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Sachs S, Reinhard S, Eilts J, Sauer M, Werner C. Visualizing the trans-synaptic arrangement of synaptic proteins by expansion microscopy. Front Cell Neurosci 2024; 18:1328726. [PMID: 38486709 PMCID: PMC10937466 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2024.1328726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024] Open
Abstract
High fidelity synaptic neurotransmission in the millisecond range is provided by a defined structural arrangement of synaptic proteins. At the presynapse multi-epitope scaffolding proteins are organized spatially at release sites to guarantee optimal binding of neurotransmitters at receptor clusters. The organization of pre- and postsynaptic proteins in trans-synaptic nanocolumns would thus intuitively support efficient information transfer at the synapse. Visualization of these protein-dense regions as well as the minute size of protein-packed synaptic clefts remains, however, challenging. To enable efficient labeling of these protein complexes, we developed post-gelation immunolabeling expansion microscopy combined with Airyscan super-resolution microscopy. Using ~8-fold expanded samples, Airyscan enables multicolor fluorescence imaging with 20-40 nm spatial resolution. Post-immunolabeling of decrowded (expanded) samples provides increased labeling efficiency and allows the visualization of trans-synaptic nanocolumns. Our approach is ideally suited to investigate the pathological impact on nanocolumn arrangement e.g., in limbic encephalitis with autoantibodies targeting trans-synaptic leucine-rich glioma inactivated 1 protein (LGI1).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Christian Werner
- Department of Biotechnology and Biophysics, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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2
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Wightman R. Observing cellulose synthases at emerging secondary thickenings in developing xylem vessels of the plant root using airyscan confocal microscopy. Cell Surf 2023; 9:100103. [PMID: 36911339 PMCID: PMC9996086 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcsw.2023.100103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Movement of cellulose synthase particles have so far been observed on the plant epidermis that are amenable to confocal imaging, yielding appreciable signal and resolution to observe small plasma membrane-localised particles. Presented here is a method, using airyscan confocal microscopy, that permits similar information to be obtained at depth within the developing protoxylem vessels of intact roots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond Wightman
- Microscopy Core Facility, Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Bateman Street, Cambridge CB2 1LR, UK
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3
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Hawkins TJ. Light Microscopy Technologies and the Plant Cytoskeleton. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2604:337-52. [PMID: 36773248 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2867-6_28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
Abstract
The cytoskeleton is a dynamic and diverse subcellular filament network, and as such microscopy is an essential technology to enable researchers to study and characterize these systems. Microscopy has a long history of observing the plant world not least as the subject where Robert Hooke coined the term "cell" in his publication Micrographia. From early observations of plant morphology to today's advanced super-resolution technologies, light microscopy is the indispensable tool for the plant cell biologist. In this mini review, we will discuss some of the major modalities used to examine the plant cytoskeleton and the theory behind them.
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Abstract
The plant cell surface continuum is composed of the cell wall, plasma membrane, and cytoskeleton. Plasmodesmata are specialized channels in the cell wall allowing intercellular communication and resource distribution. Proteins within these organelles play fundamental roles in development, perception of the external environment, and resource acquisition. Therefore, an understanding of protein dynamics and organization within the membrane and plasmodesmata is of fundamental importance to understanding both how plants develop as well as perceive the myriad of external stimuli they experience and initiate appropriate downstream responses. In this chapter, I will describe protocols for quantifying the dynamics and organization of the plasma membrane and plasmodesmata proteins across scales. The protocols described below allow researchers to determine bulk protein mobility within the membrane using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), imaging, and quantification of nanodomain size (with Airyscan confocal microscopy) and determining the dynamics of these nanodomains at the single particle level using total internal reflection (TIRF) single particle imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph F McKenna
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK.
- Oxford Brookes University, Gypsy Lane, UK.
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5
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Wöllert T, Langford GM. Super-Resolution Imaging of the Actin Cytoskeleton in Living Cells Using TIRF-SIM. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2364:3-24. [PMID: 34542846 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1661-1_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/06/2023]
Abstract
Super-resolution (SR) imaging techniques have advanced rapidly in recent years, but only a subset of these techniques is gentle enough to be used by cell biologists to study living cells with minimal photodamage. Our research is focused on studies of the dynamic remodeling of the actin cytoskeleton in living pancreatic beta cells during insulin secretion. These studies require super-resolution light microscopic techniques that are gentle enough to record rapid changes of the actin cytoskeleton in real time. In this chapter, we describe an SR technique that breaks the diffraction limit of the conventional light microscope called TIRF-SIM. Using this SR techniques, we have been able to show that (1) microvilli on pancreatic beta cells translocate in the plane of the plasma membrane and (2) the cortical actin network reorganizes when cells are stimulated to secrete insulin. We describe the FIJI plugins that were used to process and analyze the TIRF-SIM images to obtain quantitative data.
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Hennig S, Manstein DJ. Improvement of image resolution by combining enhanced confocal microscopy and quantum dot triexciton imaging. FEBS Open Bio 2021; 11:3324-3330. [PMID: 34228908 PMCID: PMC8634860 DOI: 10.1002/2211-5463.13246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Super‐resolution fluorescence imaging provides critically improved information about the composition, organization, and dynamics of subcellular structures. Quantum dot triexciton imaging (QDTI) has been introduced as an easy‐to‐use sub‐diffraction imaging method that achieves an almost 2‐fold improvement in resolution when used with conventional confocal microscopes. Here, we report an overall 3‐fold increase in lateral and axial resolution compared to conventional confocal microscopes by combining QDTI with state‐of‐the‐art commercial laser scanning microscope systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Hennig
- Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, OE4350, Hannover Medical School, Fritz-Hartmann-Centre for Medical Research, Germany
| | - Dietmar J Manstein
- Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, OE4350, Hannover Medical School, Fritz-Hartmann-Centre for Medical Research, Germany.,Division for Structural Biochemistry, OE8830, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,RESiST, Cluster of Excellence 2155, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Germany
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Abstract
The Zeiss Airyscan microscope transforms a diffraction-limited, point-scanning confocal microscope into a super-resolution microscope using a specialized 32-channel Airyscan detector. By improving resolution twofold and signal-to-noise ratio eightfold relative to conventional confocal microscopes while retaining confocal functionality, the Airyscan microscope has become a very popular super-resolution imaging tool for cell biologists. In this chapter, we describe the fundamentals of Airyscan imaging, with the aim of helping the reader determine the proper acquisition settings for different types of experiments, optimize imaging conditions, and process the raw Airyscan images to obtain final images with the best quality. We also provide some tips, tricks, and best practices for Airyscan imaging. Of note, while our focus is on the Airyscan function of this microscope rather than its conventional confocal function, the Airyscan unit comes as an add-on to the conventional Zeiss laser scanning confocal microscope. This protocol is for the first generation Airyscan Zeiss 800 series microscope.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xufeng Wu
- Light Microscopy Facility, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - John A Hammer
- Cell and Developmental Biology Center, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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Sheard TMD, Jayasinghe I. Enhanced expansion microscopy to measure nanoscale structural and biochemical remodeling in single cells. Methods Cell Biol 2021; 161:147-80. [PMID: 33478687 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mcb.2020.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Resolution is a key feature in microscopy which allows the visualization of the fine structure of cells. Much of the life processes within these cells depend on the three-dimensional (3D) complexity of these structures. Optical super-resolution microscopies are currently the preferred choice of molecular and cell biologists who seek to visualize the organization of specific protein species at the nanometer scale. Traditional super-resolution microscopy techniques have often been limited by sample thickness, axial resolution, specialist optical instrumentation and computationally-demanding software for assembling the images. In this chapter we detail the protocol, "enhanced expansion microscopy" (EExM), which combines X10 expansion microscopy with Airyscan confocal microscopy. EExM enables 15nm lateral (and 35nm axial) resolution, and is a relatively cheap, accessible option allowing single protein resolution for the non-specialist optical microscopists. We illustrate how EExM has been utilized for mapping the 3D topology of intracellular protein arrays at sample depths which are not always compatible with some of the traditional super-resolution techniques. We demonstrate that antibody markers can recognize and map post-translational modifications of individual proteins in addition to their 3D positions. Finally, we discuss the current uncertainties and validations in EExM which include the isotropy in gel expansion and assessment of the expansion factor (of resolution improvement).
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Hashimoto A, Miyamoto H, Kobatake T, Nakashima T, Shobuike T, Ueno M, Murakami T, Noda I, Sonohata M, Mawatari M. The combination of silver-containing hydroxyapatite coating and vancomycin has a synergistic antibacterial effect on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation. Bone Joint Res 2020; 9:211-218. [PMID: 32566142 PMCID: PMC7284291 DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.95.bjr-2019-0326.r1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Aims Biofilm formation is intrinsic to prosthetic joint infection (PJI). In the current study, we evaluated the effects of silver-containing hydroxyapatite (Ag-HA) coating and vancomycin (VCM) on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) biofilm formation. Methods Pure titanium discs (Ti discs), Ti discs coated with HA (HA discs), and 3% Ag-HA discs developed using a thermal spraying were inoculated with MRSA suspensions containing a mean in vitro 4.3 (SD 0.8) x 106 or 43.0 (SD 8.4) x 105 colony-forming units (CFUs). Immediately after MRSA inoculation, sterile phosphate-buffered saline or VCM (20 µg/ml) was added, and the discs were incubated for 24 hours at 37°C. Viable cell counting, 3D confocal laser scanning microscopy with Airyscan, and scanning electron microscopy were then performed. HA discs and Ag HA discs were implanted subcutaneously in vivo in the dorsum of rats, and MRSA suspensions containing a mean in vivo 7.2 (SD 0.4) x 106 or 72.0 (SD 4.2) x 105 CFUs were inoculated on the discs. VCM was injected subcutaneously daily every 12 hours followed by viable cell counting. Results Biofilms that formed on HA discs were thicker and larger than those on Ti discs, whereas those on Ag-HA discs were thinner and smaller than those on Ti discs. Viable bacterial counts in vivo revealed that Ag-HA combined with VCM was the most effective treatment. Conclusion Ag-HA with VCM has a potential synergistic effect in reducing MRSA biofilm formation and can thus be useful for preventing and treating PJI. Cite this article:Bone Joint Res. 2020;9(5):211–218.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akira Hashimoto
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Saga University, Saga, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Miyamoto
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Saga University, Saga, Japan
| | - Tomoki Kobatake
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Saga University, Saga, Japan
| | - Takema Nakashima
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Saga University, Saga, Japan
| | - Takeo Shobuike
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Saga University, Saga, Japan
| | - Masaya Ueno
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Saga University, Saga, Japan
| | - Takayuki Murakami
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Saga University, Saga, Japan; Research Section, Medical Division, KYO CERA Corporation, Yasu, Japan
| | - Iwao Noda
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Saga University, Saga, Japan; Research Section, Medical Division, KYO CERA Corporation, Yasu, Japan
| | - Motoki Sonohata
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Saga University, Saga, Japan
| | - Masaaki Mawatari
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Saga University, Saga, Japan
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10
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Wolf DM, Segawa M, Shirihai OS, Liesa M. Method for live-cell super-resolution imaging of mitochondrial cristae and quantification of submitochondrial membrane potentials. Methods Cell Biol 2020; 155:545-555. [PMID: 32183976 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mcb.2019.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/20/2023]
Abstract
The emergence of diffraction-unlimited live-cell imaging technologies has enabled the examination of mitochondrial form and function in unprecedented detail. We recently developed an approach for visualizing the inner mitochondrial membrane and determined that cristae membranes possess distinct mitochondrial membrane potentials, representing unique bioenergetic subdomains within the same organelle. Here, we outline a methodology for resolving cristae and inner boundary membranes using the LSM880 with Airyscan. Furthermore, we demonstrate how to analyze TMRE fluorescence intensity using the Nernst equation to calculate membrane potentials of individual cristae. Altogether, using these new techniques to study the electrochemical properties of the cristae can help to gain deeper insight into the still elusive nature of the mitochondrion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dane M Wolf
- Department of Medicine, Endocrinology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States; Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States; Graduate Program in Nutrition and Metabolism, Graduate Medical Sciences, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Mayuko Segawa
- Department of Medicine, Endocrinology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States; Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Orian S Shirihai
- Department of Medicine, Endocrinology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States; Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States.
| | - Marc Liesa
- Department of Medicine, Endocrinology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States; Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States; Molecular Biology Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States.
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11
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Deroubaix A, Moahla B, Penny C. Monitoring of intracellular localization of Hepatitis B virus P22 protein using Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy and Airyscan. Microsc Res Tech 2020; 83:499-506. [PMID: 31926041 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.23438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Revised: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 12/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to assess nucleo-cytoplasmic protein localization to better understand the exact intracellular localization of viral proteins involved with infections. Having determined the general protein localization of hepatitis B virus P22 precore protein, the aim was to more specifically resolve its intracellular organization. This was done using both laser scanning microscopy and Airyscan techniques. Using a 63× objective, the resolution obtained with Airyscan was increased by 1.5-fold as compared to confocal microscopy (p value <.00001).
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie Deroubaix
- Life Sciences Imaging Facility, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.,HVDRU, School of Clinical Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Bongani Moahla
- HVDRU, School of Clinical Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Clement Penny
- Life Sciences Imaging Facility, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.,Oncology Division, School of Clinical Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
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12
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Krey JF, Chatterjee P, Dumont RA, O'Sullivan M, Choi D, Bird JE, Barr-Gillespie PG. Mechanotransduction-Dependent Control of Stereocilia Dimensions and Row Identity in Inner Hair Cells. Curr Biol 2020; 30:442-454.e7. [PMID: 31902726 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2019.11.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Actin-rich structures, like stereocilia and microvilli, are assembled with precise control of length, diameter, and relative spacing. By quantifying actin-core dimensions of stereocilia from phalloidin-labeled mouse cochleas, we demonstrated that inner hair cell stereocilia developed in specific stages, where a widening phase is sandwiched between two lengthening phases. Moreover, widening of the second-tallest stereocilia rank (row 2) occurred simultaneously with the appearance of mechanotransduction. Correspondingly, Tmc1KO/KO;Tmc2KO/KO or TmieKO/KO hair cells, which lack transduction, have significantly altered stereocilia lengths and diameters, including a narrowed row 2. EPS8 and the short splice isoform of MYO15A, identity markers for mature row 1 (the tallest row), lost their row exclusivity in transduction mutants. GNAI3, another member of the mature row 1 complex, accumulated at mutant row 1 tips at considerably lower levels than in wild-type bundles. Alterations in stereocilia dimensions and in EPS8 distribution seen in transduction mutants were mimicked by block of transduction channels of cochlear explants in culture. In addition, proteins normally concentrated at mature row 2 tips were also distributed differently in transduction mutants; the heterodimeric capping protein subunit CAPZB and its partner TWF2 never concentrated at row 2 tips like they do in wild-type bundles. The altered distribution of marker proteins in transduction mutants was accompanied by increased variability in stereocilia length. Transduction channels thus specify and maintain row identity, control addition of new actin filaments to increase stereocilia diameter, and coordinate stereocilia height within rows.
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13
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Remenyi R, Gao Y, Hughes RE, Curd A, Zothner C, Peckham M, Merits A, Harris M. Persistent Replication of a Chikungunya Virus Replicon in Human Cells Is Associated with Presence of Stable Cytoplasmic Granules Containing Nonstructural Protein 3. J Virol 2018; 92:e00477-18. [PMID: 29875241 PMCID: PMC6069192 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00477-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), a mosquito-borne human pathogen, causes a disabling disease characterized by severe joint pain that can persist for weeks, months, or even years in patients. The nonstructural protein 3 (nsP3) plays essential roles during acute infection, but little is known about the function of nsP3 during chronic disease. Here, we used subdiffraction multicolor microscopy for spatial and temporal analysis of CHIKV nsP3 within human cells that persistently replicate replicon RNA. Round cytoplasmic granules of various sizes (i) contained nsP3 and stress granule assembly factors 1 and 2 (G3BP1/2), (ii) were next to double-stranded RNA foci and nsP1-positive structures, and (iii) were close to the nuclear membrane and the nuclear pore complex protein Nup98. Analysis of protein turnover and mobility by live-cell microscopy revealed that the granules could persist for hours to days, accumulated newly synthesized protein, and moved through the cytoplasm at various speeds. The granules also had a static internal architecture and were stable in cell lysates. Refractory cells that had cleared the noncytotoxic replicon regained the ability to respond to arsenite-induced stress. In summary, nsP3 can form uniquely stable granular structures that persist long-term within the host cell. This continued presence of viral and cellular protein complexes has implications for the study of the pathogenic consequences of lingering CHIKV infection and the development of strategies to mitigate the burden of chronic musculoskeletal disease brought about by a medically important arthropod-borne virus (arbovirus).IMPORTANCE Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a reemerging alphavirus transmitted by mosquitos and causes transient sickness but also chronic disease affecting muscles and joints. No approved vaccines or antivirals are available. Thus, a better understanding of the viral life cycle and the role of viral proteins can aid in identifying new therapeutic targets. Advances in microscopy and development of noncytotoxic replicons (A. Utt, P. K. Das, M. Varjak, V. Lulla, A. Lulla, A. Merits, J Virol 89:3145-3162, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.03213-14) have allowed researchers to study viral proteins within controlled laboratory environments over extended durations. Here we established human cells that stably replicate replicon RNA and express tagged nonstructural protein 3 (nsP3). The ability to track nsP3 within the host cell and during persistent replication can benefit fundamental research efforts to better understand long-term consequences of the persistence of viral protein complexes and thereby provide the foundation for new therapeutic targets to control CHIKV infection and treat chronic disease symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Remenyi
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
- Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Yanni Gao
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
- Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Ruth E Hughes
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
- Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Alistair Curd
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
- Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Carsten Zothner
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
- Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Michelle Peckham
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
- Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Andres Merits
- Institute of Technology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Mark Harris
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
- Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
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