Subclinical structural atypicality of retinal thickness and its association with gray matter volume in the visual cortex of maltreated children

Childhood maltreatment is reportedly associated with atypical gray matter structures in the primary visual cortex (V1). This study explores the hypothesis that retinal structures, the sensory organs of vision, are associated with brain atypicality and child maltreatment and examines their interrelation. General ophthalmologic examinations, visual cognitive tasks, retinal imaging, and structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) were conducted in children and adolescents aged 9-18 years with maltreatment experiences (CM) and typically developing (TD) children. The retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL), the most superficial of the ten distinct retinal layers, was found to be significantly thinner in both eyes in CM. While whole-brain analysis using Voxel-based morphometry revealed a significantly larger gray matter volume (GMV) in the thalamus in CM, no significant correlation with RNFL thickness was observed. However, based on region-of-interest analysis, a thinner RNFL was associated with a larger GMV in the right V1. Although it cannot be ruled out that this outcome resulted from maltreatment alone, CM demonstrated subclinical structural atypicality in the retina, which may also correlate with the immaturity of V1 development. Examination of retinal thickness offers a novel clinical approach to capturing characteristics associated with childhood maltreatment.

Brain structures and functional connectivity in neglected children with no other types of maltreatment

Child maltreatment can adversely affect brain development, leading to vulnerabilities in brain structure and function and various psychiatric disorders. Among the various types of child maltreatment, neglect has the highest incidence rate (76.0%); however, data on its sole adverse influence on the brain remain limited. This case-control brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) study identified the changes in gray matter structure and function that distinguish neglected children with no other type of maltreatment (Neglect group, n = 23) from typically developing children (TD group, n = 140), and investigated the association between these structural and functional differences and specific psychosocial phenotypes observed in neglected children. Our results showed that the Neglect group had a larger right and left anterior cingulate cortex (R/L.ACC) and smaller left angular gyrus (L.AG) gray matter volume. The larger R/L.ACC was associated with hyperactivity and inattention. Resting-state functional analysis showed increased functional connectivity (FC) between the left supramarginal gyrus (L.SMG) in the salience network (SN) and the right middle frontal gyrus (R.MFG) simultaneously with a decrease in FC with the L.ACC for the same seed. The increased FC for the R.MFG was associated with difficulty in peer problems and depressive symptoms; a mediating effect was evident for depressive symptoms. These results suggest that the structural atypicality of the R/L.ACC indirectly contributes to the disturbed FCs within the SN, thereby exacerbating depressive symptoms in neglected children. In conclusion, exposure to neglect in childhood may lead to maladaptive brain development, particularly neural changes associated with depressive symptoms.

The neurobiological effects of childhood maltreatment on brain structure, function, and attachment

Childhood maltreatment is a risk factor for psychopathologies, and influences brain development at specific periods, particularly during early childhood and adolescence. This narrative review addresses phenotypic alterations in sensory systems associated with specific types of childhood maltreatment exposure, periods of vulnerability to the neurobiological effects of maltreatment, and the relationships between childhood maltreatment and brain structure, function, connectivity, and network architecture; psychopathology; and resilience. It also addresses neurobiological alterations associated with maternal communication and attachment disturbances, and uses laboratory-based measures during infancy and case-control studies to elucidate neurobiological alterations in reactive attachment disorders in children with maltreatment histories. Moreover, we review studies on the acute effects of oxytocin on reactive attachment disorder and maltreatment and methylation of oxytocin regulatory genes. Epigenetic changes may play a critical role in initiating or producing the atypical structural and functional brain alterations associated with childhood maltreatment. However, these changes could be reversed through psychological and pharmacological interventions, and by anticipating or preventing the emergence of brain alterations and subsequent psychopathological risks.

Diffusion tensor imaging of white-matter structural features of maltreating mothers and their associations with intergenerational chain of childhood abuse

Child abuse causes lifelong adverse outcomes for both physical and mental health, although many are resilient. Efforts to prevent this issue from the parental side require an understanding of the neurobiological basis that leads abusive parents to perpetrate abuse and the influence of the intergenerational chain of childhood abuse. Therefore, this study was conducted to compare the brain white-matter fiber structures between 11 maltreating mothers who had been recognized as having conducted child abuse prior to the intervention and 40 age-matched control mothers using tract-based spatial statistics. There was a significantly reduced axial diffusivity (AD) and a similar trend in fractional anisotropy (FA) in the right corticospinal tract in maltreating mothers compared to control mothers. Therefore, maltreating mothers may have excessive control over the forcefulness of voluntary movements. These features also decreased as the number of childhood abuse experiences increased, suggesting that an intergenerational chain of child abuse may also be involved. Other aspects observed were that the higher the current depressive symptoms, the lower the AD and FA values; however, they were not related to parental practice or empathy. These results corroborate the neurobiological features that perpetrate behaviors in abusive mothers.

Data science using the human epigenome for predicting multifactorial diseases and symptoms

Tweetable abstract This article reviews machine learning models that leverages epigenomic data for predicting multifactorial diseases and symptoms as well as how such models can be utilized to explore new research questions.

Evaluation of the pooled sample method in Infinium MethylationEPIC BeadChip array by comparison with individual samples

BACKGROUND

The pooled sample method is used in epigenomic research and expression analysis and is a cost-effective screening approach for small amounts of DNA. Evaluation of the pooled sample method in epigenomic studies is performed using the Illumina Infinium Methylation 450K BeadChip array; however, subsequent reports on the updated 850K array are lacking. A previous study demonstrated that the methylation levels obtained from individual samples were accurately replicated using pooled samples but did not address epigenome-wide association study (EWAS) statistics. The DNA quantification method, which is important for the homogeneous mixing of DNA in the pooled sample method, has since become fluorescence-based, and additional factors need to be considered including the resolution of batch effects of microarray chips and the heterogeneity of the cellular proportions from which the DNA samples are derived. In this study, four pooled samples were created from 44 individual samples, and EWAS statistics for differentially methylated positions (DMPs) and regions (DMRs) were conducted for individual samples and compared with the statistics obtained from the pooled samples.

RESULTS

The methylation levels could be reproduced fairly well in the pooled samples. This was the case for the entire dataset and when limited to the top 100 CpG sites, consistent with a previous study using the 450K BeadChip array. However, the statistical results of the EWAS for the DMP by individual samples were not replicated in pooled samples. Qualitative analyses highlighting methylation within an arbitrary candidate gene were replicable. Focusing on chr 20, the statistical results of EWAS for DMR from individual samples showed replicability in the pooled samples as long as they were limited to regions with a sufficient effect size.

CONCLUSIONS

The pooled sample method replicated the methylation values well and can be used for EWAS in DMR. This method is sample amount-effective and cost-effective and can be utilized for screening by carefully understanding the effective features and disadvantages of the pooled sample method and combining it with candidate gene analyses.

Neural and behavioral effects of parent training on emotion recognition in mothers rearing children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

This randomized controlled study examined neurological changes in socioemotional processing skills through parent training in caregivers of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Thirty mothers of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder were stratified into parent training and non-parent training groups. Functional magnetic resonance imaging was performed during the "Reading the Mind in the Eyes" test, and parenting difficulties were evaluated using the Parenting Stress Index and the Parenting Scale, twice (before and after parent training). Only mothers in the parent training group showed a significant decrease in Parenting Stress Index and Parenting Scale scores. They also demonstrated increased activity in the left occipital fusiform gyrus during the task of estimating emotions from facial pictures. We presumed that these changes might reflect the potential impact of enrollment in parent training in reducing stress, which might have increased activation of the fusiform gyrus.

What daily factors affect the sleep habits of Japanese toddlers?

STUDY OBJECTIVES

Good sleep, especially during early childhood, is important for development. In Japan, the mean nocturnal sleep duration of toddlers is < 10 hours, and even if toddlers slept for > 11 hours/day, as recommended by the National Sleep Foundation, some of them showed late bedtime and late wake-up time or took long naps. Therefore, we provisionally assumed the minimal sleep conditions for Japanese toddlers, named Nenne-criteria, such as bedtime before 10:00 pm, nocturnal sleep duration of ≥ 9 hours, and < 1 average time of awakening after sleep onset, and investigated the important factors for good sleep.

METHODS

We analyzed cross-sectional data from online surveys describing the sleep-related behaviors of 2,124 toddlers and their caregivers. We compared the daily schedules that affect sleep between the Nenne-criteria-meet group and the not-meet group.

RESULTS

The Nenne-criteria-meet group showed better daytime behaviors than the not-meet group. Structural equation modeling on daily schedules revealed that, to increase sleep pressure at the appropriate time, it is important to restrict media viewing, play outdoors in the morning, have an early nap ending time, avoid hyperarousal-inducing behaviors before bedtime, maintain daily schedules regularly, and decrease social jetlag.

CONCLUSIONS

The Nenne-criteria are useful for screening Japanese toddlers who require intervention for sleep hygiene. To improve toddlers' sleep, it is important not only to guide the ideal bedtime but also to provide tips for improving daily schedules and to avoid suboptimal sleep-related behaviors.

CITATION

Murata E, Yoshizaki A, Fujisawa TX, Tachibana M, Taniike M, Mohri I. What daily factors affect the sleep habits of Japanese toddlers? J Clin Sleep Med. 2023;19(6):1089-1101.

Cross-tissue correlations of genome-wide DNA methylation in Japanese live human brain and blood, saliva, and buccal epithelial tissues

Neuroepigenetics considers genetic sequences and the interplay with environmental influences to elucidate vulnerability risk for various neurological and psychiatric disorders. However, evaluating DNA methylation of brain tissue is challenging owing to the issue of tissue specificity. Consequently, peripheral surrogate tissues were used, resulting in limited progress compared with other epigenetic studies, such as cancer research. Therefore, we developed databases to establish correlations between the brain and peripheral tissues in the same individuals. Four tissues, resected brain tissue, blood, saliva, and buccal mucosa (buccal), were collected from 19 patients (aged 13-73 years) who underwent neurosurgery. Moreover, their genome-wide DNA methylation was assessed using the Infinium HumanMethylationEPIC BeadChip arrays to determine the cross-tissue correlation of each combination. These correlation analyses were conducted with all methylation sites and with variable CpGs, and with when these were adjusted for cellular proportions. For the averaged data for each CpG across individuals, the saliva-brain correlation (r = 0.90) was higher than that for blood-brain (r = 0.87) and buccal-brain (r = 0.88) comparisons. Among individual CpGs, blood had the highest proportion of CpGs correlated to the brain at nominally significant levels (19.0%), followed by saliva (14.4%) and buccal (9.8%). These results were similar to the previous IMAGE-CpG results; however, cross-database correlations of the correlation coefficients revealed a relatively low (brain vs. blood: r = 0.27, saliva: r = 0.18, and buccal: r = 0.24). To the best of our knowledge, this is the fifth study in the literature initiating the development of databases for correlations between the brain and peripheral tissues in the same individuals. We present the first database developed from an Asian population, specifically Japanese samples (AMAZE-CpG), which would contribute to interpreting individual epigenetic study results from various Asian populations.

Improving Children's Sleep Habits Using an Interactive Smartphone App: Community-Based Intervention Study

BACKGROUND

Sleep problems are quite common among young children and are often a challenge for parents and a hinderance to children's development. Although behavioral therapy has proven effective in reducing sleep problems in children, a lack of access to professionals who can provide effective support is a major barrier for many caregivers. Therefore, pediatric sleep experts have begun developing apps and web-based services for caregivers. Despite the substantial influence of cultural and familial factors on children's sleep, little effort has gone into developing cultural or family-tailored interventions.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of the interactive smartphone app "Nenne Navi," which provides culturally and family-tailored suggestions for improving sleep habits in young Japanese children through community-based long-term trials. The study also aimed to investigate the association between app-driven improvements in sleep and mental development in children.

METHODS

This study adopted a community-based approach to recruit individuals from the Higashi-Osaka city (Japan) who met ≥1 of the following eligibility criteria for sleep problems: sleeping after 10 PM, getting <9 hours of nighttime sleep, and experiencing frequent nighttime awakenings. A total of 87 Japanese caregivers with young children (mean 19.50, SD 0.70 months) were recruited and assigned to the app use group (intervention group) or the video-only group (control group). Both groups received educational video content regarding sleep health literacy. The caregivers in the intervention group used the app, which provides family-tailored suggestions, once per month for 1 year.

RESULTS

A total of 92% (33/36) of the caregivers in the app use group completed 1 year of the intervention. The participants' overall evaluation of the app was positive. The wake-up time was advanced (base mean 8:06 AM; post mean 7:48 AM; F_1,65=6.769; P=.01 and sleep onset latency was decreased (base mean 34.45 minutes; post mean 20.05 minutes; F_1,65=23.219; P<.001) significantly in the app use group at the 13th month compared with the video-only group. Moreover, multiple regression analysis showed that decreased social jetlag (β=-0.302; P=.03) and increased sleep onset latency SD (β=.426; P=.02) in children predicted a significant enhancement in the development of social relationships with adults. At 6 months after the completion of the app use, all the caregivers reported continuation of the new lifestyle.

CONCLUSIONS

The present findings suggest that the app "Nenne Navi" has high continuity in community use and can improve sleep habits in young Japanese children and that interventions for sleep habits of young children may lead to the enhancement of children's social development. Future studies must focus on the effectiveness of the app in other regions with different regional characteristics and neuroscientific investigations on how changes in sleep impact brain development.

The influence of intelligence and cognitive abilities on the reading ability of Japanese students with developmental disorders

OBJECTIVE

We examined the differences in reading skills between Japanese students with developmental dyslexia (DD) having developmental disorders who had borderline IQ (BIQ) and those who had normal IQ (NIQ), and the influence of cognitive factors through subscale scores of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Fourth Edition on the reading skills of all students with DD having developmental disorders.

METHODS

One-way analysis of variance revealed differences in reading scores among the four groups (DD with NIQ, DD with BIQ, as well as non-DD with NIQ and non-DD with BIQ as control groups). To examine the influence of cognitive factors, we used multiple regression analysis for all participants, and then for participants with DD.

RESULTS

Regarding hiragana nonword fluency reading, no difference was observed between the two DD groups, and cognitive factors did not affect the performance of all participants with DD. Concerning hiragana word fluency reading, DD with NIQ group performed better than DD group with BIQ, and working memory index affected reading skills of participants with DD. Regarding kanji accuracy reading, DD with NIQ group performed better than DD with BIQ group, and processing speed index affected performance of participants with DD.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of hiragana reading suggest that the two DD groups shared similar weak sub-lexical route processing, while the acquisition of lexical route processing was hindered by lower IQ and weak phonological working memory in transparent phonographic hiragana reading. For kanji reading, lower IQ and weak visuomotor processing ability hampered the learning of visually complex logographic kanji characters.

Development of attentional networks during childhood and adolescence: A functional MRI study

Attention ability is one of the most important cognitive functions. It develops mainly during school age. However, the neural basis for the typical development of attentional functions has not been fully investigated. To clarify the development of the aforementioned function and its neural basis, this study examined brain function in children and adolescents during the performance of an attention network test (ANT) using functional magnetic resonance imaging. One hundred and sixty‐three volunteers (8‐23 years, 80 female) participated in this study. Using a modified version of ANT, we assessed the efficiency of two attentional functions—orienting and executive attention—by measuring how reaction time is affected by spatial cue location and flanker congruency and examined the functional brain areas—attentional networks—associated with two attentional functions. Consistent with the findings of previous studies, the superior parietal lobule, visual association cortex, left precentral gyrus, and supplementary motor area were activated during the orienting attention, while the anterior cingulate cortex, visual association cortex, lateral prefrontal cortex, thalamus, and caudate were activated during the executive attention. Moreover, negative correlations with age were found for activations in the inferior frontal gyrus, dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, and caudate nucleus in the orienting attention, while no correlations with age related to executive attention were found. In conclusion, this study revealed common and distinct features in the neural basis of the attentional functions in children and adolescents compared with that of adults and their developmental changes with age.

Consistent with the findings of previous studies, the superior parietal lobule, visual association cortex, left precentral gyrus, and supplementary motor area were activated during the orienting process of attention, while the anterior cingulate cortex, visual association cortex, lateral prefrontal cortex, thalamus, and caudate were activated during the executive process. In addition, negative correlations with age were found for activations in the inferior frontal gyrus, dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, and caudate nucleus in the orienting process, while no correlations with age were found during the executive process.

Epigenetic Clock Deceleration and Maternal Reproductive Efforts: Associations With Increasing Gray Matter Volume of the Precuneus

Reproductive efforts, such as pregnancy, delivery, and interaction with children, make maternal brains optimized for child-rearing. However, extensive studies in non-human species revealed a tradeoff between reproductive effort and life expectancy. In humans, large demographic studies have shown that this is the case for the most part; however, molecular marker studies regarding aging remain controversial. There are no studies simultaneously evaluating the relationship between reproductive effort, aging, and brain structures. We therefore examined the associations between reproductive efforts (parity status, number of deliveries, motherhood period, and cumulative motherhood period), DNA methylation age (mAge) acceleration (based on Horvath’s multi-tissue clock and the skin & blood clock), and the regional gray matter volumes (obtained through brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) using voxel-based morphometry) in 51 mothers aged 27–46 years of children in early childhood. We found that increasing reproductive efforts were significantly associated with decelerated aging in mothers with one to four children, even after adjusting for the confounding effects in the multiple linear regression models. We also found that the left precuneus gray matter volume was larger as deceleration of aging occurred; increasing left precuneus gray matter volume, on the other hand, mediates the relationship between parity status and mAge deceleration. Our findings suggest that mothers of children in early childhood, who have had less than four children, may benefit from deceleration of aging mediated via structural changes in the precuneus.

Association of Epigenetic Differences Screened in a Few Cases of Monozygotic Twins Discordant for Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder With Brain Structures

The present study examined the relationship between DNA methylation differences and variations in brain structures involved in the development of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). First, we used monozygotic (MZ) twins discordant (2 pairs of 4 individuals, 2 boys, mean age 12.5 years) for ADHD to identify candidate DNA methylation sites involved in the development of ADHD. Next, we tried to replicate these candidates in a case-control study (ADHD: N = 18, 15 boys, mean age 10.0 years; Controls: N = 62, 40 boys, mean age 13.9 years). Finally, we examined how methylation rates at those sites relate to the degree of local structural alterations where significant differences were observed between cases and controls. As a result, we identified 61 candidate DNA methylation sites involved in ADHD development in two pairs of discordant MZ twins, among which elevated methylation at a site in the sortilin-related Vps10p domain containing receptor 2 (SorCS2) gene was replicated in the case-control study. We also observed that the ADHD group had significantly reduced gray matter volume (GMV) in the precentral and posterior orbital gyri compared to the control group and that this volume reduction was positively associated with SorCS2 methylation. Furthermore, the reduced GMV regions in children with ADHD are involved in language processing and emotional control, while SorCS2 methylation is also negatively associated with emotional behavioral problems in children. These results indicate that SorCS2 methylation might mediate a reduced GMV in the precentral and posterior orbital gyri and therefore influence the pathology of children with ADHD.

Influence of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Parenting Stress Across Asian Countries: A Cross-National Study

Background: In a previous study, we demonstrated that the accumulation of parenting stress during prolonged school closures and restrictions on daily activities due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan indicates the need for mental health intervention for parents at higher risk of parenting stress. However, few studies have focused on parenting stress in other Asian countries, although they have experienced higher numbers of infections. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether parenting stress among caregivers increased across Asia due to school closures and restrictions on activities during the COVID-19 pandemic and to examine whether there were any country-specific, cross-country, or cross-regional risk factors for increased parenting stress. Methods: We conducted an online survey immediately after the number of new cases in India significantly increased (September-November 2020). We measured parenting stress, anxiety, and fear associated with the COVID-19 crisis, as evaluated by the Parenting Stress Index, Short-Form (PSI-SF), and the Coronavirus Anxiety Scale (CAS), across three Asian countries-India (n = 142), Malaysia (n = 69), and Japan (n = 182)-in addition to the United States (n = 203). We also investigated whether respondents had adverse childhood experiences (ACE) as a risk factor for parenting stress. Results: For all countries, we found significant increases in participants' current parenting stress levels, compared to what they recalled regarding their lives before COVID-19-related restrictions and school closures were enacted. Textual analysis qualitatively identified common terms related to parenting stress across all countries. We also found a statistical model that indicated ACE in parents was a critical risk factor for higher parenting stress via increasing anxiety and fear related to the pandemic. Conclusion: These results indicate the need to improve the mental health of caregivers who are at risk for higher levels of parenting stress during the COVID-19 pandemic in Asian countries as well as Western countries. These results indicate that there is a need to improve the mental health of caregivers who are at risk for higher levels of parenting stress during the COVID-19 pandemic globally.

A multi-modal MRI analysis of brain structure and function in relation to OXT methylation in maltreated children and adolescents

Child maltreatment dysregulates the brain's oxytocinergic system, resulting in dysfunctional attachment patterns. However, how the oxytocinergic system in children who are maltreated (CM) is epigenetically affected remains unknown. We assessed differences in salivary DNA methylation of the gene encoding oxytocin (OXT) between CM (n = 24) and non-CM (n = 31), alongside its impact on brain structures and functions using multi-modal brain imaging (voxel-based morphometry, diffusion tensor imaging, and task and resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging). We found that CM showed higher promoter methylation than non-CM, and nine CpG sites were observed to be correlated with each other and grouped into one index (OXTmi). OXTmi was significantly negatively correlated with gray matter volume (GMV) in the left superior parietal lobule (SPL), and with right putamen activation during a rewarding task, but not with white matter structures. Using a random forest regression model, we investigated the sensitive period and type of maltreatment that contributed the most to OXTmi in CM, revealing that they were 5-8 years of age and physical abuse (PA), respectively. However, the presence of PA (PA+) was meant to reflect more severe cases, such as prolonged exposure to multiple types of abuse, than the absence of PA. PA+ was associated with significantly greater functional connectivity between the right putamen set as the seed and the left SPL and the left cerebellum exterior. The results suggest that OXT promoter hypermethylation may lead to the atypical development of reward and visual association structures and functions, thereby potentially worsening clinical aspects raised by traumatic experiences.

Increased resting-state activity in the cerebellum with mothers having less adaptive sensory processing and trait anxiety

Child‐rearing mothers with high levels of trait anxiety have a tendency for less adaptive sensory processing, which causes parenting stress. However, the neural mechanisms underlying this sensory processing and trait anxiety remain unclear. We aimed to determine the whole‐brain spontaneous neural activity and sensory processing characteristics in mothers with varying parenting stress levels. Using resting‐state functional magnetic resonance imaging, we assessed mothers caring for more than one preschool aged (2–5 years) child and presenting with varying levels of sensory processing, trait anxiety, and parenting stress. Spontaneous neural activities in select brain regions were evaluated by whole‐brain correlation analyses based on the fractional amplitude of low‐frequency fluctuations (fALFF). We found significant positive correlations between levels of sensory processing with trait anxiety and parenting stress. Mothers having less adaptive sensory processing had significantly increased resting‐state network activities in the left lobule VI of the cerebellum. Increased fALFF values in the left lobule VI confirmed the mediation effect on the relationship between trait anxiety and sensory processing. A tendency for less adaptive sensory processing involving increased brain activity in lobule VI could be an indicator of maternal trait anxiety and the risk of parenting stress.

Sleep and the General Behavior of Infants and Parents during the Closure of Schools as a Result of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Comparison with 2019 Data

This study compared cross-sectional data from online surveys describing the sleep behavior of infants and caregivers in March 2020 (the school closure period during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic; n = 295, 23.8 ± 3.8 months old) and March 2019 (before the pandemic; n = 2017, 24.2 ± 3.8 months old). In comparing those two points in time, no significant differences were found in wake-up times (2019: 7:19 ± 0:46 am vs. 2020: 7:18 ± 0:47 am, p = 0.289), bedtimes (21:01 ± 0:48 pm vs. 21:04 ± 0:53 pm, p = 0.144), or nocturnal sleep times (593.7 ± 43.9 min vs. 588.1 ± 50.3 min, p = 0.613). Regarding the caregivers, in 2020, wake-up times (2019: 6:46 ± 0:50 am vs. 2020: 6:39 ± 0:50 am, p = 0.017) and bedtimes (22:53 ± 1:17 pm vs. 22:42 ± 1:04 pm, p = 0.016) became significantly earlier compared to 2019. Among infants staying at home, total sleep time and percentage of outdoor play decreased significantly, and media use increased significantly in 2020. Lower levels of exercise and more frequent media viewing may have caused prolonged sleep latency in these children. The percentage of caregivers responding with "negative childcare feelings" was significantly higher in the group with less than three nursery school attendance days. Caregivers and infants staying at home are a high-risk group during the pandemic.

Mismatch negativity of preschool children at risk of developing mental health problems

This study examined the relationship between mismatch negativity (MMN) during the passive oddball task and clinical assessment using a behavioral scale in nonclinical preschool children to identify neurobiological endophenotypes associated with the risk of developing mental health problems. We assessed the risk of developing mental health problems in preschool children using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, which is used worldwide as a behavior‐based screening tool for assessing mental health risks, and examined its relevance to amplitude and latency MMN. As a result, we found that children at a higher risk of mental health problems had smaller MMN amplitudes than those at lower risk. It was also found that MMN amplitude was negatively correlated with the assessed higher risk of mental health problems. Although it is not clear what neural mechanisms underlie the functional association between MMN and risk of mental health problems in preschool children, the findings of this study indicate that there is an involvement of individual differences in auditory processing in childhood mental health problems. The findings suggest that such neurological changes may be prodromal symptoms of the onset of psychiatric disorders and applicable as endophenotypic markers for the early detection of various psychiatric disorders.

This study examined the relationship between mismatch negativity (MMN) during the passive oddball task and clinical assessment using a behavioral scale in nonclinical preschool children to identify neurobiological endophenotypes associated with the risk of developing mental health problems. We found that children at a higher risk of mental health problems had smaller MMN amplitudes than those at lower risk. It was also found that MMN amplitude was negatively correlated with the assessed higher risk of mental health problems.

RETRACTED: Epigenetic modification of the oxytocin gene is associated with gray matter volume and trait empathy in mothers

This article has been retracted: please see Elsevier Policy on Article Withdrawal (https://www.elsevier.com/about/our-business/policies/article-withdrawal). The Editor has concluded that the acceptance of this article was partly based upon the positive advice of an unreliable reviewer report. The report was provided to the journal by a reviewer suggested by the authors, and there were inappropriate communications between the authors and reviewer during the peer-review process. The Editor has therefore concluded that the review was not appropriate or independent. This manipulation of the peer-review process represents a clear violation of the fundamentals of peer review, our publishing policies, and publishing ethics standards. Apologies are offered to the readers of the journal that this deception was not detected during the submission process.

An investigation of the effect of social reciprocity, social anxiety, and letter fluency on communicative behaviors in adults with autism spectrum disorder

In recent years, research focusing on childhood has reported that communication difficulties in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are related to the social reciprocity difficulties inherent to ASD, as well as severe social anxiety and decreased verbal fluency. However, there have been no reports regarding these correlations and causal relationships in adulthood. The aim of this study was to reveal the effects of social reciprocity, social anxiety, and letter fluency on communicative behaviors in adults with ASD (n = 33, aged 18-43 years, mean age = 27.88 years) and to compare these to typically developing (TD) adults (n = 35, 19-40 years, mean age = 28.03 years). We validated a model using structural equation modeling in which social reciprocity not only directly affected communicative behaviors, but also indirectly affected communicative behaviors mediated by social anxiety and verbal fluency. The results of the structural equation modeling showed that communicative behaviors patterns differed between the ASD and TD groups, as the ASD group had high goodness of fit with the hypothesis model while the TD group had low goodness of fit. These findings signify that in ASD, in addition to problems in social reciprocity, social anxiety (fear) is a risk factor for worsening communicative behaviors difficulties.

Intrinsic brain activity associated with eye gaze during mother-child interaction

Mother-child interactions impact child social development and psychological health. This study focused on eye-gaze interactions, especially eye contact as synchronized gaze, which is an important non-verbal communication tool in human interactions. We performed brain-image analysis of mothers and children using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging and quantitatively evaluated the quality of mother-child interactions using the Interaction Rating Scale to investigate how it is related to the frequency of mother-child eye contact. As a result, we found a positive correlation between the frequency of eye gaze and the right anterior insula (AI) or middle frontal gyrus in children and a positive correlation with the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and precuneus/cuneus in mothers. Especially, when eye contact was made, the association with the right AI in children and ACC in mothers was retained, suggesting the involvement of the salience network responsible for modulating internal and external cognition. In addition, the frequency of eye contact was positively associated with the quality of mother-child interaction. These results suggest that the salience network is a major candidate for the neural basis involved in maintaining efficient eye contact and that it plays an important role in establishing positive mother-child interactions.

The Effects of COMT Polymorphism on Cortical Thickness and Surface Area Abnormalities in Children with ADHD

The catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) gene is associated with frontal cortex development and the pathophysiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, how the COMT gene impacts brain structure and behavior in ADHD remains unknown. In the present study, we identify the effect of COMT on cortical thickness and surface area in children with ADHD and children with typically developing (TD) using a machine learning approach. In a sample of 39 children with ADHD and 34 age- and IQ-matched TD children, we found that cortical thickness and surface area differences were predominantly observed in the frontal cortex. Furthermore, a path analysis revealed that a COMT genotype affected abnormal development of the frontal cortex in terms of both cortical thickness and surface area and was associated with working memory changes in children with ADHD. Our study confirms that the role of COMT in ADHD is not restricted to the development of behavior but may also affect the cortical thickness and surface area. Thus, our findings may help to improve the understanding of the neuroanatomic basis for the relationship between the COMT genotype and ADHD pathogenesis.

White matter changes in children and adolescents with reactive attachment disorder: A diffusion tensor imaging study

Childhood maltreatment is associated with altered brain structure and function and is a major risk factor for psychopathology, including reactive attachment disorder (RAD). However, whether changes to white matter microstructural integrity are associated with RAD is unclear. We used diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to assess group differences in fractional anisotropy (FA) in patients with RAD (n = 25; mean age = 13.2) to typically developing (TD) controls (n = 33; mean age = 13.0). To further interpret differences in FA, additional parameters such as mean diffusivity (MD), axial diffusivity (AD) and radial diffusivity (RD) were assessed. We found that FA values in the body of corpus callosum (CC) and in the projection and thalamic pathways, including the posterior limb of the internal capsule and corona radiata (anterior, posterior, and superior), were significantly higher in the RAD than in the TD group. Additionally, RAD group showed significantly lower RD values in the body of the CC and abovementioned pathways than TD group. Our findings indicate that RAD is associated with altered structure of the CC and projection and thalamic pathways, which may play a role in emotion regulation. The aberrant development of these tracts in RAD may reflect stress-related psychophysiological responses.

Attenuated relationship between salivary oxytocin levels and attention to social information in adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorder: a comparative study

BACKGROUND

Previous research studies have assessed the relationship between attention to social information and peripheral (e.g., plasma and salivary) oxytocin (OT) levels in typically developing (TD) children and children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). A relationship between them was observed in TD children, but not in children with ASD. However, this relationship remains unexamined in other age groups. To clarify whether this lack of association is maintained throughout development in individuals with ASD, we aimed to assess the relationship between salivary OT levels and attention to social information in adolescents and adults with and without ASD.

METHODS

We recruited male adolescents and adults with ASD (n = 17) and TD participants (n = 24). Using the all-in-one eye-tracking system Gazefinder, we measured the percentage fixation time allocated to social information. We also measured the salivary OT levels and Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) of participants. Subsequently, we confirmed group differences and conducted a correlation analysis to investigate the relationships between these three measures.

RESULTS

Salivary OT levels did not show any significant difference between the ASD and TD groups and were negatively correlated with the AQ in the whole-group analysis, but not in within-group analysis. Individuals with ASD had significantly lower percentage fixation times than did TD individuals for eye regions in human faces with/without mouth motion, for upright biological motion, and for people regions in the people and geometry movies. The percentage of fixation for geometric shapes in the people and geometry movies was significantly higher in the ASD than in the TD group. In the TD group, salivary OT levels were positively correlated with percentage fixation times for upright biological motion and people and negatively correlated with inverted biological motion and geometry. However, no significant correlations were found in the ASD group.

CONCLUSIONS

Our exploratory results suggest that salivary OT levels in adolescents and adults with ASD are less indicative of attention to social stimuli than they are in TD adolescents and adults. It is suggested that their association is slightly weaker in adolescents and adults with ASD and that this attenuated relationship appears to be maintained throughout development.

Structural brain abnormalities in children and adolescents with comorbid autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) share high rates of comorbidity, with the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fifth Edition now acknowledging the comorbid diagnosis of ASD and ADHD. Although structural abnormalities in the prefrontal cortex, cerebellum, and basal ganglia occur in both ASD and ADHD, no structural studies have focused exclusively on patients with comorbid ASD and ADHD. We thus aimed to clarify the structural features and developmental changes in patients with comorbid ASD and ADHD in a relatively large sample from two sites. Ninety-two patients were age-matched to 141 typically developing (TD) controls (age range: 5-16 years) and assessed for volumetric characteristics using structural magnetic resonance imaging (i.e. surface-based morphometry). While there were no significant differences in prefrontal cortex, cerebellum, and basal ganglia volumes, patients with ASD and ADHD exhibited significantly lower left postcentral gyrus volumes than TD controls. We observed significantly lower postcentral gyrus volumes exclusively in children and preadolescents, and not in adolescents. Our findings suggest that abnormal somatosensory, attributed to delayed maturation of the left postcentral gyrus, leads to the core symptoms experienced by patients with comorbid ASD and ADHD.

Oxytocin receptor DNA methylation and alterations of brain volumes in maltreated children

Although oxytocin (OXT) plays an important role in secure attachment formation with a primary caregiver, which is impaired in many children with childhood maltreatment (CM), epigenetic regulation in response to CM is a key factor in brain development during childhood. To address this issue, we first investigated differences in salivary DNA methylation of the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) between CM and Non-CM groups of Japanese children (CM: n = 44; Non-CM: n = 41) and its impact on brain structures in subgroup analysis using brain imaging and full clinical data (CM: n = 24; Non-CM: n = 31). As a result, we observed that the CM group showed higher CpG 5,6 methylation than did the Non-CM group and confirmed negative correlations of gray matter volume (GMV) in the left orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) with CpG 5,6 methylation. In addition, the CM group showed significantly lower GMV in the left OFC than did the Non-CM group. Furthermore, as a result of examining the relationship between GMV in the left OFC and psychiatric symptoms in CM, we observed a negative association with insecure attachment style and also confirmed the mediation effect of left-OFC GMV reduction on the relationship between OXTR methylation and insecure attachment style. These results suggest that any modulation of the oxytocin signaling pathway induced by OXTR hypermethylation at CpG 5,6 leads to atypical development of the left OFC, resulting in distorted attachment formation in children with CM.

Association between parental visitation and depressive symptoms among institutionalized children in Japan: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Mental health problems are an important issue among institutionalized children. Although positive communication with parents is essential for children's well-being, it has not been sufficiently verified how interactions with parents affect mental health among institutionalized children, who have experienced childhood adversity and likely lack secure attachment formation with their parents. The objectives of this study were to investigate the association between parental visitation and depressive symptoms among institutionalized children in Japan, and to explore whether the established security of attachment interacts with that association.

METHODS

A cross-sectional data from 399 institutionalized children aged 9 to 18 in Japan was used for the analysis. A mixed effects regression analysis was conducted to investigate the associations.

RESULTS

Institutionalized children who had parental visitation showed higher depressive symptoms than those who did not. In particular, father's visitations were significantly associated with higher depressive symptoms. There was a significant interaction with score of secure attachment; children with low scores on secure attachment showed higher levels of depression with their father's visitation, whereas children with high scores on secure attachment did not.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggested that parental visitation and the frequency of visitation were not actually associated with better psychological status, but that instead, father's visitations were associated with higher depressive symptoms among institutionalized children. It should be noted that our cross-sectional results cannot infer any causal relationship and do not emphasize that parental visitation should be avoided. However, it may be important to conduct careful assessment before starting parental visitation, especially when children seem to have problems with attachment formation.

Type and timing of childhood maltreatment and reduced visual cortex volume in children and adolescents with reactive attachment disorder

Reactive attachment disorder (RAD) is a severe social functioning disorder associated with early childhood maltreatment where the child displays emotionally withdrawn/inhibited behaviors toward caregivers. Brain regions develop at different rates and regions undergoing rapid change may be particularly vulnerable during these times to stressors or adverse experiences. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of type and timing of childhood adversities on structural alterations in regional gray matter (GM) volume in maltreated children with RAD. High-resolution magnetic resonance imaging datasets were obtained for children and adolescents with RAD (n = 21; mean age = 12.76 years) and typically developing (TD) control subjects (n = 22; mean age = 12.95 years). Structural images were analyzed using a whole-brain voxel-based morphometry approach and the type and timing of maltreatment, which may be more strongly associated with structural alterations, was assessed using random forest regression with conditional inference trees. Our findings revealed that there is a potential sensitive period between 5 and 7 years of age for GM volume reduction of the left primary visual cortex (BA17) due to maltreatment. We also found that the number of types of maltreatment had the most significant effect on GM volume reduction and that the second most significant variable was exposure to neglect. The present study provides the first evidence showing that type and timing of maltreatment have an important role in inducing structural abnormalities in children and adolescents with RAD.

Subclinical maternal depressive symptoms modulate right inferior frontal response to inferring affective mental states of adults but not of infants

BACKGROUND

Being a mother of young children increases the risk of depression characterised by deficits in inferring what a person is feeling, i.e., affective theory of mind (aToM). Despite the adverse consequences for mothers, children, families, and society as a whole, little is known of how the brain functions underlying aToM ability are affected by subclinical maternal depressive symptoms, and act as a risk indicator for major depressive disorders (MDD).

METHODS

Thirty healthy mothers with varying levels of depressive symptoms underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) while performing mind-reading tasks based on the emotional expressions of adult eyes and infant faces.

RESULTS

In the adult eyes-based mind-reading task, mothers with more severe depressive symptoms showed less activation in the right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), a central part of the putative mirror neuron system (pMNS). This was unrelated to behavioural performance decline in the task. However, brain activation involved in the infant face-based mind-reading task was not affected by depressive symptoms.

LIMITATIONS

Although aToM ability, assessed by mind-reading tasks, can be distinguished from empathy, these can be interacting functions of the pMNS, wherein they could mutually affect each other.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that functional activation of the right IFG, which underlies aToM ability, has variable vulnerability to maternal depressive symptoms according to the type of social signal. This functional decline of the right IFG may be a risk indicator for clinical maternal depression, which is associated with impaired social functioning and communication conflicts with family members and other social supporters.

Type and Timing of Negative Life Events Are Associated with Adolescent Depression

Previous studies have demonstrated an association between negative life events (NLEs) in childhood and resilience/posttraumatic growth (PTG) with regard to the pathogenesis of major depressive disorder. We hypothesized that the type and timing of NLEs interact to influence mental health in the general youth population. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine the effects of NLE timing and intensity on current depressive symptoms, and to determine the direct and indirect effects of NLEs/resilience on PTG and depression among non-clinical adolescents. Data were collected from 1,038 high-school students across seven high schools in Fukui, Japan, during their freshman and sophomore years (648 boys and 390 girls, mean age = 15.71, SD = 0.524). Respondents completed a set of questionnaires designed to evaluate the type and timing of NLEs, depressive and traumatic symptoms, and PTG. Cluster analysis was used to divide participants into three groups based on outcomes: "cluster 1" (n = 631), for whom depressive scores were significantly lower than other two subgroups (p < 0.05, for both); "cluster 2" (n = 52), for whom levels of current and past perceived stress associated with NLEs were significantly higher than those of the other two subgroups (p < 0.05, for both); "cluster 3" (n = 374), for whom perceived stress at the time of NLE was significantly higher than that of participants in the cluster 1 (p < 0.05) group, but not the cluster 2 group. Our findings indicated that exposure to NLEs at a younger age resulted in stronger negative outcomes and that NLE timing and intensity were associated with PTG and current symptoms of depression. Furthermore, path analysis demonstrated that associations between perceived stress at the time of NLEs were direct and indirect predictors of current depression via PTG and that posttraumatic stress symptom and PTG mediate the association between NLEs/trait-resiliency and current depression. In conclusion, our findings suggest that event intensity, NLE timing, and gender may play a role in emotional vulnerability during adolescence.

Catechol-O-methyltransferase polymorphism is associated with the cortico-cerebellar functional connectivity of executive function in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

The cerebellum, although traditionally considered a motor structure, has been increasingly recognized to play a role in regulating executive function, the dysfunction of which is a factor in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Additionally, catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) polymorphism has been reported to be associated with executive function. We examined whether the cortico-cerebellar executive function network is altered in children with ADHD and whether COMT polymorphism is associated with the altered network. Thirty-one children with ADHD and thirty age- and IQ-matched typically developing (TD) controls underwent resting-state functional MRI, and functional connectivity of executive function-related Crus I/II in the cerebellum was analysed. COMT Val158Met genotype data were also obtained from children with ADHD. Relative to TD controls, children with ADHD showed significantly lower functional connectivity of the right Crus I/II with the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Additionally, the functional connectivity of children with ADHD was modulated by COMT polymorphism, with Met-carriers exhibiting significantly lower functional connectivity than the Val/Val genotype. These results suggest the existence of variations, such as ethnic differences, in COMT genetic effects on the cortico-cerebellar executive function network. These variations contribute to heterogeneity in ADHD. Further neuroimaging genetics study might lead to the development of fundamental therapies that target ADHD pathophysiology.

Ethnic differences in COMT genetic effects on striatal grey matter alterations associated with childhood ADHD: A voxel-based morphometry study in a Japanese sample

OBJECTIVES

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is associated with deficits in the dopaminergic fronto-striatal systems mediating higher-level cognitive functions. We hypothesised that a dopamine-regulating gene, catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), would have differential effects on the neural systems of different ethnic samples with ADHD. In Caucasian children with ADHD, the COMT Val-homozygotes have been previously shown to be associated with striatal grey matter volume (GMV) alterations. By using voxel-based morphometry, we examined whether Asian children with ADHD would exhibit a pattern opposite to that found in Caucasian samples.

METHODS

Structural brain images were obtained for Japanese children with ADHD (n = 17; mean age = 10.3 years) and typically developing (TD) children (n = 15; mean age = 12.8 years). COMT Val158Met genotype data were also obtained for the ADHD group.

RESULTS

Reduced GMV in the left striatum was observed in the ADHD group versus the TD group. This reduced GMV was modulated by COMT polymorphism; Met-carriers exhibited smaller striatal GMV than the Val/Val genotype.

CONCLUSIONS

Contrasting with previous findings in Caucasians, the COMT Met allele was associated with striatal GMV alterations in Japanese children with ADHD. These results suggest the existence of ethnic differences in the COMT genetic effect on ADHD-related striatal abnormalities.

Developmental changes in social attention and oxytocin levels in infants and children

Oxytocin (OT) signalling represents one of the most critical systems involved in human social behaviour. Although several studies have examined the relationship between social functioning and peripheral OT levels, the association between OT and the development of social attention has not been well studied. Therefore, we investigated the developmental relationship between gaze fixation for social cues and OT levels during young childhood. We examined visual attention using an eye tracking system in infants and children (5-90 months of age) and measured the concentration of OT in saliva samples. We observed a negative association between age and both attention toward social cues and salivary OT levels, and a positive association between age and attention for non-social cues. We also observed that salivary OT levels were modulated by polymorphisms in oxytocin receptor (OXTR) rs53576. Our results suggest that there is an age-dependent association between visual attention for social cues and OT levels in infants and children, and that the development of visual attention to the eyes as social cues is associated with both OXTR polymorphisms and OT levels. Such findings indicate that OT and OXTR status may provide insight into the atypical development of social attention in infants and young children.

Increased Anterior Pelvic Angle Characterizes the Gait of Children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Background

Children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) frequently have motor problems. Previous studies have reported that the characteristic gait in children with ADHD is immature and that subjects demonstrate higher levels of variability in gait characteristics for the lower extremities than healthy controls. However, little is known about body movement during gait in children with ADHD. The purpose of this study was to identify the characteristic body movements associated with ADHD symptoms in children with ADHD.

Methods

Using a three-dimensional motion analysis system, we compared gait variables in boys with ADHD (n = 19; mean age, 9.58 years) and boys with typical development (TD) (n = 21; mean age, 10.71 years) to determine the specific gait characteristics related to ADHD symptoms. We assessed spatiotemporal gait variables (i.e. speed, stride length, and cadence), and kinematic gait variables (i.e. angle of pelvis, hip, knee, and ankle) to measure body movement when walking at a self-selected pace.

Results

In comparison with the TD group, the ADHD group demonstrated significantly higher values in cadence (t = 3.33, p = 0.002) and anterior pelvic angle (t = 3.08, p = 0.004). In multiple regression analysis, anterior pelvic angle was associated with the ADHD rating scale hyperactive/impulsive scores (β = 0.62, t = 2.58, p = 0.025), but not other psychiatric symptoms in the ADHD group.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that anterior pelvic angle represents a specific gait variable related to ADHD symptoms. Our kinematic findings could have potential implications for evaluating the body movement in boys with ADHD.

Association of estrogen receptor alpha polymorphisms with symptoms of autism among Chinese Han children

OBJECTIVES

Autism has a significant sex difference. This implies that the sex hormones might have effect on autism. Estrogens play an important role in early nervous system development and sex differentiation through estrogen receptors in brain. Thus, we tested the hypothesis that estrogen receptor alpha (ESR1) gene affects the pathogenesis of autism and related symptoms.

METHODS

Genotypes of rs11155819 and rs2234693 were determined in boys with autism and normal boys from Chinese Han population. A case-control study was performed to explore the association between polymorphisms in ESR1 gene and autism susceptibility. Assessment tool was used to evaluate the neuropsychological developmental level of autistic children. Finally, we analyzed the association of these single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with specific symptoms.

RESULTS

The results showed no significant differences between cases and controls in the distribution of genotypes and allele frequencies of the two SNPs. However, rs11155819 TT genotype showed a lower neuropsychological development level among autistic children, especially in the aspects of fine motor and adaptation ability (p=0.028; p=0.042).

CONCLUSION

Polymorphisms of ESR1 are relevant to autism symptoms in Chinese Han children.

Oxytocin efficacy is modulated by dosage and oxytocin receptor genotype in young adults with high-functioning autism: a 24-week randomized clinical trial

Recent studies have suggested that long-term oxytocin administration can alleviate the symptoms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD); however, factors influencing its efficacy are still unclear. We conducted a single-center phase 2, pilot, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, clinical trial in young adults with high-functioning ASD, to determine whether oxytocin dosage and genetic background of the oxytocin receptor affects oxytocin efficacy. This trial consisted of double-blind (12 weeks), open-label (12 weeks) and follow-up phases (8 weeks). To examine dose dependency, 60 participants were randomly assigned to high-dose (32 IU per day) or low-dose intranasal oxytocin (16 IU per day), or placebo groups during the double-blind phase. Next, we measured single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR). In the intention-to-treat population, no outcomes were improved after oxytocin administration. However, in male participants, Clinical Global Impression-Improvement (CGI-I) scores in the high-dose group, but not the low-dose group, were significantly higher than in the placebo group. Furthermore, we examined whether oxytocin efficacy, reflected in the CGI-I scores, is influenced by estimated daily dosage and OXTR polymorphisms in male participants. We found that >21 IU per day oxytocin was more effective than ⩽21 IU per day, and that a SNP in OXTR (rs6791619) predicted CGI-I scores for ⩽21 IU per day oxytocin treatment. No severe adverse events occurred. These results suggest that efficacy of long-term oxytocin administration in young men with high-functioning ASD depends on the oxytocin dosage and genetic background of the oxytocin receptor, which contributes to the effectiveness of oxytocin treatment of ASD.

Gazefinder as a clinical supplementary tool for discriminating between autism spectrum disorder and typical development in male adolescents and adults

Background

Gaze abnormality is a diagnostic criterion for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, few easy-to-use clinical tools exist to evaluate the unique eye-gaze patterns of ASD. Recently, we developed Gazefinder, an all-in-one eye-tracking system for early detection of ASD in toddlers. Because abnormal gaze patterns have been documented in various ASD age groups, we predicted that Gazefinder might also detect gaze abnormality in adolescents and adults. In this study, we tested whether Gazefinder could identify unique gaze patterns in adolescents and adults with ASD.

Methods

We measured the percentage of eye fixation time allocated to particular objects depicted in movies (i.e., eyes and mouth in human face movies, upright and inverted biological motion in movies that presented these stimuli simultaneously, and people and geometry in movies that presented these stimuli simultaneously) by male adolescents and adults with ASD (N = 26) and age-matched males with typical development (TD; N = 35). We compared these percentages between the two groups (ASD and TD) and with scores on the social responsiveness scale (SRS). Further, we conducted discriminant analyses to determine if fixation times allocated to particular objects could be used to discriminate between individuals with and without ASD.

Results

Compared with the TD group, the ASD group showed significantly less fixation time at locations of salient social information (i.e., eyes in the movie of human faces without lip movement and people in the movie of people and geometry), while there were no significant groupwise differences in the responses to movies of human faces with lip movement or biological motion. In a within-group correlation analysis, a few of the fixation-time items correlated with SRS, although most of them did not. No items significantly correlated with SRS in both ASD and TD groups. The percentage fixation times to eyes and people, which exhibited large effect sizes for the group difference, could differentiate ASD and TD with a sensitivity of 81.0 % and a specificity of 80.0 %.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that Gazefinder is potentially a valuable and easy-to-use tool for objectively measuring unique gaze patterns and discriminating between ASD and TD in male adolescents and adults.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13229-016-0083-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Assessment of olfactory detection thresholds in children with autism spectrum disorders using a pulse ejection system

BACKGROUND

Atypical responsiveness to olfactory stimuli has been reported as the strongest predictor of social impairment in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). However, previous laboratory-based sensory psychophysical studies that have aimed to investigate olfactory sensitivity in children with ASD have produced inconsistent results. The methodology of these studies is limited by several factors, and more sophisticated approaches are required to produce consistent results.

METHODS

We measured olfactory detection thresholds in children with ASD and typical development (TD) using a pulse ejection system-a newly developed methodology designed to resolve problems encountered in previous studies. The two odorants used as stimuli were isoamyl acetate and allyl caproate.

RESULTS

Forty-three participants took part in this study: 23 (6 females, 17 males) children with ASD and 20 with TD (6 females, 14 males). Olfactory detection thresholds of children with ASD were significantly higher than those of TD children with both isoamyl acetate (2.85 ± 0.28 vs 1.57 ± 0.15; p < 0.001) and allyl caproate ( 3.30 ± 0.23 vs 1.17 ± 0.08; p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

We found impaired olfactory detection thresholds in children with ASD. Our results contribute to a better understanding of the olfactory abnormalities that children with ASD experience. Considering the role and effect that odors play in our daily lives, insensitivity to some odorants might have a tremendous impact on children with ASD. Future studies of olfactory processing in ASD may reveal important links between brain function, clinically relevant behavior, and treatment.

Association of Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor-Related Gene Variants with the Severity of Autism Spectrum Disorders

Exposure to environmental chemicals, such as dioxin, is known to have adverse effects on the homeostasis of gonadal steroids, thereby potentially altering the sexual differentiation of the brain to express autistic traits. Dioxin-like chemicals act on the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), polymorphisms, and mutations of AhR-related gene may exert pathological influences on sexual differentiation of the brain, causing autistic traits. To ascertain the relationship between AhR-related gene polymorphisms and autism susceptibility, we identified genotypes of them in patients and controls and determined whether there are different gene and genotype distributions between both groups. In addition, to clarify the relationships between the polymorphisms and the severity of autism, we compared the two genotypes of AhR-related genes (rs2066853, rs2228099) with the severity of autistic symptoms. Although no statistically significant difference was found between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) patients and control individuals for the genotypic distribution of any of the polymorphisms studied herein, a significant difference in the total score of severity was observed in rs2228099 polymorphism, suggesting that the polymorphism modifies the severity of ASD symptoms but not ASD susceptibility. Moreover, we found that a significant difference in the social communication score of severity was observed. These results suggest that the rs2228099 polymorphism is possibly associated with the severity of social communication impairment among the diverse ASD symptoms.

Ventral striatum dysfunction in children and adolescents with reactive attachment disorder: functional MRI study

BACKGROUND

Child maltreatment is a major risk factor for psychopathology, including reactive attachment disorder (RAD).

AIMS

To examine whether neural activity during reward processing was altered in children and adolescents with RAD.

METHOD

Sixteen children and adolescents with RAD and 20 typically developing (TD) individuals performed tasks with high and low monetary rewards while undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging.

RESULTS

Significantly reduced activity in the caudate and nucleus accumbens was observed during the high monetary reward condition in the RAD group compared with the TD group (P=0.015, family-wise error-corrected cluster level). Significant negative correlations between bilateral striatal activity and avoidant attachment were observed in the RAD and TD groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Striatal neural reward activity in the RAD group was markedly decreased. The present results suggest that dopaminergic dysfunction occurs in the striatum of children and adolescents with RAD, leading towards potential future risks for psychopathology.

DECLARATION OF INTEREST

None.

COPYRIGHT AND USAGE

© The Royal College of Psychiatrists 2015. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Non-Commercial, No Derivatives (CC BY-NC-ND) licence.

Neural Basis of Psychological Growth following Adverse Experiences: A Resting-State Functional MRI Study

Over the past decade, research on the aftereffects of stressful or traumatic events has emphasized the negative outcomes from these experiences. However, the positive outcomes deriving from adversity are increasingly being examined, and such positive changes are described as posttraumatic growth (PTG). To investigate the relationship between basal whole-brain functional connectivity and PTG, we employed resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging and analyzed the neural networks using independent component analysis in a sample of 33 healthy controls. Correlations were calculated between the network connectivity strength and the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI) score. There were positive associations between the PTGI scores and brain activation in the rostral prefrontal cortex and superior parietal lobule (SPL) within the left central executive network (CEN) (respectively, r = 0.41, p < 0.001; r = 0.49, p < 0.001). Individuals with higher psychological growth following adverse experiences had stronger activation in prospective or working memory areas within the executive function network than did individuals with lower psychological growth (r = 0.40, p < 0.001). Moreover, we found that individuals with higher PTG demonstrated stronger connectivity between the SPL and supramarginal gyrus (SMG). The SMG is one of the brain regions associated with the ability to reason about the mental states of others, otherwise known as mentalizing. These findings suggest that individuals with higher psychological growth may have stronger functional connectivity between memory functions within the CEN and social functioning in the SMG, and that their better sociality may result from using more memory for mentalizing during their daily social interactions.

Anorexia Nervosa during Adolescence Is Associated with Decreased Gray Matter Volume in the Inferior Frontal Gyrus

Anorexia nervosa (AN) is an eating disorder characterized by the relentless pursuit to lose weight, mostly through self-starvation, and a distorted body image. AN tends to begin during adolescence among women. However, the underlying neural mechanisms related to AN remain unclear. Using voxel-based morphometry based on magnetic resonance imaging scans, we investigated whether the presence of AN was associated with discernible changes in brain morphology. Participants were 20 un-medicated, right-handed patients with early-onset AN and 14 healthy control subjects. Group differences in gray matter volume (GMV) were assessed using high-resolution, T1-weighted, volumetric magnetic resonance imaging datasets (3T Trio scanner; Siemens AG) and analyzed after controlling for age and total GMV, which was decreased in the bilateral inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) (left IFG: FWE corrected, p < 0.05; right IFG: uncorrected, p < 0.05) of patients with AN. The GMV in the bilateral IFG correlated significantly with current age (left IFG: r = -.481, p < .05; right IFG: r = -.601, p < .01) and was limited to the AN group. We speculate that decreased IFG volume might lead to deficits in executive functioning or inhibitory control within neural reward systems. Precocious or unbalanced neurological trimming within this particular region might be an important factor for the pathogenesis of AN onset.

Effect of the Nature of Subsequent Environment on Oxytocin and Cortisol Secretion in Maltreated Children

Childhood maltreatment (CM), including abuse and neglect, is a crucial factor that distorts child development. CM is associated with alterations in numerous brain regions, and may be associated with hormonal dysregulation. This study aimed to investigate differences in secretion patterns of cortisol (CT) and oxytocin (OT) among children who experienced CM, children living in residential care facilities and in unstable environments. Among 38 maltreated children, 23 (mean age = 12.2 years, SD = 3.0) were categorized as "Settled" and 15 (mean age = 13.1 years, SD = 2.2) as "Unsettled." Twenty-six age- and gender-matched (mean age = 12.6 years, SD = 2.1), typically developing (TD) children were also included. Clinical and psychological assessments, including IQ and trauma evaluations, were conducted for all participants. Age, gender, and full-scale IQ were used as covariates in hormone analysis. Two saliva samples were collected, one on awakening and the other at bedtime. There were significant differences in the awakening CT levels of the "Unsettled" group, and in bedtime OT levels in the "Settled" group as compared with TD children, and between CM groups. Furthermore, there was a significant difference in trauma-symptomatic depression scores between the "Settled" and "Unsettled" CM group. These results suggest that CT diurnal secretions tend to be reactive to current stress rather than previous experience. OT diurnal secretions are presumably hyper-regulated for coping with the environment to survive and thrive. By measuring salivary CT/OT diurnal patterns, hormonal dysregulation of CM children living in "Settled" environments and "Unsettled" environments was indicated.

Family-based association study of ZNF533, DOCK4 and IMMP2L gene polymorphisms linked to autism in a northeastern Chinese Han population

OBJECTIVE

A study in a Caucasian population has identified two single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in ZNF533, one in DOCK4, and two in IMMP2L, which were all significantly associated with autism. They are located in AUTS1 and AUTS5, which have been identified as autism susceptibility loci in several genome-wide screens. The present study aimed to investigate whether ZNF533, DOCK4, and IMMP2L genes are also associated with autism in a northeastern Chinese Han population.

METHODS

We performed a similar association study using families with three individuals (one autistic child and two unaffected parents). A family-based transmission disequilibrium test (TDT) was used to analyze the results.

RESULTS

There were significant associations between autism and the two SNPs of ZNF533 gene (rs11885327: χ(2)=4.5200, P=0.0335; rs1964081: χ(2)=4.2610, P=0.0390) and the SNP of DOCK4 gene (rs2217262: χ(2)=5.3430, P=0.0208).

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that ZNF533 and DOCK4 genes are linked to a predisposition to autism in the northeastern Chinese Han population.

Visual attention for social information and salivary oxytocin levels in preschool children with autism spectrum disorders: an eye-tracking study

This study was designed to ascertain the relationship between visual attention for social information and oxytocin (OT) levels in Japanese preschool children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). We hypothesized that poor visual attention for social information and low OT levels are crucially important risk factors associated with ASD. We measured the pattern of gaze fixation for social information using an eye-tracking system, and salivary OT levels by the Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). There was a positive association between salivary OT levels and fixation duration for an indicated object area in a finger-pointing movie in typically developing (TD) children. However, no association was found between these variables in children with ASD. Moreover, age decreased an individual's attention to people moving and pointed-at objects, but increased attention for mouth-in-the-face recognition, geometric patterns, and biological motions. Thus, OT levels likely vary during visual attention for social information between TD children and those with ASD. Further, aging in preschool children has considerable effect on visual attention for social information.