Occurrence of F-Specific Bacteriophages in Untreated and Treated Wastewaters in Mumbai

F + coliphages are considered as potential enteric viral indicators in water systems as a tool for on-site validation of wastewater treatment processes. The present study evaluated the occurrence of F + coliphages in wastewaters collected from three wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Mumbai city, to assess this potential. The detection and enumeration of F + coliphages was carried out from WWTPs Z1, Z3 and Z5 using the ISO 10705-1 and U.S EPA 1601 methods. F + coliphages were majorly detected in untreated wastewater samples followed by a few secondary treated samples in WWTP-Z1 and Z3 and one tertiary treated sample from Z1, these differences were found to be statistically significant. The difference in F + coliphage levels between the treatment stages highlight their potential as indicators for monitoring the efficiency of wastewater treatment. The overall positivity of F + coliphage was 35.09% for Salmonella. typhimurium WG49 host (as per ISO 10705-1), was higher by 10.52% for Escherichia coli Famp HS host (as per U.S EPA 1601) (45.61%), highlighting the efficiency of the latter host over the former in F + coliphage detection. Significant difference in F + coliphage counts using the two bacterial hosts were observed in WWTP-Z3 (p = 0.001) and WWTP-Z1 (p = 0.047) but not in WWTP-Z5 (p = 0.332).

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12088-023-01181-7.

Wastewater-Based Epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2: Assessing Prevalence and Correlation with Clinical Cases

Wastewater-based epidemiology has been recognized as a tool to monitor the progress of COVID-19 pandemic worldwide. The study presented herein aimed at quantitating the SARS-CoV-2 RNA in the wastewaters, predicting the number of infected individuals in the catchment areas, and correlating it with the clinically reported COVID-19 cases. Wastewater samples (n = 162) from different treatment stages were collected from three wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) from Mumbai city during the 2nd surge of COVID-19 (April 2021 to June 2021). SARS-CoV-2 causing COVID-19, was detected in 76.2% and 4.8% of raw and secondary treated (n = 63 each) wastewater samples respectively while all tertiary treated samples (n = 36) were negative. The quantity of SARS-CoV-2 RNA determined as gene copies/100 mL varied among all the three WWTPs under study. The gene copy numbers thus obtained were further used to estimate the number of infected individuals within the population served by these WWTPs using two published methods. A positive correlation (p < 0.05) was observed between the estimated number of infected individuals and clinically confirmed COVID-19 cases reported during the sampling period in two WWTPs. Predicted infected individuals calculated in this study were 100 times higher than the reported COVID-19 cases in all the WWTPs assessed. The study findings demonstrated that the present wastewater treatment technologies at the three WWTPs studied were adequate to remove the virus. However, SARS-CoV-2 genome surveillance with emphasis on monitoring its variants should be implemented as a routine practice to prepare for any future surge in infections.

C65 POST–DISCHARGE ARRHYTHMIC RISK STRATIFICATION OF PATIENTS WITH ACUTE MYOCARDITIS AND LIFE–THREATENING VENTRICULAR TACHYARRHYTHMIAS

Aims

The outcomes of patients presenting with acute myocarditis and life–threatening ventricular arrhythmias (LT–VA) are unclear. The aim of this study was to assess the incidence and predictors of recurrent major arrhythmic events (MAEs) after hospital discharge in this patient population.

Methods and Results

We retrospectively analysed 156 patients (median age 44 years; 77% male) discharged with a diagnosis of acute myocarditis and LT–VA from 16 hospitals worldwide. Diagnosis of myocarditis was based on histology or the combination of increased markers of cardiac injury and cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) Lake Louise criteria. MAEs were defined as the relapse, after discharge, of sudden cardiac death or successfully defibrillated ventricular fibrillation, or sustained ventricular tachycardia (sVT) requiring implantable cardioverter–defibrillator therapy or synchronized external cardioversion. Median follow–up was 23months [first to third quartile (Q1–Q3) 7–60]. Fifty–eight (37.2%) patients experienced MAEs after discharge, at a median of 8 months (Q1–Q3 2.5–24.0 months; 60.3% of MAEs within the first year). At multivariable Cox analysis, variables independently associated with MAEs were presentation with sVT [hazard ratio (HR) 2.90, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.38–6.11]; late gadolinium enhancement involving ≥2 myocardial segments (HR 4.51, 95% CI 2.39–8.53), and absence of positive short–tau inversion recovery (STIR) (HR 2.59, 95% CI 1.40–4.79) at first CMR.

Conclusions

In this international multicentre study, patients discharged free from HTx or LVAD after an acute myocarditis complicated by LT–VA had a recurrence of MAEs during follow–up of 37.2%, after a median time of 8 months. Initial CMR pattern and sVT at presentation stratify the risk of arrhythmia recurrence.

Gorlin syndrome: A rare case report

Gorlin syndrome is an autosomal dominant inherited condition that exhibits high penetrance and variable expressivity. The syndrome is caused by mutations in PTCH, a tumor suppressor gene that has been mapped to chromosome 9q22.3-q31. It is observed that most aggressive forms of keratocystic odontogenic tumor are the first signs of this syndrome which show a high recurrence rate due to its varied histopathological features. The other components are multiple basal cell carcinomas of the skin, intracranial calcifications and rib and vertebral anomalies. In addition, >100 minor criteria have been described with two major and one minor criteria or one major and three minor criteria necessary for confirmatory diagnosis. It is a rare syndrome having an estimated incidence of 1 in 50,000–150,000 in the general population with a 3:1 male/female gender predilection. Here, we report the case of a 14-year-old female patient diagnosed with Gorlin syndrome.

Utilization of cardiac MRI for the assessment of suspected rejection with negative biopsy in heart transplant recipients

Background

Heart transplant (HTx) patients can develop graft dysfunction (GD) without biopsy evidence of cell or antibody mediated rejection. Cardiac MRI (CMR) can detect inflammatory or infiltrative causes of cardiomyopathy however CMR findings in HTx recipients with GD have not been previously described.

Purpose

We sought to identify CMR characteristics of HTx patients with GD, and evaluate its additive value in its diagnosis and prognosis.

Methods

CMR has been performed routinely to evaluate GD at our institutions. There were 37 HTx recipients who presented with acute decline in left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) of &lt;50% and &gt;10% from baseline, with no biopsy evidence of rejection between 2007 and 2018. Coronary angiogram with IVUS was done to rule out allograft vasculopathy. Treatment of GD was per discretion of the treating clinician. Responders were defined as those with LVEF improvement &gt;10% at 180 days or greater post-presentation. LV and RV indices, the presence and pattern of late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) were determined by CMR.

Results

There were 34% females and mean age at transplant was 49±13 years. Median time from HTx to GD was 1.2 years. Presenting symptoms were heart failure (n=25), cardiogenic shock (n=1) and 11 patients were asymptomatic. Mean LVEF at presentation was 37±12% and donor specific antibodies were detected in 38% patients. Most patients were treated with steroid bolus (n=29), and/or plasmapheresis (n=23). There were no major changes made in immunosuppression in 6 patients. Delayed enhancement MRI was performed with standard inversion-recovery (IR) gradient echo sequences, between 5 and 20 minutes after institutional-standard protocol administration of IV gadolinium contrast. Biventricular LGE was present in 18/37 (49%) patients with GD and was more prevalent in responders (57%, 13 of 23) than non-responders (35%, 5 of 14), although not statistically significant (p=0.21). There were two patterns of LGE noted: 1) Diffuse epicardial (10 patients out which 9 were responders) and 2) Patchy pattern with non-specific distribution (8 patients out of which 4 were responders). Myocardial edema by triple IR sequencing was seen in 6 patients, all having diffuse epicardial pattern of enhancement matching the delayed enhancement pattern. When comparing different treatment groups, among those treated for GD (n=31), 12 of 21 (57%) responders had LGE and 4 of 10 (40%) non-responders had LGE (p=0.37), a pattern similar to the broader population. Among those not treated for GD (n=6), 1 of 2 responders had LGE and 1 of 4 non-responders had LGE (p=0.5).

Conclusion

CMR identified inflammation as a potential cause of GD in approximately 50% of HTx patients. There are 2 distinct patterns of LGE observed in GD, diffuse epicardial (56%) and patchy (44%). Although the presence of LGE in itself is not associated with myocardial recovery, 90% of patients with a diffuse epicardial pattern have recovery of GD.

Funding Acknowledgement

Type of funding source: None

Microchimerism: A new concept

Microchimerism is the presence of cells from one individual in another genetically distinct individual. Pregnancy is the main cause of natural microchimerism through transplacental bi-directional cell trafficking between mother and fetus. In addition to a variety of cell-free substances, it is now well-recognized that some cells are also exchanged in pregnancy. Furthermore, it is now known that microchimerism persists decades later both in mother and in her progeny. The consequences of pregnancy-related microchimerism are under active investigation. However, many authors have suggested a close relationship linking fetal microchimerism and the development of autoimmune diseases. Fetal microchimerism is emerging as a potential contributing factor in certain diseases, including cancer. Parallel studies in animal and human pregnancy suggest that microchimeric fetal cells play a role in wound healing. Role of these microchimeric cells in human health and disease is discussed here.

Augmentation of hepatitis C virus-specific immunity and sustained virologic response

Treatment for chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection has rapidly evolved into interferon-free directly acting antiviral regimens (DAA) that result in high sustained virologic response. DAAs primarily work by suppressing HCV replication and rely less on the immune system than interferon-based therapies. However, it is unclear whether the immune system recovers with suppression of HCV replication and contributes to HCV clearance with DAA therapy. We previously demonstrated HCV clearance is associated with increased HCV-specific immunity in CHCV-GT-1-infected patients during treatment with sofosbuvir (SOF)+ribavirin (RBV). Here, we aimed to analyse changes in HCV-specific immunological responses associated with viral clearance with combination DAA therapy of SOF+ledipasvir (LDV) for 12 weeks in CHCV-GT1 (N=14) patients who relapsed without augmentation of HCV-specific immunity during treatment with SOF+RBV. Phenotypic and functional changes within the T-cell compartment of PBMCs pre- and post-treatment were analysed. Retreatment of relapsers with LDV/SOF resulted in all patients attaining SVR12 . Suppression of HCV was associated with a decline in T-cell exhaustion markers (CD57; Tim3; PD1) along with augmented of HCV-specific T-cell IFN-gamma responses post-treatment. Addition of LDV to SOF was associated with augmentation of HCV-specific immunity and SVR in patients who previously failed SOF+RBV therapy without increased immunity. These findings demonstrate a novel effect of DAA in inducing host immune responses to aid HCV clearance and achieve SVR.

Liver Function Tests Abnormalities and Hepatitis B Virus & Hepatitis C Virus Co-infection in Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-infected Patients in India

BACKGROUND

While highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART) has improved survival of HIV-infected patients, there is increasing liver disease and progressive Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) and Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) related liver disease.

AIMS

To study the liver function tests (LFT) and HBV and HCV co-infection in HIV-infected patients.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

All HIV-positive patients presenting to a tertiary level hospital from April 2009 to April 2011 were evaluated. Baseline LFT, CD4/CD8 counts, ultrasound abdomen, HBsAg, IgG anti-HBc, HBVDNA, Anti-HCV and HCVRNA were done in all patients. LFT was repeated monthly or more frequently with anti-tubercular therapy (ATT)/HAART.

RESULTS

Abnormal LFT were seen in 143/320 (44.6%) HIV-infected patients (n = 320; M-282, F-38; mean age-35.4 ± 7.3 years). Baseline LFT was abnormal in 48 (15%) [hepatotropic viruses-19, alcohol-24, NAFLD-1, disseminated TB-1, idiopathic-03). Subsequent LFT derangement developed in 95/272 (34.9%). In the majority, the LFT abnormality was mild (119/143-83.2%) and multi-factorial [HAART 132 (76.4%), alcohol 69 (48.2%), ATT 31 (21.7%), HBV 16 (11.2%), HCV 15 (10.4%)]. Using multivariate analysis, abnormal LFT were associated with HAART (OR, 5.92; 95%CI, 2.83-12.37), ATT (OR, 2.06; 95%CI, 1.06-3.99) or HCV infection (OR, 2.54; 95%CI, 1.03-6.26). Significant hepatotoxicity requiring drug modification was seen in only 7 cases. HBV, HCV and HBV + HCV co-infection were seen in 37 (11.6%), 28 (8.8%) and 2 (0.6%) respectively. Occult co-infections were rare [HBV-1 (0.3%); HCV-3 (0.9%)].

CONCLUSION

While LFT abnormalities in HIV are common, they are usually mild and multifactorial. HBV and HCV co-infections were seen in 11.6% and 8.8%, respectively. Occult HBV and HCV infections were rare.

Fibrosarcoma of maxilla: A rare case report

Fibrosarcoma is a malignant tumor of fibroblasts. At one time, it was considered one of the most common soft tissue sarcomas. However, the diagnosis of fibrosarcoma is made much less frequently today because of the recognition and separate classification of other spindle cell lesions that have similar microscopic features. Of all the fibrosarcomas occurring in humans, only 0.05% occur in the head and neck region. Here, we present a case of 22-year-old female patient with the swelling on the left anterior aspect of the face. Histopathologically, the lesion was diagnosed as fibrosarcoma and immunohistochemically, the lesional cells showed positivity for vimentin.

Ureteral obstruction following renal transplantation: causes, diagnosis and management

Renal transplantation, first performed successfully in the 1950s, is the treatment of choice for most patients with end-stage renal failure. It confers longer term survival and a better quality of life than do both haemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. The success of renal transplantation is dependent on the preservation of renal graft function and despite the many advances in surgical techniques, immunosuppressive regimens and supportive therapies, many challenges remain including post-operative ureteral obstruction. This complication can pose a risk to graft, and, occasionally, to patient survival. In this pictorial review, we describe the causes of ureteral obstruction following renal transplantation and illustrate the pivotal role of radiology in both diagnosing and managing these complications.

Prevalence of hepatitis A virus, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, hepatitis D virus and hepatitis E virus as causes of acute viral hepatitis in North India: a hospital based study

CONTEXT

Acute viral hepatitis (AVH) is a major public health problem and is an important cause of morbidity and mortality.

AIM

The aim of the present study is to determine the prevalence of hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), hepatitis D virus (HDV) and hepatitis E virus (HEV) as causes of AVH in a tertiary care hospital of North India.

SETTINGS AND DESIGN

Blood samples and clinical information was collected from cases of AVH referred to the Grade I viral diagnostic laboratory over a 1-year period.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Samples were tested for hepatitis B surface antigen, anti-HCV total antibodies, anti-HAV immunoglobulin M (IgM) and anti-HEV IgM by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. PCR for nucleic acid detection of HBV and HCV was also carried out. Those positive for HBV infection were tested for anti-HDV antibodies.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS USED

Fisher's exact test was used and a P < 0.05 was considered to be statistically significant.

RESULTS

Of the 267 viral hepatitis cases, 62 (23.22%) patients presented as acute hepatic failure. HAV (26.96%) was identified as the most common cause of acute hepatitis followed by HEV (17.97%), HBV (16.10%) and HCV (11.98%). Co-infections with more than one virus were present in 34 cases; HAV-HEV co-infection being the most common. HEV was the most important cause of acute hepatic failure followed by co-infection with HAV and HEV. An indication towards epidemiological shift of HAV infection from children to adults with a rise in HAV prevalence was seen.

CONCLUSIONS

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report indicating epidemiological shift of HAV in Uttar Pradesh.

Visual and digital comparative tooth colour assessment methods and atomic force microscopy surface roughness

This study compared digital and visual colour tooth colour assessment methods in a sample of 99 teeth consisting of incisors, canines and pre-molars. The teeth were equally divided between Control, Ozicure Oxygen Activator bleach and Opalescence Quick bleach and subjected to three treatments. Colour readings were recorded at nine intervals by two assessment methods, VITA Easyshade and VITAPAN 3D MASTER TOOTH GUIDE, giving a total of 1782 colour readings. Descriptive and statistical analysis was undertaken using a GLM test for Analysis of Variance for a Fractional Design set at a significance of P < 0.05. Atomic force micros copy was used to examine treated ename surfaces and establish surface roughness. Visual tooth colour assessment showed significance for the independent variables of treatment, number of treatments, tooth type and the combination tooth type and treatment. Digital colour assessment indicated treatment and tooth type to be of significance in tooth colour change. Poor agreement was found between visual and digital colour assessment methods for Control and Ozicure Oxygen Activator treatments. Surface roughness values increased two-fold for Opalescence Quick specimens over the two other treatments, implying that increased light scattering improved digital colour reading. Both digital and visual colour matching methods should be used in tooth bleaching studies to complement each other and to compensate for deficiencies.

Increased regulatory T cells and impaired functions of circulating CD8 T lymphocytes is associated with viral persistence in Hepatitis B virus-positive newborns

Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) infection in infancy or early childhood leads to high rate of persistent infection (25-90%). The immunological basis of high rate of viral persistence in vertically acquired HBV infections is not completely understood. CD8 T cells play a pivotal role in clearing the Hepatitis B virus infection in adults. Herein, we sought to delineate the role of T cells in viral persistence in HBsAg+ve newborns. At birth peripheral and cord blood of HBsAg+ve (N = 12), HBsAg-ve (N = 10) and healthy newborns (HC: N = 15) were evaluated for T-cell frequency and functionality by flow cytometry. No significant differences were observed in the frequency of CD8 and CD4 T cells in all the three groups. However, significantly higher frequency of FoxP3 expressing regulatory T cells were observed in HBsAg+ve (63.79%) compared with HBsAg-ve (28.12%) and HC (11.06%) (P < 0.05). Moreover, HBsAg+ve newborns showed functional defect in CD8 T cells by decreased IFN-γ production and lower CD107A expression (cytotoxic capacity) compared with HBsAg-ve and HC, which positively correlated with decreased TCRζ-chain expression CD8 T cells (r(2) > 0.93, P < 0.05). Despite equal frequency of CD8 T cells in all the three groups, CD8 T cells in HBsAg+ve newborns are dysfunctional. An expansion of regulatory T cells and impaired TCR signalling may represent the immune tolerant state of the adaptive immune system in response to chronic HBV infection.

Treatment of Stage I Seminoma testis with extended field adjuvant radiation

With an aim to analyze and document the outcome of Stage I Seminoma patients we undertook a retrospective analysis of patients treated between January 1990 and December 1998. The treatment charts of patients treated between January 1990 and December 1998 were reviewed. Patient and tumor characteristics, treatment details, relapse rates, late toxicities, or occurrence of second primary was noted. Royal Marsden Staging System was utilized because of its simplicity and wide-use in the above period. Out of 137 patients, 41 (30%) patients did not receive any further treatment, 96 (70%) patients received prophylactic radiotherapy to para-aortic and pelvic nodes. The observation group patients had a median follow-up 20 months, 9 patients had nodal relapse with 7 in retroperitoneal nodes and 2 patients in inguinal nodes. Of these, 7 patients received BEP chemotherapy and 2 patients Chemoradiation. Four patients had complete remission while remaining 5 patients had partial response. The histopathologies of all the 5 patients with partial response were reviewed to reconfirm the diagnosis. Patients of prophylactic radiotherapy group had a follow-up of 33 months, 6 patients relapsed, RP nodal disease in 5 patients and distant metastasis in 1 patient. All these patients received BEP chemotherapy. One had complete response and remaining 5 patients had partial response. The group of patients under observation had a significantly higher relapse rate and lower disease free compared to the adjuvant radiotherapy group (73.5% vs. 91% at five years, p value 0.004). Disease specific survivals for the two groups were however similar (89% vs. 93%) at five years, p value 0.18). We conclude that Stage I Seminoma patients treated with prophylactic radiation to paraaortic and pelvic region had better outcome.

Fertility, developmental toxicity and teratogenicity in albino rats treated with methanol sub-fraction of Carica papaya seeds

Objective:

To evaluate the status of fertility, developmental stages during gestation and teratological changes, if any, following oral administration of methanol sub-fraction (MSF) of the benzene chromatographic fraction of the chloroform extract of the seeds of Carica papaya in rats.

Materials and Methods:

The MSF was administered at the doses of 50 mg contraceptive dose (CD), 100 mg (2× CD), 250 mg (5× CD) and 500 mg (10× CD)/kg body wt/day along with vehicle-treated control using 10 male and 20 female Wistar rats in each group. Necropsies were performed one day before the expected parturition. Status of gravid/non-gravid uterus, the number of corpora lutea in the ovary, implantation status, fetal wellbeing, fetal resorption, fetal body weight, external, visceral and skeletal malformations were recorded.

Results:

Pregnancies were recorded in vehicle-treated control animals and in the animals treated with 50 mg/kg body wt/day. The animals treated with 2× CD, 5× CD and 10× CD did not get pregnant. The fetuses and the status of the ovary, uterus and implantation, fetal body weight, soft tissues and skeletal structures were recorded normal. Data were comparable to those of control.

Conclusion:

The results suggest that the test substance had no developmental toxicity and teratogenicity which could affect pregnancy, implantation and gestation.

A comparison of functional and physical properties of self-expanding intracranial stents [Neuroform3, Wingspan, Solitaire, Leo+, Enterprise]

PURPOSE

5 self-expanding intracranial stents Neuroform (N), Wingspan (W), Solitaire (S), Leo(+) (L), and Enterprise (E) were subjected to an in vitro examination and comparison of their physical features and functional properties in order to better understand the clinical advantages and potential limitations of each device.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The following features were examined for each stent: visual appearance, radial strength, wall apposition, bending stiffness, gator backing, kink resistance, ovalization, vessel wall coverage, cell size, ease of delivery.

RESULTS

Given are rankings for the 5 stents: radial force at 50% oversizing: L<N<E<S<W; radial force at 15% oversizing L<E<S<N<W; wall apposition: E<N=W<S; bending stiffness: N<L<W<S<E; gator backing: N and W only; kink resistance: N=W<E<S<L; ovalization: W<L<S<N<E; vessel wall coverage: S<E<N<W<L; cell size: L<W<E<N<S; ease of delivery: W<N<L<E<S. A comparative analysis of the in vitro test results with the clinical experience of the authors is presented in this paper.

CONCLUSION

The 5 stents have fundamentally different features and there is no stent that is superior in all tested aspects. The selection in an individual treatment should be based on clinical and technical requirements.

Three-dimensional trans-esophageal Echocardiographic Evaluation of Atrial Septal Defects: A Pictorial Essay

This pictorial assay illustrates the methodology of evaluating the atrial septal defects by three dimensional transesophageal echocardiography with the help of representative images. The article starts by discussing the technical details of how to acquire and crop the dataset to reconstruct the transesophageal three dimensional echocardiographic images of the inter atrial septum. Next, the anatomical details of the normal inter atrial septum are illustrated, followed by representative examples of all the possible defects of inter atrial septum. All the images have been reproduced in a uniform pattern which is similar to the view of the inter atrial septum that is seen in the real life situation by the surgeon.

A novel device for the revascularization in acute ischemic stroke patients

SUMMARY

This article provides insights into how the authors developed the Solitaire™ FR revascularization device and associated procedure including commentary on the mechanism of revascularization and future of device development in this area. The article is intended to give research-minded physicians a view into the device development world by sighting examples of this novel device for revascularizing patients with acute ischemic stroke.

Exogenous interferon-gamma immunotherapy for invasive fungal infections in kidney transplant patients

The incidence of invasive fungal infections (IFIs) in nonneutropenic solid organ transplant patients is increasing. We report our clinical experience with the use of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) immunotherapy in seven renal transplant patients who developed life threatening, disseminated IFIs refractory to conventional antifungal drug therapy. The infections were all microbiologically and histologically proven. The rapid cure of these disseminated infections with exogenous IFN-gamma injections was not associated with impaired kidney allograft function despite the use of liposomal amphotericin B in all cases. No clinical toxicity from the IFN-gamma immunotherapy was seen and no IFI relapsed during long-term follow-up. Our experience is both uncontrolled and in patients with unpredictable fungal infection-related outcomes. However, compared to standard approaches, the accelerated cure of life threatening, disseminated IFIs with 6 weeks of combination antifungal drug therapy and IFN-gamma immunotherapy saved lives, retained allograft function and led to substantial cost savings in this small patient group.

Symptomatic giant left atrial aneurysm in a child: a rare entity

Isolated left atrial aneurysms are rare entities in clinical practice. Usually the condition is diagnosed in the second to fourth decades of life. The presence of such lesions in the pediatric age group is scantily described. We present a 2 year boy who presented with complaints of excessive irritability, respiratory distress and swelling of the feet. On examination, child was tachypnoeic with irregularly irregular rhythm. Echo showed a huge aneurysmal LA appendage with severe left ventricle dysfunction. The child underwent surgical resection for same. Findings were confirmed intraoperatively but he continued to have low cardiac output state after the surgery, with frequent arrhythmias and expired on day 7 of surgery. The case is reviewed and compared with the available English literature.