[Coercive stress in psychiatric intensive care unit: What link with insight?]

The aim of this work was to study the correlations between the coercive experience level in patients in a psychiatric intensive care unit and clinical insight. We included 40 patients without specific diagnosis criteria at the end of their hospitalization in the intensive care unit. We assessed patients with the Coercion Experience Scale (CES) to measure their coercive stress level, and the Scale to Assess Unawareness of Mental Disorder (SUMD) which measures clinical insight. A total of 42.5 % of our sample suffered from mood disorders, 50 % suffered from psychotic disorders and 7.5 % from other disorders. On the one hand, we found that patients' coercive stress level was neither correlated with the awareness of their mental disorder nor with the awareness of social consequences of their mental disorder. On the other hand, we found that coercive stress level was significantly correlated with patients' awareness of treatment efficacy and that the specific CES factor measuring coercion showed a strong trend to significantly correlate with patients' awareness of treatment efficacy. These results seem to show that education about benefits of treatment is a key point to improve patients' coercive stress in a psychiatric intensive care unit, more than an education about awareness of the mental disorder itself.

Social cognition in schizophrenia: Validation of an ecological fMRI task

Neuroimaging studies have revealed brain regions involved in social cognition, which reportedly show functional alterations in schizophrenia. However, the social neural network has not been investigated with regards to language perception and social interactions in daily life. Here we developed and validated an integrative fMRI task to explore the neural basis of social cognition with regards to language perception in schizophrenia. The task comprised listening to film extracts and inferring mental states to characters. We first identified the functional network activated during the task in 28 healthy controls (HC). Next, we evaluated the reproducibility of Blood-Oxygen-Level Dependent (BOLD) variations in 14 HC participants. Finally, we investigated network impairment in 20 patients with schizophrenia (SZ) compared to HC. The HC group exhibited bilateral activation in the superior and middle temporal gyri (including the poles and the temporo-parietal junction). Overall, our novel integrative task induced activation of a functional network with good reproducibility and involved in language conveying social information. Compared to the HC group, the SZ group showed decreased recruitment of the right temporo-parietal junction. These findings may be useful for testing the impact of remediation on the brain, particularly on the network of language conveying social information.

Profamille, programme de psychoéducation pour les familles d’un proche souffrant de schizophrénie : étude de l’impact du programme sur l’humeur des participants

Profamille est un programme psychoéducatif destiné aux aidants naturels des patients souffrant de schizophrénie. Il est standardisé, évalué et l’un des plus utilisés dans la francophonie. Il s’appuie sur des recherches sur les interactions entre le milieu familial et le cours de la maladie. L’une de ses particularités est de considérer l’action ciblée sur l’humeur des aidants comme l’un des paramètres essentiels de ses résultats positifs. En effet, l’amélioration de l’humeur doit permettre l’amélioration du coping des aidants, du climat émotionnel au sein de la famille et de l’acquisition des nouvelles connaissances délivrées par le programme. À notre connaissance, une seule étude antérieure sur l’évolution de l’humeur des participants à Profamille a été publiée, et elle concernait une version ancienne du programme. L’objectif de notre étude a donc été d’évaluer l’impact de Profamille sur l’humeur de 57 aidants inclus lors de 4 sessions ayant eu lieu au CHU de Caen, entre 2010 et 2014, grâce à un auto-questionnaire rempli en début et fin de programme (Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression scale [CES-D]). Nous avons distingué pour la comparaison statistique des scores d’évaluation (test de Wilcoxon bilatéral sur les données appariées) 3 groupes :

Les résultats ont montré que l’humeur s’améliorait tant dans le groupe à risque de syndrome dépressif (p < 0,001) que dans le groupe très probablement dépressif (p < 0,001). La comparaison des scores de l’humeur dans le groupe des sujets non déprimés n’était pas statistiquement significative. Ces résultats confirment l’impact positif de Profamille sur l’humeur des participants et son intérêt fondamental dans le travail avec les familles de nos patients souffrant de schizophrénie.

[Tobacco smoking and psychiatric intensive care unit: Impact of the strict smoking ban on the risk of violence]

BACKGROUND

Tobacco smoking is the main cause of death among mentally ill persons. Since February 2007, smoking has been strictly forbidden in French covered and closed psychiatric wards. The fear of an increased violence risk induced by tobacco withdrawal is one of the most frequent arguments invoked against this tobacco ban. According to the literature, it seems that the implementation of this ban does not imply such a risk. All these studies compared inpatients' violence risk before and after the tobacco ban in a same psychiatric ward.

AIM

We aimed to analyse the strict tobacco withdrawal consequences on the violence risk in a retrospective study including patients hospitalised in a psychiatric intensive care unit of the university hospital of Caen during the same period.

METHODS

We compared clinical and demographic data and the violence risk between the smoker group (strict tobacco withdrawal with proposed tobacco substitution) and the non-smoker group (control group). In order to evaluate the violence risk, we used three indicators: a standardised scale (the Bröset Violence Checklist) and two assessments specific to the psychiatric intensive care setting ("the preventing risk protocol" and the "seclusion time"). The clinical and demographic data were compared using the Khi2 test, Fisher test and Mann-Whitney test, and the three violence risk indicators were compared with the Mann-Whitney test. Firstly, comparisons were conducted in the total population, and secondly (in order to eliminate a bias of tobacco substitution) in the subgroup directly hospitalised in the psychiatric intensive care setting. Finally, we analysed in the smoker group the statistical correlation between tobacco smoking intensity and violence risk intensity using a regression test.

RESULTS

A population of 72 patients (50 male) was included; 45 were smokers (62.5%) and 27 non-smokers. No statistically significant differences were found in clinical and demographic data between smoker and non-smoker groups in the whole population, as well as in the subgroup directly hospitalised in the psychiatric intensive care setting. Whatever the violence risk indicators, no statistically significant difference was found between the smoker group and the non-smoker group in the total population, as well as the subgroup directly hospitalised in the psychiatric intensive care setting. Moreover, no correlation was found between the tobacco smoking intensity and the violence risk intensity in the smoker group.

CONCLUSION

Strict tobacco withdrawal does not appear to constitute a violence risk factor in psychiatric intensive care unit inpatients. However, further studies are needed to confirm these results. They should be prospective and they should take into account larger samples including patients hospitalised in non-intensive care psychiatric wards.

Family history and obstetric complications in deficit and non-deficit schizophrenia: preliminary results

The aim of this study was to test that deficit (D) schizophrenic patients as defined by Carpenter et al had a higher prevalence of family history of schizophrenia but less obstetric complications than non-deficit (ND) patients. A lower rate of obstetric complications but an excess of schizophrenic and a higher rate of alcoholism family antecedents in 18 D patients compared to 23 ND patients were found. These results could suggest that there is a different weight of genetic and early environmental factors in D and ND patients.

Are eye movement abnormalities indicators of genetic vulnerability to schizophrenia?

Fifty to eighty-five percent of schizophrenic patients are impaired on ocular pursuit paradigms. However, results regarding the relatives are more discordant. The aim of this study was to investigate whether eye movement disorders could be a vulnerability marker of schizophrenia.

METHOD

Twenty-one schizophrenic patients (DSM-IV), 31 first-degree relatives of those patients without schizophrenic spectrum disorders, and two groups of healthy controls matched by age and sex were included. Three oculomotor tasks (smooth pursuit, reflexive saccades and antisaccades) were used.

RESULTS

Patients had a lower averaged gain (P= 0.035) during smooth pursuit than controls, made less correct visually guided saccades (P< 0.001) and more antisaccades errors (P= 0.002) than controls. In contrast, none of the comparison between the relatives and their controls was significant.

CONCLUSION

Schizophrenic patients were impaired on smooth pursuit and antisaccade paradigms. None of these impairments was, however, observed in their first-degree relatives. Our results suggest that the eye movement parameters tested could not be considered as vulnerability markers for schizophrenia.

[Psychiatric manifestations of vitamin B12 deficiency: a case report]

Psychiatric manifestations are frequently associated with pernicious anemia including depression, mania, psychosis, dementia. We report a case of a patient with vitamin B12 deficiency, who has presented severe depression with delusion and Capgras' syndrome, delusion with lability of mood and hypomania successively, during a period of two Months. Case report - Mme V., a 64-Year-old woman, was admitted to the hospital because of confusion. She had no history of psychiatric problems. She had history of diabetes, hypertension and femoral prosthesis. The red blood count revealed a normocytosis with anemia (hemoglobin=11,4 g/dl). At admission she was uncooperative, disoriented in time and presented memory and attention impairment and sleep disorders. She seemed sad and older than her real age. Facial expression and spontaneous movements were reduced, her speech and movements were very slow. She had depressed mood, guilt complex, incurability and devaluation impressions. She had a Capgras' syndrome and delusion of persecution. Her neurologic examination, cerebral scanner and EEG were postponed because of uncooperation. Further investigations confirmed anemia (hemoglobin=11,4 g/dl) and revealed vitamin B12 deficiency (52 pmol/l) and normal folate level. Antibodies to parietal cells were positive in the serum and antibodies to intrinsic factor were negative. An iron deficiency was associated (serum iron=7 micromol/l; serum ferritin concentration=24 mg/l; serum transferrin concentration=3,16 g/l). This association explained normocytocis anemia. Thyroid function, hepatic and renal tests, glycemia, TP, TCA, VS, VDRL-TPHA were normal. Vitamin B12 replacement therapy was started with hydroxycobalamin 1 000 ng/day im for 10 days and iron replacement therapy. Her mental state improved dramatically within a few days. After one week of treatment the only remaining symptoms were lability of mood, delusion of persecution, Capgras' syndrome but disappeared totally 9 days after the beginning of the treatment. A neurologic examination was possible because of cooperation. All the tendon reflexes of inferior members were absent. The plantars were in flexion and there was a left inferior member hypoesthesia. The cerebral scan and EEG were normal. Fundic biopsy, realized by fibroscopy, revealed fundic atrophia and intestinal metaplasia compatible with Biermers' disease. The iron deficiency exploration concluded diet deficiency. Mme V. appeared euphoric, her speech was very rapid with play on words and overactivity. This hypomania state totally disappeared 3 days after. Six Months after her hospitalisation, she presented an hypothyroidism (TSH=3,780; T3=1,35; T4=1,08). A thyroid hormones replacement was started and she continued to receive Monthly B12 replacement. Discussion - This case report illustrates psychiatric manifestations of Biermers' disease. The clinical arguments in favour are: white woman, more than 60 Years old, no history of psychiatric problems, atypical symptoms (confusional state with psychiatric symptoms), fluctuation of symptoms (severe depression with confusional state, delusion of persecution and Capgras' syndrome; delusion with lability of mood and hypomania), dramatic improvement after 9 days of vitamin B12 replacement therapy. The biological arguments are: anemia, vitamin B12 deficiency, normal folate level, atrophia and fundic metaplasia, positive antibodies to parietal cells in the serum, association between Biermers' disease and autoimmune disease (Haschimoto thyroidite). Psychiatric manifestations can occur in the presence of low serum B12 levels but in the absence of the other well recognized neurological and haematological abnormalities of pernicious anemia. Mental or psychological changes may precede haematological signs by Months or Years. They can be the initial symptoms or the only ones. Verbank et al. described the case of a patient with vitamin B12 deficiency in whom hypomania, paranoia and depression had been successively presented during a period of 5 Years before anemia have been developed. The case of Mme V. is similar in the succession of severe depression with delusion of persecution and Capgras' syndrome, delusion with lability of mood and hypomania, during a period of two Months. This report seems to be the first one of a sequence of several psychiatric states with pernicious anemia during a period of two Months with normocytosis anemia. To illustrate this illness we reviewed the literature regarding psychopathology associated with B12 deficiency. The most common psychiatric symptoms were depression, mania, psychotic symptoms, cognitive impairment and obsessive compulsive disorder. The neuropsychiatric severity by vitamin B12 deficiency and the therapeutic efficacy depends on the duration of signs and symptoms. Conclusion - We recommend consideration of B12 deficiency and serum B12 determinations in all the patients with organic mental disorders, atypical psychiatric symptoms and fluctuation of symptomatology. B12 levels should be evaluated with treatment resistant depressive disorders, dementia, psychosis or risk factors for malnutrition such as alcoholism or advancing age associated with neurological symptoms, anemia, malabsorption, gastrointestinal surgery, parasite infestation or strict vegetarian diet. In first intention, B12 deficiency should be researched by serum B12 determination (normal 200-950 pg/ml). Studies of methylmalonic acid and homocysteine showed that they are very sensitive functional indicators of cobalamin status especially when other evidence of cobalamin (B12) deficiency was equivocal. Measurement of methylmalonic acid (normal 73-271 nmol/l) and homocysteine (normal 5,4-13,9 micromol/l) should not replace the measurement of serum cobalamin.

Cognitive patterns in subtypes of schizophrenia

AIM

Because of the heterogeneity of schizophrenia, this study researched different cognitive patterns in distinct subtypes of schizophrenic patients.

METHODS

Thirty-five Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV (DSM IV) schizophrenic patients and 35 healthy controls were included. Patients were categorized into deficit, disorganized and positive subtypes with the schedule for the deficit syndrome (SDS) and the positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS). Executive/attentional functions were assessed with the modified card sorting test (MCST), a test of verbal fluency, the trail making test (TMT) and the Stroop color-word test (Stroop test). Episodic memory was explored through the California verbal learning test (CVLT).

RESULTS

The positive subtype had some executive/attentional (fluency and Stroop tests) and mnesic performances in the normal range, suggesting the preservation of good cognitive skills. In contrast, the deficit and disorganized subtypes had major mnesic and executive/attentional dysfunctions compared to healthy subjects. The deficit subtype compared to the control group performed predominantly worse on the MCST and fluency, whereas the disorganized subtype had the lowest scores on the TMT and the Stroop test.

CONCLUSION

This study showed distinct cognitive patterns in deficit, disorganized and positive patients in comparison with the controls, suggesting a heterogeneous cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia.

[Eye tracking disorders in schizophrenic patients and their parents]

Several studies have confirmed the existence of genetic factors in schizophrenia. However, the genotype predisposing for the disease is not known yet. Nevertheless, those genetic factors in the families of schizophrenic patients urge us to search for genetic vulnerability markers of schizophrenia. Ocular pursuit disorders, in particular, could be one of those vulnerability markers. Eye movements have been often tested in schizophrenia. Most of the schizophrenic patients have eye-tracking disorders and their biological relatives demonstrate an increased prevalence of eye-tracking impairments. The aim of the study was to research if smooth pursuit eye movements could be a vulnerability marker of schizophrenia. In order to have an indication about this hypothesis, impairments of smooth pursuit eye movements were researched in both schizophrenics and their parents.

METHODS

Fifteen DSM IV schizophrenic patients stabilized at the time of the inclusion and not treated with lithium, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, or chloral hydrate; 19 parents without history of schizophrenic spectrum disorders (SADSLA and IPDE), and 2 groups of healthy subjects matched in age and sex with probands and with the parents, were included in the study. Parents only were included (fathers or mothers) in order to have an homogeneous population for the genetic risk and age. The eye-tracking paradigm used was a smooth pursuit task. The stimulus was a sinusoidal wave form moving on a horizontal line, with a frequency of 0.4 Hz and an amplitude of 30 degrees. Different parameters were measured: gain (ratio between the eye velocity and the target velocity) and saccades frequencies (catch-up saccades, back-up saccades, anticipatory saccades and square-wave-jerks). For each parameter, analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with age as covariable was carried out. For the results reaching the significance of 0.05, the Bonferroni correction was applied (level of significance 0.016). The effect size of the parameter was calculated ((the mean of the subjects minus the mean of the matched controls) divided by standard deviation of the two groups). According to Cohen, 0.20 indicates a small effect size, 0.50 indicates a medium effect size and 0.80 indicates a large effect size.

RESULTS

Comparison between patients and matched controls: the means of global gain, of gain for the movements to the left and of gain for the movements to the right did not differ significantly between patients and their matched controls. The size effects are 0.31 for the global gain, 0.20 for the movements to the left and 0.41 for the movements to the right. The frequencies of total saccades, catch-up saccades, back-up saccades, anticipatory saccades and square-wave-jerks did not differ significantly between patients and their controls. The size effects for those parameters were 0.09, 0.03, 0.00, 0.39 and 0.63 respectively. Comparison between parents and matched controls: the means of global gain, of gain for the movements to the left and of gain for the movements to the right did not differ significantly between the two groups. The size effects for those parameters were 0.00, 0.05 and 0.17 respectively. The frequency of total saccades did not differ significantly between the groups whereas the size effect was 0.63. The frequency of catch-up saccades was significantly more important in parents than in controls (p = 0.006) and the size effect was 0.80. The other saccadic parameters did not differ significantly between groups, their size effects were 0.24 for the back-up saccades, 0.21 for the anticipatory saccades and 0.00 for the square-wave-jerks. Whereas the gain of the patients had a tendency to be lower than the gain of their controls, no significant difference was observed between patients and their controls. Only a size effect of 0.63 for the frequency of square-wave-jerks was obtained. This large effect size suggests that the difference between patients and controls might be significant in a larger sample. The catch-up saccades frequency between parents and controls was significant. The differences between our study and the previous studies could be due to several factors. The paradigms used were different between the studies and our sample was small (only 15 patients and 19 relatives). Moreover, some patients in the previous studies were treated by lithium, drug well known to modify ocular pursuit and, finally the relatives in the other studies were 10 years older than ours and age is known to alter ocular pursuit. Since an impairment of the smooth pursuit was observed in the relatives of schizophrenic patients but not in the probands, this study does not support the hypothesis that eye-tracking disorders could be considered as a marker of vulnerability of schizophrenia.

Saccadic and smooth-pursuit eye movements in deficit and non-deficit schizophrenia

We have analyzed eye movement performances in schizophrenics showing primary negative or deficit symptoms (n=16) and non-deficit schizophrenics (n=55), and compared them with those of controls (n=34) in order to study the relationships between negative symptoms and eye movement abnormalities. Patients were subtyped into deficit and non-deficit subgroups using the Schedule for the Deficit Syndrome. Three oculomotor paradigms were used: smooth pursuit, a reflexive saccade paradigm and an antisaccadic task. The smooth pursuit gain was significantly decreased (and the rate of catch-up saccades increased) in schizophrenics as compared with controls, but no difference was observed between patient groups. In the reflexive saccade paradigm, no difference was found between controls and patients, except for latency in deficit patients. In the antisaccade paradigm, the number of errors and the latency of successful antisaccades were significantly increased in schizophrenics as compared with controls. The latency of successful antisaccades in both directions was significantly increased in deficit patients as compared with non-deficit patients. The latency of rightward successful antisaccades was significantly increased as compared with the latency of leftward antisaccades in deficit patients only. However, when patients were classified into negative and non-negative groups using the PANSS, no difference was found in the antisaccade paradigm. Smooth pursuit impairment does not seem to depend on the primary enduring negative symptoms.In deficit schizophrenics, the abnormalities observed in the antisaccadic task are consistent with prefrontal dysfunction, and may suggest parietal lobe dysfunction as well.

Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) of the thalamus in schizophrenia

This study applied (1)H-MRS in the thalamus of schizophrenic patients and healthy subjects. There were no differences in the metabolite ratios (NAA/Cr, Cho/Cr or mI/Cr) between the two groups. Relationships were noted between NAA/Cr and age in patients with a trend toward this correlation in controls, suggesting an effect of age on the metabolism of the thalamus.

Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the medial prefrontal cortex in patients with deficit schizophrenia: preliminary report

OBJECTIVE

Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) was used to study medial prefrontal metabolic impairments in schizophrenic patients with the deficit syndrome.

METHOD

The subjects were 22 schizophrenic patients categorized as deficit (N=5) or nondeficit (N=17) and 21 healthy subjects. (1)H-MRS was performed for the right and the left medial prefrontal cortex.

RESULTS

The patients with the deficit syndrome had significantly lower ratios of N-acetylaspartate to creatine plus phosphocreatine than did the healthy subjects or nondeficit patients.

CONCLUSIONS

As N-acetylaspartate levels could reflect neuronal density and/or viability, this finding suggests a neuronal loss in the medial prefrontal cortex of deficit patients.

Month of birth in deficit and non-deficit schizophrenic patients

In order to test the hypothesis that an excess of summer births is a risk factor for deficit syndrome, the month of birth was studied in 53 deficit schizophrenic patients compared to 158 non-deficit patients. No significant difference in terms of month of birth or season of birth was observed between deficit and non-deficit patients, suggesting that summer births might not be a risk factor for deficit schizophrenia.

[Psychological profile of suicide using firearms to the face. Review of the literature. Our experiences at the university hospital center at Caen]

We studied the psychological feature of subjects who attempted suicide with firearms. This retrospective study included 36 cases of "facial suicide" treated at the Caen University Hospital since 1981 and data in the literature. An analysis of the different parameters showed in several cases, that this population is different from the others, particularly hospitalized drug overdose suicide patients. Two notions were particularly remarkable in these patients: history of patients psychiatric disorders were very rare and recurrent suicide attempts.

[Syndromic and diagnostic heterogeneity of schizophrenia]

Heterogeneity in schizophrenia is an old concept, already evoked by Kraepelin and Bleuler. During the XXth century, this conception has led to a multiplication of diagnostic systems, which allow to define similar groups of patients from a country to another. However, these systems cannot select homogeneous groups of patients, since they include "polythetic" diagnostic criteria. Moreover, comparison of groups selected by different diagnostic systems shows that they are very heterogeneous too. It is why a polydiagnostic approach could be a relevant strategy: this consists of using many diagnostic systems at the same time in order not to select an arbitrary subgroup of schizophrenic patients over another. Therefore, several ways are possible to isolate the most homogeneous groups of patients from the heterogeneous population obtained with the polydiagnostic approach, depending on the aim of the research. A first possibility is a dimensional approach, in individualizing syndromic dimensions from psychopathological scales using principal component analyses. This approach might be useful to test the efficiency of an antipsychotic on a syndromic dimension. A second possibility is to identify groups of patients characterized by the largest homogeneity inside each group and the largest differences between groups. One way to perform it is the cluster analysis. Authors present a study using such a method: 5 different subgroups are identified in 138 schizophrenic patients. This approach is useful to study a subgroup of patients in comparison with a control group. A third possibility is represented by Carpenter et al. approach (7) with the definition of the deficit syndrome; a very homogeneous group of patients defined by standardized criteria can be individualized and characterized by physiopathologic anomalies.

Clinical heterogeneity of schizophrenia

The heterogeneity of schizophrenia has led to a multitude of diagnostic criteria systems. Thus, the best strategy for schizophrenia research might be the use of several diagnostic systems simultaneously. This polydiagnostic approach can be associated with isolating subtypes of symptoms or patients. In this way, the authors present several approaches such as, first, dimensional approaches, second, cluster analyses, and third the selection of a very homogeneous subtype with standardized criteria. One homogeneous subtype can be represented by deficit schizophrenia according to Carpenter as defined by the Schedule of Deficit Syndrome.

[Identification by typological analysis of distinct groups of schizophrenic patients. Applicability of a disorganized schizophrenia subtype]

Since Crow, Andreasen et al. have described schizophrenia in terms of negative and positive symptoms, the dichotomic approach has been well established. As a matter of fact, factor analyses, especially principal components analyses, led with symptomatic specific scales, have proved their validity. But they have shown their limits too : some authors think that the dichotomic model fails to explain all of the schizophrenic psychopathology and that a third dimension including formal thought disorders, most of the time called "disorganization", should systematically be taken into account. In this study, the authors have hypothesized that a categorial approach could describe this "disorganization". Using a cluster analysis they investigated the existence of subtypes in a population including 136 schizophrenic patients assessed with the PANSS (Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale, Kayet al., 1987). The results suggested at least five subtypes: a pure positive subtype, characterized by high scores on items delusions, hallucinatory behavior, suspiciousness/persecution, and by a low score on conceptual disorganization item; a disorganized positive subtype, characterized by high scores on positive items, including conceptual disorganization item, and also high scores on unusual thought content and autistic preoccupation items; a negative subtype, characterized by high scores on negative items and low scores on positive items, including conceptual disorganization item; a mixed subtype, characterized by high scores on the most positive, negative and general psychopathological items; a residual subtype, characterized by low scores on all the positive, negative and general psychopathological items. The good validity of this analysis was showed since differences on a number of clinical characteristics were observed between the five clusters. These results demonstrated the oversimplication of the positive-negative dichotomy and the relevance of a disorganized subtype.

[Anti-hallucinatory coping strategies in schizophrenia]

Despite the effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia, many patients continue to have persistent positive symptoms like hallucinations. It has provided new interest for coping strategies used by hallucinated patients. Therefore the aim of the study was to explore the existence of such strategies in 50 schizophrenic patients defined by the presence of hallucinations. A specific questionnaire about coping strategies and a scale for the assessment of positive and negative symptoms were used. Our results showed that each patient developed at least one strategy, even rudimentary. Moreover, whenever the type of hallucinations, they developed specific coping strategies, most of the time logically used: they used them as much as they were efficace. So coping strategies should be taken into account for the clinical management of hallucinated patients. Learning of these strategies through behavioural and cognitive therapy could help patients suffering from resistant hallucinations.

[Polydiagnostic approach to schizophrenia. Validation of a computerized checklist (Diagnostic and Prognostic Scales)]

With a polydiagnostic approach of schizophrenia in mind, the authors present, in french language, a computer-diagnostic instrument, essential for any research at the present time. This includes a 183-item checklist constructed from 14 diagnostic systems for schizophrenia and from Chronic Hallucinatory Psychosis (CHP), a typically french diagnostic entity, not recognized by English-speaking countries which do not individualize it from schizophrenia. This study tested the reliability in interviewing the patients simultaneously by 2 examiners with the checklist. The interrater agreement was excellent (Kappa from 0.75 to 1) for schizophrenic diagnoses under the systems CATEGO, DSM III-R, Feighner, ICD9, Langfeldt, Pull, Schneider and Taylor-Abrams. It was good (Kappa from 0.40 to 0.75) for the 6 other schizophrenic systems, Bleuler (k = 0.52; p > 0.01), Carpenter with a cut-off at 6 (k = 0.52; p < 0.05), ICD10 (k = 0.70; p < 0.01), New-Haven (k = 0.58), RDC (k = 0.59; p < 0.01), Vienne (k = 0.68; p < 0.01), and the Chronic Hallucinatory Psychosis (Pull) (k = 0.71; p < 0.01). The validity of the computer program was tested by the concordance (Cohen's Kappa) between the diagnoses established by a medical examiner and by computer, both obtained from the same collected data (the checklist). The tests show that the concordances were excellent for the 15 diagnoses for schizophrenia and CHP (Kappa form 0.75 to 1) and always above those obtained by the tests of interreliability.