were used for data collection and guided OTSS teams to assess health facility infrastructure, record keeping practices, stores of supplies and consumables, good laboratory practices, and staff adherence to guidelines for the case management and diagnosis of suspected malaria cases via direct observations or record reviews. The structure of OTSS also allowed supervisors to provide ongoing support to clinicians and laboratory staff through regular mentoring and on-the-job training.

RESULTS

This analysis included 88 laboratories and 64 clinics each with four repeated supervisory assessments. Over the course of the project there were significant declines in the number of laboratories experiencing stock-outs of microscopy reagents/consumables (p < 0.001) and significant increases in the number of laboratories instituting the use of microscopy positive controls (p < 0.01), conducting parasite counting (p < 0.05), and converting from a semi-quantitative to a quantitative parasite counting methodology (p < 0.001). Performance in malaria diagnostic and clinical practices [i.e. RDT use (mean(diff) = 14.3%, p < 0.001), blood slide preparation (mean(diff) = 14.7%, p < 0.001), blood slide staining and reading (mean(diff) = 14.0%, p < 0.001), fever case management (mean(diff) = 7.3%, p < 0.01)] and prescriber adherence to negative diagnostic test results (mean(diff) = 7.2%, p < 0.05) showed modest, but significant gains from assessment 1 to assessment 4.

CONCLUSION

The external quality assurance scheme provided periodic representations of clinical and laboratory staff performance. OTSS-enrolled health facilities demonstrated improvements to malaria diagnostic skills, adoption of laboratory best practices, strengthened fever case management practices, and improved prescriber adherence to negative malaria test results.