Selective activation of NF-kappa B subunits in human breast cancer: potential roles for NF-kappa B2/p52 and for Bcl-3

Members of the NF-kappa B/Rel transcription factor family have been shown recently to be required for cellular transformation by oncogenic Ras and by other oncoproteins and to suppress transformation-associated apoptosis. Furthermore, NF-kappa B has been shown to be activated by several oncoproteins including HER2/Neu, a receptor tyrosine kinase often expressed in human breast cancer. Human breast cancer cell lines, human breast tumors and normal adjacent tissue were analysed by gel mobility shift assay, immunoblotting of nuclear extracts and immunohistochemistry for activation of NF-kappa B. Furthermore, RNA levels for NF-kappa B-activated genes were analysed in order to determine if NF-kappa B is functionally active in human breast cancer. Our data indicate that the p65/RelA subunit of NF-kappa B is activated (i.e., nuclear) in breast cancer cell lines. However, breast tumors exhibit an absence or low level of nuclear p65/RelA but show activated c-Rel, p50 and p52 as compared to nontumorigenic adjacent tissue. Additionally, the I kappa B homolog Bcl-3, which functions to stimulate transcription with p50 or p52, was also activated in breast tumors. There was no apparent correlation between estrogen receptor status and levels of nuclear NF-kappa B complexes. Transcripts of NF-kappa B-regulated genes were found elevated in breast tumors, as compared to adjacent normal tissue, indicating functional NF-kappa B activity. These data suggest a potential role for a subset of NF-kappa B and I kappa B family proteins, particularly NF-kappa B/p52 and Bcl-3, in human breast cancer. Additionally, the activation of functional NF-kappa B in these tumors likely involves a signal transduction pathway distinct from that utilized by cytokines.

Requirement of NF-kappaB activation to suppress p53-independent apoptosis induced by oncogenic Ras

The ras proto-oncogene is frequently mutated in human tumors and functions to chronically stimulate signal transduction cascades resulting in the synthesis or activation of specific transcription factors, including Ets, c-Myc, c-Jun, and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappaB). These Ras-responsive transcription factors are required for transformation, but the mechanisms by which these proteins facilitate oncogenesis have not been fully established. Oncogenic Ras was shown to initiate a p53-independent apoptotic response that was suppressed through the activation of NF-kappaB. These results provide an explanation for the requirement of NF-kappaB for Ras-mediated oncogenesis and provide evidence that Ras-transformed cells are susceptible to apoptosis even if they do not express the p53 tumor-suppressor gene product.

Involvement of Egr-1/RelA synergy in distinguishing T cell activation from tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced NF-kappa B1 transcription

NF-kappa B is an important transcription factor required for T cell proliferation and other immunological functions. The NF-kappa B1 gene encodes a 105-kD protein that is the precursor of the p50 component of NF-kappa B. Previously, we and others have demonstrated that NF-kappa B regulates the NF-kappa B1 gene. In this manuscript we have investigated the molecular mechanisms by which T cell lines stimulated with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) and phytohemagglutin (PHA) display significantly higher levels of NF-kappa B1 encoding transcripts than cells stimulated with tumor necrosis factor-alpha, despite the fact that both stimuli activate NF-kappa B. Characterization of the NF-kappa B1 promoter identified an Egr-1 site which was found to be essential for both the PMA/PHA-mediated induction as well as the synergistic activation observed after the expression of the RelA subunit of NF-kappa B and Egr-1. Furthermore, Egr-1 induction was required for endogenous NF-kappa B1 gene expression, since PMA/PHA-stimulated T cell lines expressing antisense Egr-1 RNA were inhibited in their ability to upregulate NF-kappa B1 transcription. Our studies indicate that transcriptional synergy mediated by activation of both Egr-1 and NF-kappa B may have important ramifications in T cell development by upregulating NF-kappa B1 gene expression.

Effects of HIV-1 Tat on expression of HLA class I molecules

Tat protein of HIV-1 is a potent transactivator of transcription and essential for HIV-1 replication. In addition, Tat has been proposed to possess immunosuppressive functions, suggesting that Tat may play a direct role in the immune dysfunction associated with AIDS. Recently, it has been reported that Tat represses activity of a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I gene promoter. Because HIV infection downmodulates expression of class I molecules, this data strongly suggests that Tat downregulates class I expression and leads to loss of CTL activity. Here, we report effects of Tat on class I expression using a human cell line, T0, expressing Tat (TO-Tat). Northern blot analysis shows that levels of MHC class I transcripts are normal in T0-Tat. Flow cytometry analyses indicate that expression of HLA class I molecules is not substantially downregulated to any great extent by Tat in T0-Tat. Further, pulse-chase experiments followed by Endoglycosidase-H treatment show that the rate of maturation and processing of class I molecules in T0-Tat is indistinguishable from that in the original cell line, T0. Taken together, these data suggest that Tat expression does not necessarily result in downregulation of class I expression.

Role of transcriptional activation of I kappa B alpha in mediation of immunosuppression by glucocorticoids

Glucocorticoids are potent immunosuppressive drugs, but their mechanism is poorly understood. Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappa B), a regulator of immune system and inflammation genes, may be a target for glucocorticoid-mediated immunosuppression. The activation of NF-kappa B involves the targeted degradation of its cytoplasmic inhibitor, I kappa B alpha, and the translocation of NF-kappa B to the nucleus. Here it is shown that the synthetic glucocorticoid dexamethasone induces the transcription of the I kappa B alpha gene, which results in an increased rate of I kappa B alpha protein synthesis. Stimulation by tumor necrosis factor causes the release of NF-kappa B from I kappa B alpha. However, in the presence of dexamethasone this newly released NF-kappa B quickly reassociates with newly synthesized I kappa B alpha, thus markedly reducing the amount of NF-kappa B that translocates to the nucleus. This decrease in nuclear NF-kappa B is predicted to markedly decrease cytokine secretion and thus effectively block the activation of the immune system.

Functional and physical associations between NF-kappa B and C/EBP family members: a Rel domain-bZIP interaction

NF-kappa B and C/EBP represent distinct families of transcription factors that target unique DNA enhancer elements. The heterodimeric NF-kappa B complex is composed of two subunits, a 50- and a 65-kDa protein. All members of the NF-kappa B family, including the product of the proto-oncogene c-rel, are characterized by their highly homologous approximately 300-amino-acid N-terminal region. This Rel homology domain mediates DNA binding, dimerization, and nuclear targeting of these proteins. C/EBP contains the bZIP region, which is characterized by two motifs in the C-terminal half of the protein: a basic region involved in DNA binding and a leucine zipper motif involved in dimerization. The C/EBP family consist of several related proteins, C/EBP alpha, C/EBP beta, C/EBP gamma, and C/EBP delta, that form homodimers and that form heterodimers with each other. We now demonstrated the unexpected cross-coupling of members of the NF-kappa B family three members of the C/EBP family. NF-kappa B p65, p50, and Rel functionally synergize with C/EBP alpha, C/EBP beta, and C/EBP delta. This cross-coupling results in the inhibition of promoters with kappa B enhancer motifs and in the synergistic stimulation of promoters with C/EBP binding sites. These studies demonstrate that NF-kappa B augments gene expression mediated by a multimerized c-fos serum response element in the presence of C/EBP. We show a direct physical association of the bZIP region of C/EBP with the Rel homology domain of NF-kappa B. The cross-coupling of NF-kappa B with C/EBP highlights a mechanism of gene regulation involving an interaction between distinct transcription factor families.

Mechanism of c-myc regulation by c-Myb in different cell lineages

Activation of the murine c-myc promoter by murine c-Myb protein was examined in several cell lines by using a transient expression system in which Myb expression vectors activate the c-myc promoter linked to a chloramphenicol acetyltransferase reporter gene or a genomic beta-globin gene. S1 nuclease protection analyses confirmed that the induction of c-myc by c-Myb was transcriptional and affected both P1 and P2 start sites in a murine T-cell line, EL4, and a myelomonocytic line, WEHI-3. Mutational analyses of the c-myc promoter revealed that two distinct regions could confer Myb responsiveness in two T-cell lines, a distal site upstream of P1 and a proximal site within the first noncoding exon. In contrast, only the proximal site was required for other cell lineages examined. Five separate Myb-binding sites were located in this proximal site and found to be important for c-Myb trans activation. DNA binding was necessary for c-myc activation, as shown by the loss of function associated with mutation of Myb's DNA-binding domain and by trans-dominant repressor activity of the DNA binding, trans-activation-defective mutant. The involvement of additional protein factors was addressed by inhibiting protein synthesis with cycloheximide in a conditional expression system in which the activity of presynthesized Myb was under the control of estrogen. These experiments indicate that de novo synthesis of additional proteins was not necessary for c-myc trans activation. Together these data reveal two cell lineage-dependent pathways by which c-Myb regulates c-myc; however, both pathways are mechanistically indistinguishable in that direct DNA binding by Myb is required for activating c-myc whereas neither de novo protein synthesis nor other labile proteins are necessary.

Promoter of the human NF-kappa B p50/p105 gene. Regulation by NF-kappa B subunits and by c-REL

NF-kappa B is a transcription factor involved in the regulation of numerous genes encoding proteins involved in immune function, in inflammation or in cellular growth control. NF-kappa B is typically characterized as a heterodimer of a 50-kDa subunit (p50) and a 65-kDa (p65) subunit. Interestingly, the p50 subunit is derived by processing of a 105-kDa precursor. Induction of NF-kappa B DNA-binding activity involves both the release of cytoplasmically stored factor from its inhibitor known as I kappa B and the induction of NF-kappa B gene expression. We report here the cloning and functional analysis of the promoter of the p50/p105 NF-kappa B gene. Our data suggest the existence of multiple transcription initiation sites for this gene in the B cell line Raji, Jurkat T cells, and HeLa cells. The promoter is constitutively active in these cells and is inducible by phorbol ester and mitogen stimulation of Jurkat T cells. Expression of I kappa B inhibits this inducible activation of the p50/p105 promoter. Furthermore, we have shown that co-transfection of a p50/p105 promoter-reporter plasmid with expression vectors encoding the p50 or p65 subunits of NF-kappa B or c-Rel results in stimulation of gene expression. Supportive of the transfection data, we have identified a DNA-binding site for NF-kappa B in the promoter of the p50/p105 gene that is responsive only to a combination of p50 and p65. The data demonstrate that the p50/p105 NF-kappa B gene is regulated by members of the NF-kappa B/Rel family and likely by other important transcription factors.

Promoter of the human NF-kappa B p50/p105 gene. Regulation by NF-kappa B subunits and by c-REL

NF-kappa B is a transcription factor involved in the regulation of numerous genes encoding proteins involved in immune function, in inflammation or in cellular growth control. NF-kappa B is typically characterized as a heterodimer of a 50-kDa subunit (p50) and a 65-kDa (p65) subunit. Interestingly, the p50 subunit is derived by processing of a 105-kDa precursor. Induction of NF-kappa B DNA-binding activity involves both the release of cytoplasmically stored factor from its inhibitor known as I kappa B and the induction of NF-kappa B gene expression. We report here the cloning and functional analysis of the promoter of the p50/p105 NF-kappa B gene. Our data suggest the existence of multiple transcription initiation sites for this gene in the B cell line Raji, Jurkat T cells, and HeLa cells. The promoter is constitutively active in these cells and is inducible by phorbol ester and mitogen stimulation of Jurkat T cells. Expression of I kappa B inhibits this inducible activation of the p50/p105 promoter. Furthermore, we have shown that co-transfection of a p50/p105 promoter-reporter plasmid with expression vectors encoding the p50 or p65 subunits of NF-kappa B or c-Rel results in stimulation of gene expression. Supportive of the transfection data, we have identified a DNA-binding site for NF-kappa B in the promoter of the p50/p105 gene that is responsive only to a combination of p50 and p65. The data demonstrate that the p50/p105 NF-kappa B gene is regulated by members of the NF-kappa B/Rel family and likely by other important transcription factors.

axl, a transforming gene isolated from primary human myeloid leukemia cells, encodes a novel receptor tyrosine kinase

Using a sensitive transfection-tumorigenicity assay, we have isolated a novel transforming gene from the DNA of two patients with chronic myelogenous leukemia. Sequence analysis indicates that the product of this gene, axl, is a receptor tyrosine kinase. Overexpression of axl cDNA in NIH 3T3 cells induces neoplastic transformation with the concomitant appearance of a 140-kDa axl tyrosine-phosphorylated protein. Expression of axl cDNA in the baculovirus system results in the expression of the appropriate recombinant protein that is recognized by antiphosphotyrosine antibodies, confirming that the axl protein is a tyrosine kinase. The juxtaposition of fibronectin type III and immunoglobulinlike repeats in the extracellular domain, as well as distinct amino acid sequences in the kinase domain, indicate that the axl protein represents a novel subclass of receptor tyrosine kinases.

Mutations of the ras protooncogenes in chronic myelogenous leukemia: a high frequency of ras mutations in bcr/abl rearrangement-negative chronic myelogenous leukemia

Seventy cases of chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) were analyzed for the presence of ras mutations using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), oligonucleotide hybridization, and direct PCR sequencing. All cases had preceding cytogenetic and bcr rearrangement studies. Aberrant ras genes were detected in none of 39 patients with Philadelphia (Ph) chromosome or bcr/abl rearrangement positive chronic-phase CML and in only 1 of 18 patients in blast crisis, suggesting that ras mutations have little or no role in initiation or progression of common CML. Seven of 13, or 54% of patients with bcr/abl rearrangement negative chronic phase CML (atypical CML) harbored mutations in ras, however. This high incidence of ras mutations, together with the absence of bcr/abl rearrangement, provides evidence that atypical CML is an entity that is molecularly distinct from common CML. Moreover, the clinical characteristics and the high frequency of ras mutations suggest that atypical CML may constitute a subset of the myelodysplastic syndrome and may be best classified as a variant of chronic myelomonocytic leukemia (CMML).