Prognostic gene expression signature for high-grade serous ovarian cancer

BACKGROUND

Median overall survival (OS) for women with high-grade serous ovarian cancer (HGSOC) is ∼4 years, yet survival varies widely between patients. There are no well-established, gene expression signatures associated with prognosis. The aim of this study was to develop a robust prognostic signature for OS in patients with HGSOC.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Expression of 513 genes, selected from a meta-analysis of 1455 tumours and other candidates, was measured using NanoString technology from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tumour tissue collected from 3769 women with HGSOC from multiple studies. Elastic net regularization for survival analysis was applied to develop a prognostic model for 5-year OS, trained on 2702 tumours from 15 studies and evaluated on an independent set of 1067 tumours from six studies.

RESULTS

Expression levels of 276 genes were associated with OS (false discovery rate < 0.05) in covariate-adjusted single-gene analyses. The top five genes were TAP1, ZFHX4, CXCL9, FBN1 and PTGER3 (P < 0.001). The best performing prognostic signature included 101 genes enriched in pathways with treatment implications. Each gain of one standard deviation in the gene expression score conferred a greater than twofold increase in risk of death [hazard ratio (HR) 2.35, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.02-2.71; P < 0.001]. Median survival [HR (95% CI)] by gene expression score quintile was 9.5 (8.3 to -), 5.4 (4.6-7.0), 3.8 (3.3-4.6), 3.2 (2.9-3.7) and 2.3 (2.1-2.6) years.

CONCLUSION

The OTTA-SPOT (Ovarian Tumor Tissue Analysis consortium - Stratified Prognosis of Ovarian Tumours) gene expression signature may improve risk stratification in clinical trials by identifying patients who are least likely to achieve 5-year survival. The identified novel genes associated with the outcome may also yield opportunities for the development of targeted therapeutic approaches.

A comprehensive gene-environment interaction analysis in Ovarian Cancer using genome-wide significant common variants

As a follow-up to genome-wide association analysis of common variants associated with ovarian carcinoma (cancer), our study considers seven well-known ovarian cancer risk factors and their interactions with 28 genome-wide significant common genetic variants. The interaction analyses were based on data from 9971 ovarian cancer cases and 15,566 controls from 17 case-control studies. Likelihood ratio and Wald tests for multiplicative interaction and for relative excess risk due to additive interaction were used. The top multiplicative interaction was noted between oral contraceptive pill (OCP) use (ever vs. never) and rs13255292 (p value = 3.48 × 10-4 ). Among women with the TT genotype for this variant, the odds ratio for OCP use was 0.53 (95% CI = 0.46-0.60) compared to 0.71 (95%CI = 0.66-0.77) for women with the CC genotype. When stratified by duration of OCP use, women with 1-5 years of OCP use exhibited differential protective benefit across genotypes. However, no interaction on either the multiplicative or additive scale was found to be statistically significant after multiple testing correction. The results suggest that OCP use may offer increased benefit for women who are carriers of the T allele in rs13255292. On the other hand, for women carrying the C allele in this variant, longer (5+ years) use of OCP may reduce the impact of carrying the risk allele of this SNP. Replication of this finding is needed. The study presents a comprehensive analytic framework for conducting gene-environment analysis in ovarian cancer.

Use of aspirin, other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and acetaminophen and risk of endometrial cancer: the Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer Consortium

BACKGROUND

Regular use of aspirin has been associated with a reduced risk of cancer at several sites but the data for endometrial cancer are conflicting. Evidence regarding use of other analgesics is limited.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We pooled individual-level data from seven cohort and five case-control studies participating in the Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer Consortium including 7120 women with endometrial cancer and 16 069 controls. For overall analyses, study-specific odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated using logistic regression and combined using random-effects meta-analysis; for stratified analyses, we used mixed-effects logistic regression with study as a random effect.

RESULTS

At least weekly use of aspirin and non-aspirin nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) was associated with an approximately 15% reduced risk of endometrial cancer among both overweight and obese women (OR = 0.86 [95% CI 0.76-0.98] and 0.86 [95% CI 0.76-0.97], respectively, for aspirin; 0.87 [95% CI 0.76-1.00] and 0.84 [0.74-0.96], respectively, for non-aspirin NSAIDs). There was no association among women of normal weight (body mass index < 25 kg/m2, Pheterogeneity = 0.04 for aspirin, Pheterogeneity = 0.003 for NSAIDs). Among overweight and obese women, the inverse association with aspirin was stronger for use 2-6 times/week (OR = 0.81, 95% CI 0.68-0.96) than for daily use (0.91, 0.80-1.03), possibly because a high proportion of daily users use low-dose formulations. There was no clear association with use of acetaminophen.

CONCLUSION

Our pooled analysis provides further evidence that use of standard-dose aspirin or other NSAIDs may reduce risk of endometrial cancer among overweight and obese women.

Large Histological Serial Sections for Computational Tissue Volume Reconstruction

Objectives: A proof of principle study was conducted for microscopic tissue volume reconstructions using a new image processing chain operating on alternately stained large histological serial sections.

Methods: Digital histological images were obtained from conventional brightfield transmitted light microscopy. A powerful nonparametric nonlinear optical flow-based registration approach was used. In order to apply a simple but computationally feasible sum-of-squared-differences similarity measure even in case of differing histological stainings, a new consistent tissue segmentation procedure was placed upstream.

Results: Two reconstructions from uterine cervix carcinoma specimen were accomplished, one alternately stained with p16INK4a (surrogate tumor marker) and H&amp;E (routine reference), and another with three different alternate stainings, H&amp;E, p16INK4a, and CD3 (a T-lymphocyte marker). For both cases, due to our segmentation-based reference-free nonlinear registration procedure, resulting tissue reconstructions exhibit utmost smooth image-to-image transitions without impairing warpings.

Conclusions: Our combination of modern nonparametric nonlinear registration and consistent tissue segmentation has turned out to provide a superior tissue reconstruction quality.

CADM1 and MAL methylation status in cervical scrapes is representative of the most severe underlying lesion in women with multiple cervical biopsies

Recent studies have shown that CADM1/MAL methylation levels in cervical scrapes increase with severity and duration of the underlying cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) lesion. Multiple lesions of different histological grades and duration are frequently present on the cervix. To gain more insight into the possible epigenetic heterogeneity and its consequences for the methylation status in cervical scrapes, we performed an exploratory study of CADM1/MAL methylation in different grades of CIN lesions present in women with multiple cervical biopsies. CADM1-M18 and MAL-M1 methylation was assessed using a standardised, multiplex, quantitative methylation specific PCR on 178 biopsies with various grades of CIN in 65 women, and in their corresponding cervical scrapes. CADM1/MAL methylation positivity increased with disease severity, from 5.5% in normal biopsies to 63.3% and 100% in biopsies with CIN3 and cervical cancer, respectively. In the majority (8/9) of women where besides a CIN2/3 lesion a biopsy from normal cervical tissue was present, the CIN2/3 biopsy was CADM1/MAL methylation positive and the normal biopsy was CADM1/MAL methylation negative. A good concordance (78%) was found between CADM1/MAL methylation results on the scrapes and the biopsy with the worst diagnosis, particularly between samples of women with CIN3 and cervical cancer (92% and 100% concordance, respectively). Thus, in women with multiple cervical biopsies, CADM1/MAL methylation increases with severity of the lesion and is lesion-specific. CADM1/MAL methylation status in cervical scrapes appears to be representative of the worst underlying lesion, particularly for CIN3 and cervical cancer.

Obesity and survival among women with ovarian cancer: results from the Ovarian Cancer Association Consortium

Background:

Observational studies have reported a modest association between obesity and risk of ovarian cancer; however, whether it is also associated with survival and whether this association varies for the different histologic subtypes are not clear. We undertook an international collaborative analysis to assess the association between body mass index (BMI), assessed shortly before diagnosis, progression-free survival (PFS), ovarian cancer-specific survival and overall survival (OS) among women with invasive ovarian cancer.

Methods:

We used original data from 21 studies, which included 12 390 women with ovarian carcinoma. We combined study-specific adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) using random-effects models to estimate pooled HRs (pHR). We further explored associations by histologic subtype.

Results:

Overall, 6715 (54%) deaths occurred during follow-up. A significant OS disadvantage was observed for women who were obese (BMI: 30–34.9, pHR: 1.10 (95% confidence intervals (CIs): 0.99–1.23); BMI: ⩾35, pHR: 1.12 (95% CI: 1.01–1.25)). Results were similar for PFS and ovarian cancer-specific survival. In analyses stratified by histologic subtype, associations were strongest for women with low-grade serous (pHR: 1.12 per 5 kg m⁻²) and endometrioid subtypes (pHR: 1.08 per 5 kg m⁻²), and more modest for the high-grade serous (pHR: 1.04 per 5 kg m⁻²) subtype, but only the association with high-grade serous cancers was significant.

Conclusions:

Higher BMI is associated with adverse survival among the majority of women with ovarian cancer.

Infertility and incident endometrial cancer risk: a pooled analysis from the epidemiology of endometrial cancer consortium (E2C2)

BACKGROUND

Nulliparity is an endometrial cancer risk factor, but whether or not this association is due to infertility is unclear. Although there are many underlying infertility causes, few studies have assessed risk relations by specific causes.

METHODS

We conducted a pooled analysis of 8153 cases and 11 713 controls from 2 cohort and 12 case-control studies. All studies provided self-reported infertility and its causes, except for one study that relied on data from national registries. Logistic regression was used to estimate adjusted odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI).

RESULTS

Nulliparous women had an elevated endometrial cancer risk compared with parous women, even after adjusting for infertility (OR=1.76; 95% CI: 1.59-1.94). Women who reported infertility had an increased risk compared with those without infertility concerns, even after adjusting for nulliparity (OR=1.22; 95% CI: 1.13-1.33). Among women who reported infertility, none of the individual infertility causes were substantially related to endometrial cancer.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on mainly self-reported infertility data that used study-specific definitions of infertility, nulliparity and infertility appeared to independently contribute to endometrial cancer risk. Understanding residual endometrial cancer risk related to infertility, its causes and its treatments may benefit from large studies involving detailed data on various infertility parameters.

Abstract 2285: Risk factors for endometrial cancer in black and white women: A pooled analysis from the Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer Consortium (E2C2)

Introduction: More than 47,000 women will be diagnosed with endometrial cancer in 2012, making it the most common gynecologic cancer among women in the United States. Data from the SEER registry from 1975-2009 report the incidence rate of endometrial cancer is lower among black women than white women (19.2 and 27.5 cases per 100,000 women, respectively). Tumor histology also varies by racial group, with a larger proportion of black women diagnosed with non-endometrioid tumors compared to their white counterparts. It is possible that risk factors for endometrial cancer may differ between black and white women; the small number of black women in individual studies has precluded these analyses. The aim of this study was to investigate risk factors for endometrial cancer in blacks using a pooled analysis. For comparison, we pooled data on risk factors among non-Hispanic white women in the same studies.

Methods: We have data from eleven studies that included &gt;10 black cases and &gt;10 black controls (7 cohort studies and 4 case-control studies). The following information was collected from each study: age at diagnosis/study entry, education, body mass index (BMI), smoking status, reproductive variables, hormone use, and self-reported diabetes and hypertension. Unconditional logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for each risk factor in blacks and whites separately. Estimates for endometrioid tumors will also be presented.

Results: Data were pooled for 2,011 black women (516 cases and 1,495 controls) and 19,297 white women (5,693 cases and 13,604 controls). In univariate analyses, the following variables were associated with endometrial cancer in both black and white women: BMI, smoking, oral contraceptive use for 10 years or more, and diabetes. In models adjusted for these variables, along with age and study site, obesity (BMI ≥ 30) was associated with an approximate 3-fold increase in risk for both black and white women (OR=2.80, 95% CI: 2.00, 3.92 and OR=3.26, 95% CI: 2.96, 3.59, respectively). Diabetes was also associated with a 30-40% increase in risk among both groups. Cigarette smoking was associated with reduced risk of endometrial cancer among both blacks and whites (OR=0.66, 95%CI: 0.47, 0.94 and OR=0.62, 95% CI: 0.54, 0.71, respectively). Increasing parity was more strongly associated with decreased risk in whites (p-trend &lt;0.001) than blacks (p-trend = 0.09). Similarly, age at first birth was also more protective in whites (p-trend&lt;0.001) than blacks (p-trend=0.76).

Conclusions: Overall, risk factors for endometrial cancer are similar in black and white women, with the exception of some of the reproductive factors, which do not appear to afford protection in blacks to the same extent as in whites.

Citation Format: Michele L. Cote, Tala Alhajj, Julie J. Ruterbusch, Louise A. Brinton, William J. Blot, Chu Chen, Brian E. Henderson, Pamela L. Horn-Ross, Laurence N. Kolonel, Timothy R. Rebbeck, Veronica W. Setiawan, Lisa B. Signorello, Michael S. Simon, Noel S. Weiss, Nico Wentzensen, Hannah P. Yang, Sara H. Olson. Risk factors for endometrial cancer in black and white women: A pooled analysis from the Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer Consortium (E2C2). [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 104th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2013 Apr 6-10; Washington, DC. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2013;73(8 Suppl):Abstract nr 2285. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2013-2285

The etiology of uterine sarcomas: a pooled analysis of the epidemiology of endometrial cancer consortium

BACKGROUND

Uterine sarcomas are characterised by early age at diagnosis, poor prognosis, and higher incidence among Black compared with White women, but their aetiology is poorly understood. Therefore, we performed a pooled analysis of data collected in the Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer Consortium. We also examined risk factor associations for malignant mixed mullerian tumours (MMMTs) and endometrioid endometrial carcinomas (EECs) for comparison purposes.

METHODS

We pooled data on 229 uterine sarcomas, 244 MMMTs, 7623 EEC cases, and 28,829 controls. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for risk factors associated with uterine sarcoma, MMMT, and EEC were estimated with polytomous logistic regression. We also examined associations between epidemiological factors and histological subtypes of uterine sarcoma.

RESULTS

Significant risk factors for uterine sarcoma included obesity (body mass index (BMI)≥30 vs BMI<25 kg m(-2) (OR: 1.73, 95% CI: 1.22-2.46), P-trend=0.008) and history of diabetes (OR: 2.33, 95% CI: 1.41-3.83). Older age at menarche was inversely associated with uterine sarcoma risk (≥15 years vs <11 years (OR: 0.70, 95% CI: 0.34-1.44), P-trend: 0.04). BMI was significantly, but less strongly related to uterine sarcomas compared with EECs (OR: 3.03, 95% CI: 2.82-3.26) or MMMTs (OR: 2.25, 95% CI: 1.60-3.15, P-heterogeneity=0.01).

CONCLUSION

In the largest aetiological study of uterine sarcomas, associations between menstrual, hormonal, and anthropometric risk factors and uterine sarcoma were similar to those identified for EEC. Further exploration of factors that might explain patterns of age- and race-specific incidence rates for uterine sarcoma are needed.

Gonadal and extragonadal germ cell tumours in the United States, 1973-2007

Germ cell tumours (GCTs) most often arise in the gonads, but some develop extragonadally. The aim of this study was to examine gender- and race-specific trends in incidence and survival of gonadal (GGCTs) and extragonadal GCTs (EGCTs) in the US from 1973 to 2007. We also examined the topographical distribution of EGCTs by race and gender. We estimated age-specific and age-standardized incidence rates and 5-year relative survival rates (RSR) of GCTs using the Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) Program (SEER nine registries). GCTs and their topographical sites were identified using ICD-O morphology and topography codes. Of 21,170 GCTs among males, 5.7% were extragonadal (Whites 5.5%; Blacks 16.3%). Of 2093 GCTs among females, 39.3% were extragonadal (Whites, 36.9%; Blacks 51.0%). The incidence of GGCT was much higher among White (56.3/1,000,000) than Black males (10.0/1,000,000), while there was no difference in incidence between White and Black females (3.2/1,000,000). The rates of EGCT among men and women of both races were similar (range:1.9-3.4/1,000,000). The most frequent extragonadal sites were mediastinum among males and placenta among females. The 5-year RSR of testicular GCT was higher among Whites (97%) than Blacks (90%), as was the 5-year RSR of ovarian GCT (Whites, 92%; Blacks 85%). In general, the 5-year RSRs of EGCTs were lower than the 5-year RSRs of GGCTs. The different incidence trends of GGCTs and EGCTs and distinct age-specific incidence patterns by anatomical site of EGCTs suggest that GGCTs and EGCTs may have different aetiologies.

[Molecular diagnosis of HPV infections]

Carcinogenic human papillomaviruses (HPV) cause the majority of cervical cancers and other anogenital cancers. Large randomized trials have shown that HPV testing can be efficiently used for primary cervical cancer screening. Other applications include the triage of abnormal cytology results and the follow-up of women after treatment. Many assays have been developed to measure DNA, RNA and proteins of HPV and the various tests can have very different applications. It is important to rigorously validate HPV assays before they are implemented in screening or clinical care.

p16(INK4a) immunostaining in cytological and histological specimens from the uterine cervix: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

P16(INK4a) is a biomarker for transforming HPV infections that could act as an adjunct to current cytological and histological assessment of cervical smears and biopsies, allowing the identification of those women with ambiguous results that require referral to colposcopy and potentially treatment.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We conducted a systematic review of all studies that evaluated the use of p16(INK4a) in cytological or histological specimens from the uterine cervix. We also estimated the mean proportion of samples that were positive for p16(INK4a) in cytology and histology, stratified by the grade of the lesion.

RESULTS

Sixty-one studies were included. The proportion of cervical smears overexpressing p16(INK4a) increased with the severity of cytological abnormality. Among normal smears, only 12% (95% CI: 7-17%) were positive for the biomarker compared to 45% of ASCUS and LSIL (95% CI: 35-54% and 37-57%, respectively) and 89% of HSIL smears (95% CI: 84-95%). Similarly, in histology only 2% of normal biopsies (95% CI: 0.4-30%) and 38% of CIN1 (95% CI: 23-53%) showed diffuse staining for p16(INK4a) compared to 68% of CIN2 (95% CI: 44-92%) and 82% of CIN3 (95% CI: 72-92%).

CONCLUSION

Although there is good evidence that p16(INK4a) immunostaining correlates with the severity of cytological/histological abnormalities, the reproducibility is limited due to insufficiently standardized interpretation of the immunostaining. Therefore, a consensus needs to be reached regarding the evaluation of p16(INK4a) staining and the biomarker needs to be assessed in various clinical settings addressing specific clinical questions.

High density of FOXP3-positive T cells infiltrating colorectal cancers with microsatellite instability

High-level microsatellite instability (MSI-H) in colorectal cancer accounts for about 12% of colorectal cancers and is typically associated with a dense infiltration with cytotoxic CD8-positive lymphocytes. The role of regulatory T cells that may interfere with the host's antitumoural immune response in MSI-H colorectal cancers has not been analysed yet. Using an antibody directed against the regulatory T-cell marker transcription factor forkhead box P3 (FOXP3), regulatory T cells were examined in 70 colorectal cancers with known MSI status (MSI-H, n=37; microsatellite stable, n=33). In MSI-H colorectal cancers, we found a significantly higher intraepithelial infiltration with FOXP3-positive cells (median: 8.5 cells per 0.25 mm²vs 3.1 cells per 0.25 mm² in microsatellite stable, P<0.001), and a significantly elevated ratio of intraepithelial to stromal infiltration (0.05 vs 0.01 in microsatellite stable, P<0.001). CD8-positive cell counts were related positively to the number of FOXP3-positive cells (Spearman's ρ=0.56 and 0.55, respectively). Our results show that the elevated number of CD8-positive lymphocytes found in MSI-H colorectal cancers is paralleled by an enhanced infiltration with CD8-negative FOXP3-positive cells. These data suggest that FOXP3-positive cells may play a role in the regulation of the immune response directed against MSI-H colorectal cancers at the primary tumour site.

Transfection with CD40L induces tumour suppression by dendritic cell activation in an orthotopic mouse model of pancreatic adenocarcinoma

OBJECTIVE

Patients with adenocarcinoma of the pancreas have only limited promising therapy options. Therefore, immunotherapeutic approaches might be considered promising and have gained importance over the last few years. In this study, CD40L gene transfer was tested as potent immunotherapy.

METHODS

The efficacy of CD40L gene transfer in initiating anti-tumour immune response was investigated in a pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma orthotopic syngeneic mouse model. In addition, the role of dendritic cells was determined.

RESULTS

A significantly slower tumour growth rate and less metastasis were observed following administration of the CD40L plasmid. Such an effect of the plasmid was not observed in immunodeficient mice. Tumours of treated mice were found to be infiltrated with T cells and dendritic cells. The latter were mature and of myeloid origin. Tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes were tumour-specific as shown in IFN-gamma ELISPot assays. Using intravital microscopy it was possible to show a significant induction of leukocytes sticking to the tumour endothelium after CD40L treatment. Adoptive cell transfer experiments have revealed that tumour-derived dendritic cells and CD8 cells from CD40L-treated donor mice either harbour anti-tumour activity or induce it in the recipients. Distinctly, CD8 cells from donor spleens were found to migrate directly into the recipient's tumour.

CONCLUSIONS

The induction of anti-tumour activity initiated after treating mice with the CD40L plasmid was achieved. Further investigations showed that this is mediated by mature myeloid dendritic cells which activate CD8 cells. Clinical trials investigating CD40L-based therapies should be extended.

Effect of Flt3 ligand gene transfer in experimental pancreatic cancer

BACKGROUND

Fms-like tyrosine kinase 3 receptor (Flt3) is an important receptor expressed on the cell membrane of immature antigen-presenting cells. The binding of Flt3 to its ligand (FL) activates the proliferation of dendritic cells (DCs). This mechanism is currently being evaluated in the therapy of malignant tumors. The aim of the present study was to study the effect of FL gene transfer on the immune response and tumor growth in experimental pancreatic cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The rat FL was sequenced and cloned from total mRNA extract of the spleen. Transfection efficiency of subcutaneously growing rat duct-like pancreatic cancer (DSL6A) with DOTAP-/cholesterol-based liposomes was tested using a pcDNA3.1-lacZ construct. Flt3 ligand production of in vitro transfected tumor cells and in vivo transfected tumors was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Tumor induction was achieved in Lewis rats by a subcutaneous inoculation of syngeneic pancreatic tumor cells (DSL6A). The animals were allocated into three groups: control, mock treatment, and treatment with FL plasmid. The plasmid was injected intratumorally three times per week for 2 weeks. The total observation time was 6 weeks.

RESULTS

The tumor volume was significantly lower in the FL-transfected group during the first 3 weeks. The number of responders was significantly higher in the FL group compared with control and mock treatment. The number of CD80+ DCs in the spleen was significantly higher after FL gene transfer. The responders showed a significantly higher number of splenic natural killer (NK) cells. There were no differences of infiltrating lymphocytes, proliferation, and tumor blood vessels between the groups.

CONCLUSION

Intratumoral gene transfer of FL in rats activated proliferation of DCs and NK cells, which causes a moderate reduction of tumor growth. This improvement of local tumor control during the first weeks could be explained by an improved antigen presentation.

[Molecular pathogenesis of cervical cancer and its first steps]

Specific types of the human papillomaviruses (high risk human papillomaviruses) play an essential role in the pathogenesis of cervical cancer. Although infections by these viruses are very common in the general population, only few result in clinically relevant lesions. Continuous and deregulated expression of two viral oncoproteins E6 and E7 in basal or parabasal cells are required to induce and maintain neoplastic growth. In the course of an acute HPV-infection these genes are exclusively expressed in cell cycle arrested, terminally differentiated cells in the intermediate or superficial layers of the epithelium. Accidental activation of these genes in proliferating cells in the basal or parabasal cell layers results in interference with the cell cycle regulation, disturbances of the mitotic spindle apparatus and centrosome functions. This results in numerical and structural chromosome aberrations, chromosomal instability, increasing aneuploidy and initiates cervical carcinogenesis. The deregulated expression of the viral oncogene E7 is indicated by strong over-expression of the cellular p16(INK4a) gene product. This finding may have significant influence on novel strategies in cervical cancer diagnosis and screening. This review summarizes the basic molecular mechanisms of how papillomaviruses contribute to cellular transformation and how this can influence future diagnostic applications.

[Viral carcinogenesis of head and neck tumors]

Approximately 15% of malignant diseases are caused by infectious agents. Human papilloma viruses (HPV) can be frequently found in oral carcinomas, especially tonsillar cancer. A group of HPV-infected tumors shows clear signs for a virally induced transformation process: high-risk HPVs can be detected in all tumor cells, the viral oncogenes E6 and E7 are constantly expressed and lead to upregulation of cellular p16(INK4a), a cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor. The patients frequently lack typical risk factors associated with head and neck cancers such as drinking and smoking. Epstein-Barr viruses (EBV) are associated with lymphoproliferative disorders and cause nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). NPC has a high incidence in some East Asian countries. In this review, the molecular pathogenesis of HPV- and EBV-associated malignancies are described and the clinical relevance of the presented findings is discussed.

[Glioblastoma multiforme as a manifestation of Turcot syndrome]

Turcot's syndrome, clinically characterized by the coincident occurrence of primary tumors of the colon and the central nervous system, can genetically be divided into two syndromes: familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) and hereditary nonpolyposis colon carcinoma (HNPCC). In the present case, a 60-year-old patient with glioblastoma multiforme and a history of hereditary malignomas is described as an example of a HNPCC-associated Turcot's syndrome. New molecular biological methods and results give deeper insight into clinical syndromes, and the better understanding improves diagnostics, therapy, and outcome estimations, even in rare diseases. In the present case, a new germinal mutation could be identified.

Detection of high-risk cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and cervical cancer by amplification of transcripts derived from integrated papillomavirus oncogenes

Cervical cancer emerges from cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) induced by high-risk HPV (HR-HPV) infections. However, the vast majority of CIN lesions regresses spontaneously, and only a few lesions persist or progress to invasive carcinoma. On the basis of morphological criteria, it is not possible to differentiate high-grade lesions that will regress or persist from those that inevitably will progress to invasive cancers. In most cervical carcinomas, human papillomavirus (HPV) genomes are integrated into host cell chromosomes and transcribed into mRNAs encompassing viral and cellular sequences. In contrast, in early preneoplastic lesions, HPV genomes persist as episomes, and derived transcripts contain exclusively viral sequences. Thus, detection of HPV transcripts derived from integrated HPV genomes may specifically indicate both CIN lesions at high risk for progression as well as invasive cervical cancers. Here, we established a protocol for the amplification of papillomavirus oncogene transcripts (APOT) from cervical specimens that allows us to distinguish episome- from integrate-derived HPV mRNAs. Cervical swab and biopsy samples from 549 patients attending outpatient clinics for cervical dysplasia were screened for the presence of HPV DNA, and 155 samples that were positive for either HPV type 16 (n = 143) or 18 (n = 12) were subjected to the APOT assay. In samples derived from normal cervical epithelia (n = 19) or low-grade cervical lesions (CIN I, n = 10), no integrate-derived HPV transcripts were found. In contrast, in 1 (5%) of 22 samples derived from CIN II lesions, in 10 (16%) of 64 samples from patients with CIN III lesions, and in 35 (88%) of 40 samples from patients with cervical cancer, integrate-derived HPV transcripts were detected. Thus, detection of integrate-derived HPV transcripts in cervical swabs or biopsy specimens by the APOT assay points to advanced dysplasia or invasive cervical cancer.