Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures

The authors argue that complementary hostile and benevolent components of sexism exist across cultures. Male dominance creates hostile sexism (HS), but men's dependence on women fosters benevolent sexism (BS)--subjectively positive attitudes that put women on a pedestal but reinforce their subordination. Research with 15,000 men and women in 19 nations showed that (a) HS and BS are coherent constructs that correlate positively across nations, but (b) HS predicts the ascription of negative and BS the ascription of positive traits to women, (c) relative to men, women are more likely to reject HS than BS, especially when overall levels of sexism in a culture are high, and (d) national averages on BS and HS predict gender inequality across nations. These results challenge prevailing notions of prejudice as an antipathy in that BS (an affectionate, patronizing ideology) reflects inequality and is a cross-culturally pervasive complement to HS.

An ambivalent alliance. Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality

The equation of prejudice with antipathy is challenged by recent research on sexism. Benevolent sexism (a subjectively favorable, chivalrous ideology that offers protection and affection to women who embrace conventional roles) coexists with hostile sexism (antipathy toward women who are viewed as usurping men's power). The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory, first validated in U.S. samples, has been administered to over 15,000 men and women in 19 nations. Hostile and benevolent sexism are complementary, cross-culturally prevalent ideologies, both of which predict gender inequality. Women, as compared with men, consistently reject hostile sexism but often endorse benevolent sexism (especially in the most sexist cultures). By rewarding women for conforming to a patriarchal status quo, benevolent sexism inhibits gender equality. More generally, affect toward minority groups is often ambivalent, but subjectively positive stereotypes are not necessarily benign.

Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures

The authors argue that complementary hostile and benevolent components of sexism exist across cultures. Male dominance creates hostile sexism (HS), but men's dependence on women fosters benevolent sexism (BS)--subjectively positive attitudes that put women on a pedestal but reinforce their subordination. Research with 15,000 men and women in 19 nations showed that (a) HS and BS are coherent constructs that correlate positively across nations, but (b) HS predicts the ascription of negative and BS the ascription of positive traits to women, (c) relative to men, women are more likely to reject HS than BS, especially when overall levels of sexism in a culture are high, and (d) national averages on BS and HS predict gender inequality across nations. These results challenge prevailing notions of prejudice as an antipathy in that BS (an affectionate, patronizing ideology) reflects inequality and is a cross-culturally pervasive complement to HS.

Feminized management and backlash toward agentic women: the hidden costs to women of a kinder, gentler image of middle managers

Women who display masculine, agentic traits are viewed as violating prescriptions of feminine niceness (L. A. Rudman, 1998). By legitimizing niceness as an employment criterion, "feminization" of management (requiring both agentic and communal traits for managers) may unintentionally promote discrimination against competent women. Participants made hiring recommendations for a feminized or masculine managerial job. Agentic female job applicants were viewed as less socially skilled than agentic males, but this perception only resulted in hiring discrimination for the feminized, not the masculine, job. Communal applicants (regardless of sex) invariably received low hiring ratings. Thus, women must present themselves as agentic to be hireable, but may therefore be seen as interpersonally deficient. Ironically, the feminization of management may legitimize discrimination against competent, agentic women.

Feminized management and backlash toward agentic women: the hidden costs to women of a kinder, gentler image of middle managers

Women who display masculine, agentic traits are viewed as violating prescriptions of feminine niceness (L. A. Rudman, 1998). By legitimizing niceness as an employment criterion, "feminization" of management (requiring both agentic and communal traits for managers) may unintentionally promote discrimination against competent women. Participants made hiring recommendations for a feminized or masculine managerial job. Agentic female job applicants were viewed as less socially skilled than agentic males, but this perception only resulted in hiring discrimination for the feminized, not the masculine, job. Communal applicants (regardless of sex) invariably received low hiring ratings. Thus, women must present themselves as agentic to be hireable, but may therefore be seen as interpersonally deficient. Ironically, the feminization of management may legitimize discrimination against competent, agentic women.

Maternal labour supply and child nutrition in West Africa

It is widely recognized that women in developing countries have dual roles as generators of household income and as primary caregivers to their children. Many policies directed at reducing poverty or malnutrition involve one or the other of these roles. Programs to reduce child malnutrition, for example, typically target mothers as caregivers. However, because of the time constraints women face, there are potential conflicts between women's different activities about which policy makers are rarely informed. Nutrition interventions have not usually considered the barriers to participation in such programs facing mothers who, either by choice or necessity, have entered the labour force (Leslie, 1988; Engle, 1994). Similarly, policies directed at improving female employment opportunities typically ignore women's important role in household activities related to children's healthy development.

 In this paper we address a potentially important implication of women's multiple roles and the time constraints they face: that female labour force participation, by reducing the time available for household activities related to child development, may place young children at nutritional risk.

Congenital diaphragmatic hernia survival and use of extracorporeal life support at selected level III nurseries with multimodality support

BACKGROUND

Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) has been cited to have a mortality rate of 50%. There have been multiple studies at individual institutions demonstrating potential benefits from various strategies including extracorporeal life support (ECLS), delayed repair, and lower levels of ventilator support. There has been no multicenter survey of institutions offering these modalities to describe the current use of ECLS and survival of these infants. In addition, the relationship between the number of patients with CDH managed at an individual institution and outcome has not been evaluated.

METHODS

We queried 16 level III neonatal intensive care centers on the use of ECLS and survival of infants with CDH who were treated during 2 consecutive years (1993 to 1995). Data are presented as mean +/- SEM, median, and range.

RESULTS

Data were collected on 411 patients. Of these, 71% +/- 8% were outborn and 8% +/- 3% were considered nonviable. Overall survival of CDH infants was 69% +/- 4% (range, 39% to 95%). The survival rate of infants on ECLS was 55% +/- 4%, whereas survival of infants not requiring ECLS was significantly increased at 81% +/- 5% (p = 0.005). The mean rate of ECLS use was 46% +/- 2%. There was no correlation between the number of cases per year at an individual institution and overall survival, ECLS survival, or ECLS use (r = 0.341, 0.305, and 0.287, respectively). There was also no correlation between case volume at an individual institution and ECLS survival (r = 0.271).

CONCLUSIONS

The current survival rate and rate of ECLS use in infants with CDH at level III neonatal intensive care units in the United States are 69% +/- 4% and 46% +/- 2%, respectively. There is no correlation between the yearly individual center experience with managing CDH and rate of ECLS use or outcome.

Gastroschisis wringer clamp: a safe, simplified method for delayed primary closure

When primary abdominal wall closure in a newborn with gastroschisis cannot be accomplished safely, placement of a reinforced Silastic silo facilitates delayed primary closure (DPC). In this report we describe our experience with the gastroschisis wringer clamp (GWC). The GWC is an autoclavable, 140-g, aluminum alloy device reminiscent of an old wringer washing machine. It consists of two apposing serrated rollers that pull the Silastic silo through a slotted base plate. This protects the intestine and converts the circular defect into a vertical slit to ease DPC. The GWC is adjusted daily on the awake newborn in the nursery and the magnitude of each adjustment is gauged by the infant's cardiac and pulmonary status. For the past 10 years we have cared for 116 newborns with gastroschisis. The average birth weight was 2,530 g (range, 1,380 to 3,300 g). Eighty-six infants (74.1%) have undergone primary closure. The remaining 30 infants (25.9%) were treated by placement of a Silastic silo and application of the GWC, forming the basis of this report. The DPC operation was performed an average of 6.7 days (range, 3 to 23 days) following the application of the silo. Extubation was usually possible prior to the DPC, with the mean length of mechanical ventilation being 3.8 days. Three patients developed serious complications including two dehiscences of the silo-fascia interface. There were no deaths in this group of 30 patients. The GWC offers many technical advantages and can be easily reversed when the infant's cardiopulmonary status deteriorates. We advocate its adoption as a method of choice in the newborn with gastroschisis who requires DPC.