Molecular regulation of virulence in Legionella pneumophila

Legionella pneumophila is a gram-negative bacteria found in natural and anthropogenic aquatic environments such as evaporative cooling towers, where it reproduces as an intracellular parasite of cohabiting protozoa. If L. pneumophila is aerosolized and inhaled by a susceptible person, bacteria may colonize their alveolar macrophages causing the opportunistic pneumonia Legionnaires' disease. L. pneumophila utilizes an elaborate regulatory network to control virulence processes such as the Dot/Icm Type IV secretion system and effector repertoire, responding to changing nutritional cues as their host becomes depleted. The bacteria subsequently differentiate to a transmissive state that can survive in the environment until a replacement host is encountered and colonized. In this review, we discuss the lifecycle of L. pneumophila and the molecular regulatory network that senses nutritional depletion via the stringent response, a link to stationary phase-like metabolic changes via alternative sigma factors, and two-component systems that are homologous to stress sensors in other pathogens, to regulate differentiation between the intracellular replicative phase and more transmissible states. Together, we highlight how this prototypic intracellular pathogen offers enormous potential in understanding how molecular mechanisms enable intracellular parasitism and pathogenicity.

Tissue-specific mRNA profiling of the Brassica napus-Sclerotinia sclerotiorum interaction uncovers novel regulators of plant immunity

White mold is caused by the fungal pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and leads to rapid and significant loss in plant yield. Among its many brassicaceous hosts, including Brassica napus (canola) and Arabidopsis, the response of individual tissue layers directly at the site of infection has yet to be explored. Using laser microdissection coupled with RNA sequencing, we profiled the epidermis, mesophyll, and vascular leaf tissue layers of B. napus in response to S. sclerotiorum. High-throughput tissue-specific mRNA sequencing increased the total number of detected transcripts compared with whole-leaf assessments and provided novel insight into the conserved and specific roles of ontogenetically distinct leaf tissue layers in response to infection. When subjected to pathogen infection, the epidermis, mesophyll, and vasculature activate both specific and shared gene sets. Putative defense genes identified through transcription factor network analysis were then screened for susceptibility against necrotrophic, hemi-biotrophic, and biotrophic pathogens. Arabidopsis deficient in PR5-like RECEPTOR KINASE (PR5K) mRNA levels were universally susceptible to all pathogens tested and were further characterized to identify putative interacting partners involved in the PR5K signaling pathway. Together, these data provide insight into the complexity of the plant defense response directly at the site of infection.

Microbial Community Dynamics of Soybean (Glycine max) Is Affected by Cropping Sequence

The microbial composition of the rhizosphere soil could be an important determinant of crop yield, pathogen resistance, and other beneficial attributes in plants. However, little is known about the impact of cropping sequences on microbial community dynamics, especially in economically important species like soybean. Using 2-year crop sequences of corn-soybean, canola-soybean, and soybean-soybean, we investigated how crops from the previous growing season influenced the structure of the microbiome in both the bulk soil and soybean rhizosphere. A combination of marker-based Illumina sequencing and bioinformatics analyses was used to show that bacterial species richness and evenness in the soybean rhizosphere soil were similar following canola and soybean compared to a previous corn sequence. However, fungal species richness and evenness remained unaffected by crop sequence. In addition, bacterial and fungal species diversity in both the bulk and soybean rhizosphere soil were not influenced by crop sequence. Lastly, the corn-soybean sequence significantly differed in the relative abundance of certain bacterial and fungal classes in both the soybean rhizosphere and bulk soil. While canola-soybean and a continuous soybean sequence did not, suggesting that a preceding corn sequence may reduce the occurrence of overall bacterial and fungal community members. For the present study, crop sequence impacts bacterial diversity and richness in both the bulk soil and soybean rhizosphere soil whereas fungal diversity and richness are resilient to crop sequence practices. Together, these findings could help drive decision making for annual crop and soil management practices.

Investigation of the quorum-sensing regulon of the biocontrol bacterium Pseudomonas chlororaphis strain PA23

Pseudomonas chlororaphis strain PA23 is a biocontrol agent capable of protecting canola from stem rot disease caused by the fungal pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. PA23 produces several inhibitory compounds that are under control of a complex regulatory network. Included in this cascade is the PhzRI quorum sensing (QS) system, which plays an essential role in PA23 biocontrol, as well as CsaRI and AurRI, which have not yet been characterized in PA23. The focus of the current study was to employ RNA sequencing to explore the spectrum of PA23 genes under QS control. In this work, we investigated genes under the control of the main QS transcriptional regulator, PhzR, as well as those differentially expressed in an AHL-deficient strain, PA23-6863, which constitutively expresses an AiiA lactonase, rendering the strain QS defective. Transcriptomic profiling revealed 545 differentially expressed genes (365 downregulated; 180 upregulated) in the phzR mutant and 534 genes (382 downregulated; 152 upregulated) in the AHL-deficient PA23-6863. In both strains, decreased expression of phenazine, pyrrolnitrin, and exoprotease biosynthetic genes was observed. We have previously reported that QS activates expression of these genes and their encoded products. In addition, elevated siderophore and decreased chitinase gene expression was observed in the QS-deficient stains, which was confirmed by phenotypic analysis. Inspection of the promoter regions revealed the presence of "phz-box" sequences in only 58 of the 807 differentially expressed genes, suggesting that much of the QS regulon is indirectly regulated. Consistent with this notion, 41 transcriptional regulators displayed altered expression in one or both of the QS-deficient strains. Collectively, our findings indicate that QS governs expression of approximately 13% of the PA23 genome affecting diverse functions ranging from secondary metabolite production to general metabolism.

The global regulator ANR is essential for Pseudomonas chlororaphis strain PA23 biocontrol

Pseudomonas chlororaphis PA23 is a biocontrol agent capable of protecting canola from stem rot disease caused by the fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. The focus of the current study was to elucidate the role of the transcriptional regulator ANR in the biocontrol capabilities of this bacterium. An anr mutant was created, PA23anr, that was devoid antifungal activity. In other pseudomonads, ANR is essential for regulating HCN production. Characterization of PA23anr revealed that, in addition to HCN, ANR controls phenazine (PHZ), pyrrolnitrin (PRN), protease and autoinducer (AHL) signal molecule production. In gene expression studies, hcnA, phzA, prnA and phzI were found to be downregulated, consistent with our endproduct analysis. Because the phenotype of PA23anr closely resembles that of quorum sensing (QS)-deficient strains, we explored whether there is a connection between ANR and the PhzRI QS system. Both phzI and phzR are positively regulated by ANR, whereas PhzR represses anr transcription. Complementation of PA23anr with pUCP-phzR, C6-HSL or both yielded no change in phenotype. Conversely, PA23phzR harbouring pUCP23-anr exhibited partial-to-full restoration of antifungal activity, HCN, PRN and AHL production together with hcnA, prnA, phzI and rpoS expression. PHZ and protease production remained unchanged indicating that ANR can complement the QS-deficient phenotype with respect to some but not all traits. Our experiments were conducted at atmospheric O2 levels underscoring the fact that ANR has a profound effect on PA23 physiology under aerobic conditions.

The biocontrol agent Pseudomonas chlororaphis PA23 primes Brassica napus defenses through distinct gene networks

Background

The biological control agent Pseudomonas chlororaphis PA23 is capable of protecting Brassica napus (canola) from the necrotrophic fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum via direct antagonism. While we have elucidated bacterial genes and gene products responsible biocontrol, little is known about how the host plant responds to bacterial priming on the leaf surface, including global changes in gene activity in the presence and absence of S. sclerotiorum.

Results

Application of PA23 to the aerial surfaces of canola plants reduced the number of S. sclerotiorum lesion-forming petals by 91.1%. RNA sequencing of the host pathogen interface showed that pretreatment with PA23 reduced the number of genes upregulated in response to S. sclerotiorum by 16-fold. By itself, PA23 activated unique defense networks indicative of defense priming. Genes encoding MAMP-triggered immunity receptors detecting flagellin and peptidoglycan were downregulated in PA23 only-treated plants, consistent with post-stimulus desensitization. Downstream, we observed reactive oxygen species (ROS) production involving low levels of H₂O₂ and overexpression of genes associated with glycerol-3-phosphate (G3P)-mediated systemic acquired resistance (SAR). Leaf chloroplasts exhibited increased thylakoid membrane structures and chlorophyll content, while lipid metabolic processes were upregulated.

Conclusion

In addition to directly antagonizing S. sclerotiorum, PA23 primes the plant defense response through induction of unique local and systemic defense networks. This study provides novel insight into the effects of biocontrol agents applied to the plant phyllosphere. Understanding these interactions will aid in the development of biocontrol systems as an alternative to chemical pesticides for protection of important crop systems.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-017-3848-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

PtrA Is Functionally Intertwined with GacS in Regulating the Biocontrol Activity of Pseudomonas chlororaphis PA23

In vitro inhibition of the fungal pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum by Pseudomonas chlororaphis PA23 is reliant upon a LysR-type transcriptional regulator (LTTR) called PtrA. In the current study, we show that Sclerotinia stem rot and leaf infection are significantly increased in canola plants inoculated with the ptrA-mutant compared to the wild type, establishing PtrA as an essential regulator of PA23 biocontrol. LTTRs typically regulate targets that are upstream of and divergently transcribed from the LTTR locus. We identified a short chain dehydrogenase (scd) gene immediately upstream of ptrA. Characterization of a scd mutant revealed that it is phenotypically identical to the wild type. Moreover, scd transcript abundance was unchanged in the ptrA mutant. These findings indicate that PtrA regulation does not involve scd, rather this LTTR controls genes located elsewhere on the chromosome. Employing a combination of complementation and transcriptional analysis we investigated whether connections exist between PtrA and other regulators of biocontrol. Besides ptrA, gacS was the only gene able to partially rescue the wild-type phenotype, establishing a connection between PtrA and the sensor kinase GacS. Transcriptomic analysis revealed decreased expression of biosynthetic (phzA, prnA) and regulatory genes (phzI, phzR, rpoS, gacA, rsmX, rsmZ, retS) in the ptrA mutant; conversely, rsmE, and rsmY were markedly upregulated. The transcript abundance of ptrA was nine-fold higher in the mutant background indicating that this LTTR negatively autoregulates itself. In summary, PtrA is an essential regulator of genes required for PA23 biocontrol that is functionally intertwined with GacS.

Elucidating the Role of Effectors in Plant-Fungal Interactions: Progress and Challenges

Pathogenic fungi have diverse growth lifestyles that support fungal colonization on plants. Successful colonization and infection for all lifestyles depends upon the ability to modify living host plants to sequester the necessary nutrients required for growth and reproduction. Secretion of virulence determinants referred to as “effectors” is assumed to be the key governing factor that determines host infection and colonization. Effector proteins are capable of suppressing plant defense responses and alter plant physiology to accommodate fungal invaders. This review focuses on effector molecules of biotrophic and hemibiotrophic plant pathogenic fungi, and the mechanism required for the release and uptake of effector molecules by the fungi and plant cells, respectively. We also place emphasis on the discovery of effectors, difficulties associated with predicting the effector repertoire, and fungal genomic features that have helped promote effector diversity leading to fungal evolution. We discuss the role of specific effectors found in biotrophic and hemibiotrophic fungi and examine how CRISPR/Cas9 technology may provide a new avenue for accelerating our ability in the discovery of fungal effector function.

Integrating Large-Scale Data and RNA Technology to Protect Crops from Fungal Pathogens

With a rapidly growing human population it is expected that plant science researchers and the agricultural community will need to increase food productivity using less arable land. This challenge is complicated by fungal pathogens and diseases, many of which can severely impact crop yield. Current measures to control fungal pathogens are either ineffective or have adverse effects on the agricultural enterprise. Thus, developing new strategies through research innovation to protect plants from pathogenic fungi is necessary to overcome these hurdles. RNA sequencing technologies are increasing our understanding of the underlying genes and gene regulatory networks mediating disease outcomes. The application of invigorating next generation sequencing strategies to study plant-pathogen interactions has and will provide unprecedented insight into the complex patterns of gene activity responsible for crop protection. However, questions remain about how biological processes in both the pathogen and the host are specified in space directly at the site of infection and over the infection period. The integration of cutting edge molecular and computational tools will provide plant scientists with the arsenal required to identify genes and molecules that play a role in plant protection. Large scale RNA sequence data can then be used to protect plants by targeting genes essential for pathogen viability in the production of stably transformed lines expressing RNA interference molecules, or through foliar applications of double stranded RNA.

Pyrrolnitrin and Hydrogen Cyanide Production by Pseudomonas chlororaphis Strain PA23 Exhibits Nematicidal and Repellent Activity against Caenorhabditis elegans

Pseudomonas chlororaphis strain PA23 is a biocontrol agent able to suppress growth of the fungal pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. This bacterium produces an arsenal of exometabolites including pyrrolnitrin (PRN), phenazine (PHZ), hydrogen cyanide (HCN), and degradative enzymes. Production of these compounds is controlled at both the transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels by the Gac-Rsm system, RpoS, PsrA, and the Phz quorum-sensing system. Beyond pathogen-suppression, the success of a biocontrol agent is dependent upon its ability to establish itself in the environment where predation by bacterivorous organisms, including nematodes, may threaten persistence. The focus of this study was to investigate whether PA23 is able to resist grazing by Caenorhabditis elegans and to define the role played by exoproducts in the bacterial-nematode interaction. We discovered that both PRN and HCN contribute to fast- and slow-killing of C. elegans. HCN is well-established as having lethal effects on C. elegans; however, PRN has not been reported to be nematicidal. Exposure of L4 stage nematodes to purified PRN reduced nematode viability in a dose-dependent fashion and led to reduced hatching of eggs laid by gravid adults. Because bacterial metabolites can act as chemoattractants or repellents, we analyzed whether PA23 exhibited attractant or repulsive properties towards C. elegans. Both PRN and HCN were found to be potent repellents. Next we investigated whether the presence of C. elegans would elicit changes in PA23 gene activity. Co-culturing the two organisms increased expression of a number of genes associated with biocontrol, including phzA, hcnA, phzR, phzI, rpoS and gacS. Exoproduct analysis showed that PHZ and autoinducer signals were upregulated, consistent with the gene expression profiles. Collectively, these findings indicate that PA23 is able to sense the presence of C. elegans and it is able to both repel and kill the nematodes, which should facilitate environmental persistence and ultimately biocontrol.

Chemical and biological characterization of sclerosin, an antifungal lipopeptide

Pseudomonas sp. strain DF41 produces a lipopeptide, called sclerosin that inhibits the fungal pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum . The aim of the current study was to deduce the chemical structure of this lipopeptide and further characterize its bioactivity. Mass spectrometry analysis determined the structure of sclerosin to be CH(3)-(CH(2))(6)-CH(OH)-CH(2)-CO-Dhb-Pro-Ala-Leu/Ile-Ala-Val-Val-Dhb-Thr-Val-Leu/Ile-Dhp-Ala-Ala-Ala-Val-Dhb-Dhb-Ala-Dab-Ser-Val-OH, similar to corpeptins A and B of the tolaasin group, differing by only 3 amino acids in the peptide chain. Subjecting sclerosin to various ring opening procedures revealed no new ions, suggesting that this molecule is linear. As such, sclerosin represents a new member of the tolaasin lipopeptide group. Incubation of S. sclerotinia ascospores and sclerotia in the presence of sclerosin inhibited the germination of both cell types. Sclerosin also exhibited antimicrobial activity against Bacillus species. Conversely, this lipopeptide demonstrated no zoosporicidal activity against the oomycete pathogen Phytophthora infestans . Next, we assessed the effect of DF41 and a lipopeptide-deficient mutant on the growth and development of Caenorhabditis elegans larvae. We discovered that sclerosin did not protect DF41 from ingestion by and degradation in the C. elegans digestive tract. However, another metabolite produced by this bacterium appeared to shorten the life-span of the nematode compared to C. elegans growing on Escherichia coli OP50.

Pyrosequencing reveals the influence of organic and conventional farming systems on bacterial communities

It has been debated how different farming systems influence the composition of soil bacterial communities, which are crucial for maintaining soil health. In this research, we applied high-throughput pyrosequencing of V1 to V3 regions of bacterial 16S rRNA genes to gain further insight into how organic and conventional farming systems and crop rotation influence bulk soil bacterial communities. A 2×2 factorial experiment consisted of two agriculture management systems (organic versus conventional) and two crop rotations (flax-oat-fababean-wheat versus flax-alfalfa-alfalfa-wheat) was conducted at the Glenlea Long-Term Crop Rotation and Management Station, which is Canada's oldest organic-conventional management study field. Results revealed that there is a significant difference in the composition of bacterial genera between organic and conventional management systems but crop rotation was not a discriminator factor. Organic farming was associated with higher relative abundance of Proteobacteria, while Actinobacteria and Chloroflexi were more abundant in conventional farming. The dominant genera including Blastococcus, Microlunatus, Pseudonocardia, Solirubrobacter, Brevundimonas, Pseudomonas, and Stenotrophomonas exhibited significant variation between the organic and conventional farming systems. The relative abundance of bacterial communities at the phylum and class level was correlated to soil pH rather than other edaphic properties. In addition, it was found that Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria were more sensitive to pH variation.

Phenazines are not essential for Pseudomonas chlororaphis PA23 biocontrol of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, but do play a role in biofilm formation

Pseudomonas chlororaphis strain PA23 is a biocontrol agent capable of suppressing disease caused by the fungal pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. This bacterium produces the diffusible antibiotics phenazine-1-carboxylic acid, 2-hydroxyphenazine and pyrrolnitrin (PRN). Because the individual contribution of these antibiotics to PA23 biocontrol has not been defined, mutants deficient in the production of phenazine (PHZ), PRN or both antibiotics were created. Analysis of the PHZ mutant revealed enhanced antifungal activity in vitro and wild-type levels of Sclerotinia disease suppression. Conversely, the PRN- and the PRN/PHZ-deficient strains exhibited decreased antifungal activity in vitro and markedly reduced the ability to control Sclerotinia infection of canola in the greenhouse. These findings suggest that PRN is the primary antibiotic mediating biocontrol of this pathogen. Analysis of prnA-lacZ and phzA-lacZ transcriptional fusions revealed that PRN and PHZ are not subject to autoregulation; moreover, they do not cross-regulate each other. However, HPLC showed a twofold increase in PRN levels in the PHZ(-) background. Finally, PHZ, but not PRN production, is involved in biofilm development in P. chlororaphis PA23.

Role of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa las and rhl quorum-sensing systems in rhlI regulation

In Pseudomonas aeruginosa the LasR-LasI and RhlR-RhlI quorum-sensing (QS) systems control expression of numerous virulence genes in a population density-dependent fashion. In this study, we investigated regulation of the autoinducer synthase gene rhlI, which is responsible for C(4)-HSL signal production. Primer extension analysis was used to map the rhlI transcriptional start site and an upstream regulatory region was identified. Expression studies revealed that (i) this regulatory region is important for rhlI expression and (ii) although the rhl QS system will induce rhlI, las is the dominant regulator. Furthermore, we found that control of rhlI in Escherichia coli is markedly different than in P. aeruginosa.