A transcriptional network required for bradyzoite development in Toxoplasma gondii is dispensable for recrudescent disease

Identification of regulators of Toxoplasma gondii bradyzoite development and cyst formation is the most direct way to address the importance of parasite development in long-term persistence and reactivation of this parasite. Here we show that a T. gondii gene (named Regulator of Cystogenesis 1; ROCY1) is sufficient for T. gondii bradyzoite formation in vitro and in vivo. ROCY1 encodes an RNA binding protein that has a preference for 3' regulatory regions of hundreds of T. gondii transcripts, and its RNA-binding domains are required to mediate bradyzoite development. Female mice infected with ΔROCY1 parasites have reduced (>90%) cyst burden. While viable parasites can be cultivated from brain tissue for up to 6 months post-infection, chronic brain-resident ΔROCY1 parasites have reduced oral infectivity compared to wild type. Despite clear defects in bradyzoite formation and oral infectivity, ΔROCY1 parasites were able to reactivate with similar timing and magnitude as wild type parasites for up to 5 months post-infection. Therefore while ROCY1 is a critical regulator of the bradyzoite developmental pathway, it is not required for parasite reactivation, raising new questions about the persisting life stage responsible for causing recrudescent disease.

A Comparison of Stage Conversion in the Coccidian Apicomplexans Toxoplasma gondii, Hammondia hammondi, and Neospora caninum

Stage conversion is a critical life cycle feature for several Apicomplexan parasites as the ability to switch between life forms is critical for replication, dissemination, pathogenesis and ultimately, transmission to a new host. In order for these developmental transitions to occur, the parasite must first sense changes in their environment, such as the presence of stressors or other environmental signals, and then respond to these signals by initiating global alterations in gene expression. As our understanding of the genetic components required for stage conversion continues to broaden, we can better understand the conserved mechanisms for this process and unique components and their contribution to pathogenesis by comparing stage conversion in multiple closely related species. In this review, we will discuss what is currently known about the mechanisms driving stage conversion in Toxoplasma gondii and its closest relatives Hammondia hammondi and Neospora caninum. Work by us and others has shown that these species have some important differences in the way that they (1) progress through their life cycle and (2) respond to stage conversion initiating stressors. To provide a specific example of species-specific complexities associated with stage conversion, we will discuss our recent published and unpublished work comparing stress responses in T. gondii and H. hammondi.

Head-to-head comparisons of Toxoplasma gondii and its near relative Hammondia hammondi reveal dramatic differences in the host response and effectors with species-specific functions

Toxoplasma gondii and Hammondia hammondi are closely-related coccidian intracellular parasites that differ in their ability to cause disease in animal and (likely) humans. The role of the host response in these phenotypic differences is not known and to address this we performed a transcriptomic analysis of a monocyte cell line (THP-1) infected with these two parasite species. The pathways altered by infection were shared between species ~95% the time, but the magnitude of the host response to H. hammondi was significantly higher compared to T. gondii. Accompanying this divergent host response was an equally divergent impact on the cell cycle of the host cell. In contrast to T. gondii, H. hammondi infection induces cell cycle arrest via pathways linked to DNA-damage responses and cellular senescence and robust secretion of multiple chemokines that are known to be a part of the senescence associated secretory phenotype (SASP). Remarkably, prior T. gondii infection or treatment with T. gondii-conditioned media suppressed responses to H. hammondi infection, and promoted the replication of H. hammondi in recipient cells. Suppression of inflammatory responses to H. hammondi was found to be mediated by the T. gondii effector IST, and this finding was consistent with reduced functionality of the H. hammondi IST ortholog compared to its T. gondii counterpart. Taken together our data suggest that T. gondii manipulation of the host cell is capable of suppressing previously unknown stress and/or DNA-damage induced responses that occur during infection with H. hammondi, and that one important impact of this T. gondii mediated suppression is to promote parasite replication.