Loudness constancy for noise and speech: How instructions and source information affect loudness of distant sounds

The physical properties of a sound evolve when traveling away from its source. As an example, the sound pressure level at the listener's ears will vary according to their respective distance and azimuth. However, several studies have reported loudness to remain constant when varying the distance between the source and the listener. This loudness constancy has been reported to occur when the listener focused attention on the sound as emitted by the source (namely the distal stimulus). Instead, the listener can focus on the sound as reaching the ears (namely the proximal stimulus). The instructions given to the listener when assessing loudness can drive focus toward the proximal or distal stimulus. However, focusing on the distal stimulus requires to have sufficient information about the sound source, which could be provided by either the environment or by the stimulus itself. The present study gathers three experiments designed to assess loudness when driving listeners' focus toward the proximal or distal stimuli. Listeners were provided with different quality and quantity of information about the source depending on the environment (visible or hidden sources, free field or reverberant rooms) and on the stimulus itself (noise or speech). The results show that listeners reported constant loudness when asked to focus on the distal stimulus only, provided enough information about the source was available. These results highlight that loudness relies on the way the listener focuses on the stimuli and emphasize the importance of the instructions that are given in loudness studies.

Multi-physics coupling in nanoscale spintronics and quantum devices

In recent years, scientists and engineers from different fields have drawn particular attention to explore physical properties and application of quantum devices. In practical application, the coupling with external field, such as electric field, strain, and temperature, has significant impact on the performance of these devices. We are delighted to provide a Focus Collection with a selection of 13 research articles. These papers present the multi-physics coupling of the electronic, optical, mechanical, magnetic, thermal and topological properties of quantum materials and devices.

Pupil Dilation Response to Prosody and Syntax During Auditory Sentence Processing

Pupil dilation response has been shown to reflect different levels of sentence processing during prosodic and syntactic processing in language comprehension. Our pupillometry experiment aimed to investigate whether pupil diameter was sensitive to the auditory sentence processing involved in comprehending congruent and incongruent statements. Twenty-one participants were presented with 300 auditory stimuli consisting of syntactically and/or prosodically congruent and incongruent sentences in Turkish. The pupillary response results were significant only for syntactically incongruent sentences and for sentences that were both syntactically and prosodically incongruent. This indicates that prosody had no significant effect on its own. Based on the hypothesis that prosodic and syntactic processing require cognitive sensitivity for auditory sentence comprehension, we expected an increase in pupil diameter for both processes. However, our findings are consistent with the previous assumptions that pupil size increases during syntactic manipulation, but our findings showed that prosodic processing does not increase pupil size, contrary to previous studies.

Towards a theory of morphosyntactic focus marking

Based on six detailed case studies of languages in which focus is marked morphosyntactically, we propose a novel formal theory of focus marking, which can capture these as well as the familiar English-type prosodic focus marking. Special attention is paid to the patterns of focus syncretism, that is, when different size and/or location of focus are indistinguishably realized by the same form. The key ingredients to our approach are that complex constituents (not just words) may be directly focally marked, and that the choice of focal marking is governed by blocking.

Data on English coda voicing contrast under different prosodic conditions produced by American English speakers and Korean learners of English

This data article provides acoustic data for individual speakers' production of coda voicing contrast between stops in English, which are based on laboratory speech recorded by twelve native speakers of American English and twenty-four Korean learners of English. There were four pairs of English monosyllabic target words with voicing contrast in the coda position (bet-bed, pet-ped, bat-bad, pat-pad). The words were produced in carrier sentences in which they were placed in two different prosodic boundary conditions (Intonational Phrase initial and Intonation Phrase medial), two pitch accent conditions (nuclear-pitch accented and unaccented), and three focus conditions (lexical focus, phonological focus and no focus). The raw acoustic measurement values that are included in a CSV-formated file are F0, F1, F2 and duration of each vowel preceding a coda consonant; and Voice Onset Time of word-initial stops. This article also provides figures that exemplify individual speaker variation of vowel duration, F0, F1 and F2 as a function of focus conditions. The data can thus be potentially reused to observe individual variations in phonetic encoding of coda voicing contrast as a function of the aforementioned prosodically-conditioned factors (i.e., prosodic boundary, pitch accent, focus) in native vs. non-native English. Some theoretical aspects of the data are discussed in the full-length article entitled "Phonetic encoding of coda voicing contrast under different focus conditions in L1 vs. L2 English" [1].

[Focal atrial tachycardias: diagnostics and therapy]

In this article, typical characteristics of focal atrial tachycardias are described and a systematic approach regarding diagnostics and treatment options in the field of invasive cardiac electrophysiology (EP) is presented. Subjects of this article include the definition of focal atrial tachycardias, knowledge about localizing the origin of such, and guidance on how to approach an invasive EP study (e.g., administration of medication during the EP study to provoke tachycardias). Further, descriptions will be found on how to localize the origin of focal atrial tachycardias with the help of the 12-lead ECG and invasive three-dimensional mapping to successfully treat focal atrial tachycardias with catheter ablation.

The Role of Prominence in Activating Focused Words and Their Alternatives in Mandarin: Evidence from Lexical Priming and Recognition Memory

When a sentence is produced with contrastive prosodic prominence, the word that carries the prominence becomes more salient, and alternatives to that word are usually implied. In processing, this implies that focused words and their alternatives should be more strongly activated. Previous research on focus processing has primarily been confined to Germanic languages. The current paper reports on two experiments investigating the role of prosodic prominence in immediate (Experiment 1) and long-term processing (Experiment 2) of focused words and focus alternatives in Mandarin. Prosodic prominence was effective in activating focused words and their alternatives. In the memory task, this facilitation effect was only found toward the beginning of the experiment. We attribute this difference to task-related adaptive use of prosodic prominence in utterance processing. This research sheds light on whether, when, and how listeners use prosodic prominence to identify important information and to evoke alternatives during sentence comprehension.

Focus Attracts Attachment

There is growing evidence that pitch accents as well as prosodic boundaries can affect syntactic attachment. But is this an effect of their perceptual salience (the Salience Hypothesis), or is it because accents mark the position of focus (the Focus Attraction Hypothesis)? A pair of auditory comprehension experiments shows that focus position, as indicated by preceding wh-questions instead of by pitch accents, affects attachment by drawing the ambiguous phrase to the focus. This supports the Focus Attraction Hypothesis (or a pragmatic version of salience) for both these results and previous results of accents on attachment. These experiments show that information structure, as indicated with prosody or other means, influences sentence interpretation, and suggests a view on which modifiers are drawn to the most important information in a sentence.

[Sepsis in out-of-hospital emergency medicine]

Background

Sepsis is a challenge in emergency medicine, as this life-threatening organ dysfunction, caused by a dysregulated host response to an infection, presents manifold and therefore is often recognized too late.

Objectives

Recently published surviving sepsis campaign and German S3 guidelines provide recommendations for diagnosis and therapy of sepsis in an in-hospital or intensive care setting, but do not particularly address out-of-hospital emergency medical care. We aim to work out the evidence base with regard to the out-of-hospital care of patients with suspected sepsis and to derive treatment recommendations for emergency medical services.

Conclusions

Therapy of sepsis and septic shock is summarized in bundles, whereby the first bundle should ideally be completed within the first hour-in analogy to "golden hour" concepts in other emergency medical entities, such as trauma care. In the out-of-hospital setting, therapy focuses on securing vital parameters, according to the ABCDE scheme, with a particular focus on volume therapy. Further procedures within the 1 h bundle, such as lactate measurement, obtaining microbiological samples, and starting an anti-infective therapy, are broadly available in hospital only. The aim is to control the site of infection as soon as possible. Therefore, an appropriate designated hospital should be chosen carefully and informed in advance, in order to initiate and pave the way for further clinical diagnostic and treatment paths. Moreover, structured and target-oriented handovers, as well as regular training, are required.

Multiple prosodic meanings are conveyed through separate pitch ranges: Evidence from perception of focus and surprise in Mandarin Chinese

F0 variation is a crucial feature in speech prosody, which can convey linguistic information such as focus and paralinguistic meanings such as surprise. How can multiple layers of information be represented with F0 in speech: are they divided into discrete layers of pitch or overlapped without clear divisions? We investigated this question by assessing pitch perception of focus and surprise in Mandarin Chinese. Seventeen native Mandarin listeners rated the strength of focus and surprise conveyed by the same set of synthetically manipulated sentences. An fMRI experiment was conducted to assess neural correlates of the listeners' perceptual response to the stimuli. The results showed that behaviourally, the perceptual threshold for focus was 3 semitones and that for surprise was 5 semitones above the baseline. Moreover, the pitch range of 5-12 semitones above the baseline signalled both focus and surprise, suggesting a considerable overlap between the two types of prosodic information within this range. The neuroimaging data positively correlated with the variations in behavioural data. Also, a ceiling effect was found as no significant behavioural differences or neural activities were shown after reaching a certain pitch level for the perception of focus and surprise respectively. Together, the results suggest that different layers of prosodic information are represented in F0 through different pitch ranges: paralinguistic information is represented at a pitch range beyond that used by linguistic information. Meanwhile, the representation of paralinguistic information is achieved without obscuring linguistic prosody, thus allowing F0 to represent the two layers of information in parallel.

Contrastive intonation effects on word recall for information-structural alternatives across the sexes

Focus highlights the fact that contextual alternatives are relevant for the interpretation of an utterance. For example, if someone says: “The meeting is on TUESDAY,” with focus marked by a pitch accent on “Tuesday,” the speaker might want to correct the assumption that the meeting is on Monday (an alternative date). Intonation as one way to signal focus was manipulated in a delayed-recall paradigm. Recall of contextual alternatives was tested in a condition where a set of alternatives was evoked by contrastive intonation. A control condition used intonation contours reported for broad focus in German. It was hypothesized that contrastive intonation improves recall, just as focus-sensitive particles (e.g., ‘only’) do, compared to sentences without such particles. Participants listened to short texts introducing a list of three elements from taxonomic categories. One of the three elements was re-mentioned in a subsequent critical sentence, realized with either a broad (H+!H*) or with a contrastive intonation contour (L+H*). Cued recall of the list elements was tested block-wise. Results show that contrastive intonation enhances recall for focus alternatives. In addition, it was found that the observed recall benefit is predominantly driven by females. The results support the assumption that contextual alternatives are better encoded in memory irrespective of whether focus is expressed prosodically or by a focus-sensitive particle. The results further show that females are more sensitive to pragmatic information conveyed through prosody than males.

Data on preboundary lengthening in Tokyo Japanese as a function of prosodic prominence, boundary, lexical pitch accent and moraic structure

This article provides individual speakers’ acoustic durational data on preboundary (phrase-final) lengthening in Japanese. The data are based on speech recorded from fourteen native speakers of Tokyo Japanese in a laboratory setting. Each speaker produced Japanese disyllabic words with four different moraic structures (CVCV, CVCVN, CVNCV, and CVNCVN, where C stands for a non-nasal onset consonant, V for a vowel, and N for a moraic nasal coda) and two pitch accent patterns (initially-accented and unaccented). The target words were produced in carrier sentences in which they were placed in two different prosodic boundary conditions (Intonational Phrase-final (‘IPf’) and Intonational Phrase-medial (‘IPm’)) and two focus contexts (focused and unfocused). The measured raw values of acoustic duration of each segment in different conditions are included in a CSV-formatted file. Another CSV-formatted file is provided with numeric calculations in both absolute and relative terms that exhibit the magnitude of preboundary lengthening across different prominence contexts (focused/unfocused and initially-accented/unaccented). The absolute durational difference was obtained as a numeric increase of preboundary lengthening of each segment produced in phrase-final position versus phrase-medial position (i.e., Δ(IPf-IPm) where ‘f’ = ‘final’ and ‘m’ = ‘medial’). The relative durational difference was obtained as a percentage increase of preboundary lengthening in IP-final position versus IP-medial position, which was calculated by the absolute durational difference divided by the duration of the segment in phrase-medial position and then multiplied by 100 (i.e., (Absolute difference/IPm)*100). This article also provides figures that exemplify speaker variation in terms of absolute and relative differences of preboundary lengthening as a function of pitch accent. Some theoretical aspects of the data are discussed in the full-length article entitled “Preboundary lengthening in Japanese: To what extent do lexical pitch accent and moraic structure matter?” [1].

How to have a metalinguistic dispute

There has been recent interest in the idea that speakers who appear to be having a verbal dispute may in fact be engaged in a metalinguistic negotiation: they are communicating information about how they believe an expression should be used. For example, individuals involved in a dispute about whether a racehorse is an athlete might be communicating their diverging views about how 'athlete' should be used. While many have argued that metalinguistic negotiation is a pervasive feature of philosophical and everyday discourse, the literature currently lacks an account of this phenomenon that can be situated within a 'mainstream' view of communication. I propose an independently motivated account where individuals reconstruct metalinguistic propositions by means of a pragmatic, Gricean reasoning process.

Communicating unexpected pharmacogenomic results to biobank contributors: A focus group study

OBJECTIVES

The goals of this study were to explore 1) the impact of returning unexpected pharmacogenomic (PGx) results to biobank contributors, and 2) participant views about improving communication.

METHODS

We conducted a qualitative focus group study with biobank participants (N = 54) who were notified by mail of an individual research result indicating increased risk for adverse events associated with the common cancer drug 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). We employed a framework approach for analysis.

RESULTS

Our results revealed three themes illustrating participants' questions and uncertainty, especially regarding how to share results with health providers and family members, and remember them over time. Participants valued results for themselves and others, and for the future of medicine. Risk perception was framed by health identity. "Toxicity narratives," or familiarity with another's adverse reaction to chemotherapy, increased the sense of importance participants reported.

CONCLUSION

These focus group results highlight research participant remaining questions and high valuation of PGx results, even when unexpected.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

We identify PGx research participants' needs for clear clinical translation messaging that attends to health identity, pragmatics of sharing information with family members, and patient perceptions of barriers to transferring research results to a clinical context.

Clinical and epidemiological study of cutaneous leishmaniasis in two tertiary care hospitals of Jammu and Kashmir: An emerging disease in North India

BACKGROUND

An increasing number of patients with cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) are reporting to tertiary care centers in Jammu and Kashmir, an area that has previously been non-endemic for this disease. This merits consideration of CL as a major health problem of considerable epidemiological importance. The aims of this study were firstly to describe the clinico-epidemiological profile, therapeutic characteristics, and outcomes of patients with CL and secondly to highlight this union territory as a new focus of endemicity for CL.

METHODS

A two-center hospital-based prospective cohort study was conducted at two tertiary care hospitals in Jammu and Kashmir over a period of 10 years (July 2009 to June 19). All patients presenting to the outpatient departments with lesions suggestive of CL were enrolled for the purpose of this study. Demographic data were recorded on a proforma questionnaire, along with a detailed history and the results of a meticulous examination. Patients diagnosed with CL based on clinical criteria were subjected to slit skin smear (SSS) and histopathological examination for confirmation of the diagnosis. An intralesional pentavalent antimonial, sodium stibogluconate (SSG), was administered at a dose of 0.5 mL/cm² (100 mg/mL solution) three times weekly to those patients with smaller lesions, and intravenously or intramuscularly at a dose of 20 mg/kg/day to those with larger lesions. The response to treatment was assessed by total re-epithelialization of the lesion and an absence of infiltration and erythema, with or without scarring. Treatment was given until complete resolution of the lesions or for a maximum duration of 10 weeks when given intralesionally and 3 weeks when given systemically. Clinical follow-up was performed twice weekly for the first 2 months and monthly thereafter. The final response to treatment was assessed at 6 months.

RESULTS

The study included a total of 1300 patients with a mean age of 26.7 ± 18.5 years. The mean duration of the disease was 28.52 ± 13.5 weeks, ranging from 8 to 64 weeks. Lesions were noted mainly on exposed parts of the body, with the face being the most commonly affected site (89.00%). Nodulo-ulcerative plaques were the predominant lesion type observed (73.92%). The presence of Leishman-Donovan bodies could be demonstrated on SSS and histopathology in 60.69% and 39.54% of patients, respectively. The presence of a recognizable histological pattern conforming to CL and a response to a therapeutic trial of SSG was considered to be confirmatory in the remaining patients. Complete cure was achieved in 84.23% of cases during the study period. Single lesions were more likely to respond to treatment as compared to multiple lesions. The route of administration did not have any significant impact on the final outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

With the disease showing an escalating trend in Jammu and Kashmir, the possibility of a new focus of endemicity and its impact on public health need to be contemplated, and appropriate measures should be initiated to contain its spread.

Out-of-focus brain image detection in serial tissue sections

BACKGROUND

A large part of image processing workflow in brain imaging is quality control which is typically done visually. One of the most time consuming steps of the quality control process is classifying an image as in-focus or out-of-focus (OOF).

NEW METHOD

In this paper we introduce an automated way of identifying OOF brain images from serial tissue sections in large datasets (>1.5 PB). The method utilizes steerable filters (STF) to derive a focus value (FV) for each image. The FV combined with an outlier detection that applies a dynamic threshold allows for the focus classification of the images.

RESULTS

The method was tested by comparing the results of our algorithm with a visual inspection of the same images. The results support that the method works extremely well by successfully identifying OOF images within serial tissue sections with a minimal number of false positives.

COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS

Our algorithm was also compared to other methods and metrics and successfully tested in different stacks of images consisting solely of simulated OOF images in order to demonstrate the applicability of the method to other large datasets.

CONCLUSIONS

We have presented a practical method to distinguish OOF images from large datasets that include serial tissue sections that can be included in an automated pre-processing image analysis pipeline.

Quantification of perineural invasion focus after radical prostatectomy could improve predictive power of recurrence

Perineural invasion (PNI) after radical prostatectomy (RP) is a common feature of prostate cancer (PCa) and has been associated with unfavorable tumor characteristics. However, its prognostic relevance is controversial. In this study, we evaluated the impact of both PNI status (PNI+ versus PNI-) and quantified number of PNI focus on the long-term prognosis of biochemical recurrence (BCR) after RP. After reevaluating PNI of a total of 721 patients with localized PCa who underwent RP at our institution between 2000 and 2002, we examined associations between PNI status or PNI focus number and clinicopathological factors including tumor stage, Gleason score, margin status, tumor location, preoperative prostate specific antigen, age, prostate weight as well as BCR outcome. PNI was present in 530 of 721 cases (73.5%) of the RP specimens and was associated with more aggressive disease. BCR occurred in 19.4% of all patients within a median follow-up period of 8.5 years. PNI+ status was associated with poor BCR prognosis in univariate analysis but lost in multivariate analysis. Based on the number of PNI focus, PNI was further divided into 2 distinct group: PNI+ a (≤3) and PNI+ b (>3). In a multivariate Cox regression model, PNI+ b (>3) was identified as an independent BCR prognostic factor. Quantification of PNI focus number beside the dichotomized status recording will not only provide more detailed information but also be a novel prognostic indicator for risk stratification. Further external validation will be needed for an optimal cut-off value of the PNI focus number. Our findings will help further research on the relevance of PNI in the pretreatment setting and support ongoing efforts to understand its role of cancer progression.

Focus to an attribute with verbal or numerical quantifiers affects the attribute framing effect

People find positive attribute frames (e.g., 75% lean) more persuasive than negative ones (e.g., 25% fat). In three pre-registered experiments, we tested whether this effect would be magnified by using verbal quantifiers instead of numerical ones (e.g., 'high % lean' vs. '75% lean'). This moderating effect of quantifier format was predicted based on previous empirical work and two non-exclusive accounts of framing effects. First, verbal quantifiers are presumed to be a more intuitive format than numerical quantifiers, so might predispose people more to judgement biases such as the framing effect. Second, verbal quantifiers draw a greater focus to the attributes they describe. This could provide a linguistic signal that the positive frame is better than the negative one. In three experiments, we manipulated the attribute frame (positive or negative) and the quantifier format (verbal or numerical) between-subjects, and quantity pairs (e.g., 5% fat and 95% lean or 25% fat and 75% lean) within-subjects. We also tested if participants focused more on the attributes in the frame, by measuring whether participants selected causal sentence completions about the beef that focused on why it had fat meat or lean meat. Results showed a robust framing effect, which was partially mediated by the focus of the sentence completions. However, the verbal format did not increase the magnitude of the framing effect. These results suggest that a focus on the attribute contributes to the framing effect, but contrary to past work, this focus is not different between verbal and numerical quantifiers.

Universals of listening: Equivalent prosodic entrainment in tone and non-tone languages

In English and Dutch, listeners entrain to prosodic contours to predict where focus will fall in an utterance. Here, we ask whether this strategy is universally available, even in languages with very different phonological systems (e.g., tone versus non-tone languages). In a phoneme detection experiment, we examined whether prosodic entrainment also occurs in Mandarin Chinese, a tone language, where the use of various suprasegmental cues to lexical identity may take precedence over their use in salience. Consistent with the results from Germanic languages, response times were facilitated when preceding intonation predicted high stress on the target-bearing word, and the lexical tone of the target word (i.e., rising versus falling) did not affect the Mandarin listeners' response. Further, the extent to which prosodic entrainment was used to detect the target phoneme was the same in both English and Mandarin listeners. Nevertheless, native Mandarin speakers did not adopt an entrainment strategy when the sentences were presented in English, consistent with the suggestion that L2 listening may be strained by additional functional load from prosodic processing. These findings have implications for how universal and language-specific mechanisms interact in the perception of focus structure in everyday discourse.

An opponent dual-detector spectral drive model of emmetropization

In post-natal developing eyes a feedback mechanism uses optical cues to regulate axial growth so as to achieve good focus, a process termed emmetropization. However, the optical cues that the feedback mechanism uses have remained unclear. Here we present evidence that a primary visual cue may be the detection of different image statistics by the short-wavelength sensitive (SWS) and long-wavelength sensitive (LWS) cone photoreceptors, caused by longitudinal chromatic aberration (LCA). We use as a model system the northern tree shrew Tupaia belangeri, diurnal cone-dominated dichromatic mammals closely related to primates. We present an optical model in which the SWS and LWS photoreceptors each represent an image at different levels of defocus. The model posits that an imbalance between SWS and LWS image statistics directs eye growth towards the point at which these image statistics are in balance. Under spectrally broadband ("white") lighting, the focus of the eye is driven to a target point approximately in the middle of the visible spectrum, which is emmetropia. Calculations suggest that the SWS cone array, despite the sparse number of SWS cones, can plausibly detect the wavelength-dependent differences in defocus and guide refractive development. The model is consistent with the effects of various narrow-band illuminants on emmetropization in tree shrews. Simulations suggest that common artificial light spectra do not interfere with emmetropization. Simulations also suggest that multi-spectral multi-focal lenses, where the different optical zones of a multifocal lens have different spectral filtering properties, could be an anti-myopia intervention.

On topic and focus in Standard Arabic

Adopting the Cartography research program (Rizzi, 1997, 2001, 2004), the present work investigates the CP layer in Standard Arabic (SA); specifically, the nature and position of topicalized and object focused phrases in the left periphery. The paper also seeks to establish that in fact subjects, like objects and obliques, can also topicalize, the difference being that the pronoun is optionally lexically expressed in subject-topicalization. The ‘Subject’ initial-DP will be treated as a topic located high up in the clausal structure - in the specifier position of the Top node above Foc. Elements in this position fill a special pragmatic sense and discourse role of being presumed, given and identifiable topics rather than an argument or a thematic function.

Building on Rizzi's (2004) and Ouhalla's (1997) proposals that generate moved objects and wh-phrases in [Spec, Foc], two focus positions will be posited for SA – one is located immediately above vP and the second is right below TopP. It will be proposed that object movement over the subject is triggered by the [F] feature on Foc and derives the VOS order. Triggered by the higher [F] feature, the raised object and the raised wh-word can raise again to the higher [Spec, Foc]. It is concluded that the position occupied by topicalized DP's differs from that of focused DP's. In particular, SA topics occupy a higher position in the left periphery, namely [Spec, TopP].

Understanding Prosodic Focus Marking in Mandarin Chinese: Data from Children and Adults

This study investigated whether Mandarin speakers interpret prosodic information as focus markers in a sentence-picture verification task. Previous production studies have shown that both Mandarin-speaking adults and Mandarin-speaking children mark focus by prosodic information (Ouyang and Kaiser in Lang Cogn Neurosc 30(1-2):57-72, 2014; Yang and Chen in Prosodic focus marking in Chinese four-and eight-year-olds, 2014). However, while prosodic focus marking did not seem to affect sentence comprehension in adults Mandarin-speaking children showed enhanced sentence comprehension when the sentence focus was marked by prosodic information in a previous study (Chen in Appl Psycholinguist 19(4):553-582, 1998). The present study revisited this difference between Mandarin speaking adults and children by applying a newly designed task that tested the use of prosodic information to identify the sentence focus. No evidence was obtained that Mandarin-speaking children (as young as 3 years of age) adhered more strongly to prosodic information than adults but that word order was the strongest cue for their focus interpretation. Our findings support the view that children attune to the specific means of information structure marking in their ambient language at an early age.

Non-linear spatial modeling of rat sightings in relation to urban multi-source foci

The brown rat has been living with humans in a wide variety of environmental contexts; it adversely affects public health by transmission of pathogens that can cause human diseases and allergies. Understanding behavioral aspects and environmental factors of pest species can contribute to their effective management and control. This aim of this study was to investigate the spatial distribution of rats in Latina district of Madrid (Spain), and its relationship with several potential multi-source foci. A focus is any particular social and environmental urban scenario that favors the clustering and proliferation of rats. We have developed a statistical framework to provide valid information on the spatial distribution and behavior of the rats around identified potential foci that favor the concentration of rats in urban environments. We extended the standard Poisson regression model by the inclusion of a multiplicative non-linear function of the distance, an unstructured random effect, and a spatial random effect to account for the spatial structure of socio-demographic and environmental covariates were also considered in the model to control for potential confusion. We found evidence of an association between the spatial distribution of rats aggregated by census tracts and distance to foci, and this association was controlled by the covariates considered in this study.

Fer-ho Anaphora in Catalan: Semantic and Discourse Properties

This paper considers the anaphoric status of the pro-form fer-ho (do it) in Catalan [This paper contains some ideas included in Busquets (2005)]. I discuss some anaphoric properties of fer-ho as DEEP ANAPHORA. I also compare these properties to those of other types of anaphora, like VPE and pseudogapping (PG). I show that its interpretation is strongly constrained by information and discourse structure.

Referential and Non-referential Uses of the Third Person Pronominal Subject in Spanish

This paper studies the role of two different types of motivation that have been proposed to explain the use of subject personal pronouns in Spanish, namely their function as indications for the addressee to identify the subject's referent, and their suitability for expressing informational values such as contrastiveness or focus. This study focuses exclusively on third-person forms and relies on conversational data. The distribution of third-person pronouns is analysed combining qualitative and quantitative approaches. It will be argued that the informational and referential properties of subject personal pronouns are by themselves insufficient to account for their expression, their occurrence depending crucially on their activation through the previous use of units of the same type.

Assessing microscope image focus quality with deep learning

Background

Large image datasets acquired on automated microscopes typically have some fraction of low quality, out-of-focus images, despite the use of hardware autofocus systems. Identification of these images using automated image analysis with high accuracy is important for obtaining a clean, unbiased image dataset. Complicating this task is the fact that image focus quality is only well-defined in foreground regions of images, and as a result, most previous approaches only enable a computation of the relative difference in quality between two or more images, rather than an absolute measure of quality.

Results

We present a deep neural network model capable of predicting an absolute measure of image focus on a single image in isolation, without any user-specified parameters. The model operates at the image-patch level, and also outputs a measure of prediction certainty, enabling interpretable predictions. The model was trained on only 384 in-focus Hoechst (nuclei) stain images of U2OS cells, which were synthetically defocused to one of 11 absolute defocus levels during training. The trained model can generalize on previously unseen real Hoechst stain images, identifying the absolute image focus to within one defocus level (approximately 3 pixel blur diameter difference) with 95% accuracy. On a simpler binary in/out-of-focus classification task, the trained model outperforms previous approaches on both Hoechst and Phalloidin (actin) stain images (F-scores of 0.89 and 0.86, respectively over 0.84 and 0.83), despite only having been presented Hoechst stain images during training. Lastly, we observe qualitatively that the model generalizes to two additional stains, Hoechst and Tubulin, of an unseen cell type (Human MCF-7) acquired on a different instrument.

Conclusions

Our deep neural network enables classification of out-of-focus microscope images with both higher accuracy and greater precision than previous approaches via interpretable patch-level focus and certainty predictions. The use of synthetically defocused images precludes the need for a manually annotated training dataset. The model also generalizes to different image and cell types. The framework for model training and image prediction is available as a free software library and the pre-trained model is available for immediate use in Fiji (ImageJ) and CellProfiler.

Light-focusing human micro-lenses generated from pluripotent stem cells model lens development and drug-induced cataract in vitro

Cataracts cause vision loss and blindness by impairing the ability of the ocular lens to focus light onto the retina. Various cataract risk factors have been identified, including drug treatments, age, smoking and diabetes. However, the molecular events responsible for these different forms of cataract are ill-defined, and the advent of modern cataract surgery in the 1960s virtually eliminated access to human lenses for research. Here, we demonstrate large-scale production of light-focusing human micro-lenses from spheroidal masses of human lens epithelial cells purified from differentiating pluripotent stem cells. The purified lens cells and micro-lenses display similar morphology, cellular arrangement, mRNA expression and protein expression to human lens cells and lenses. Exposing the micro-lenses to the emergent cystic fibrosis drug Vx-770 reduces micro-lens transparency and focusing ability. These human micro-lenses provide a powerful and large-scale platform for defining molecular disease mechanisms caused by cataract risk factors, for anti-cataract drug screening and for clinically relevant toxicity assays.

Clinical trial experience with CA4P anticancer therapy: focus on efficacy, cardiovascular adverse events, and hypertension management

Combretastatin A4-phosphate (CA4P) is a vascular-disrupting agent (VDA) in clinical development for the treatment of ovarian and other cancers. In contrast to antiangiogenic agents, such as bevacizumab, which suppress the development of new tumor vasculature, VDAs target established tumor vasculature. These differing but complementary mechanisms of action are currently being explored in clinical trials combining CA4P and bevacizumab. Clinical experience to date has highlighted an important need to better understand the cardiovascular adverse events of CA4P, both alone and in combination with antiangiogenic agents, which can also be associated with cardiovascular adverse events.

An acute but transient increase in blood pressure is often the most clinically relevant toxicity associated with CA4P. Increases in CA4P-related blood pressure typically occur 0.5 to 1 h after initiation of the 10-min infusion, peak by 2 h, and return to baseline 3 to 4 h after the infusion. Post-infusion increases in blood pressure are likely to recur in subsequent treatment cycles; however, the severity does not appear to increase with successive cycles. Other cardiovascular adverse events, such as transient, predominantly grade 1–2 tachycardia, bradycardia, QTc prolongation, and in rare cases myocardial ischemia, have also been observed with CA4P but at markedly lower frequencies than hypertension.

The clinical trial experience with CA4P suggests that cardiovascular assessment of patients prior to CA4P treatment and careful management of blood pressure during CA4P treatment can largely mitigate the risk of cardiovascular adverse events. Accordingly, we have developed a blood pressure management algorithm for use in the ongoing phase II/III FOCUS study of the triple combination of CA4P with physician’s choice chemotherapy and bevacizumab.

The Interface of Syntax with Pragmatics and Prosody in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders

In order to study problems of individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) with morphosyntax, we investigated twenty high-functioning Greek-speaking children (mean age: 6;11) and twenty age- and language-matched typically developing children on environments that allow or forbid object clitics or their corresponding noun phrase. Children with ASD fell behind typically developing children in comprehending and producing simple clitics and producing noun phrases in focus structures. The two groups performed similarly in comprehending and producing clitics in clitic left dislocation and in producing noun phrases in non-focus structures. We argue that children with ASD have difficulties at the interface of (morpho)syntax with pragmatics and prosody, namely, distinguishing a discourse prominent element, and considering intonation relevant for a particular interpretation that excludes clitics.

[Malaria focus investigation and disposal in Tengchong City between 2015 and 2016]

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the results of malaria focus investigation and disposal in Tengchong City, Yunnan Province between 2015 and 2016, so as to provide evidences for interrupting potential malaria transmission.

METHODS

The malaria foci were investigated and disposed according to the malaria cases reported from "China Information System for Disease Control and Prevention" in Tengchong City between 2015 and 2016. The mosquitoes were captured by mosquito-lured lamp overnight to investigate the malaria vector in local. The peripheral blood samples were collected from the local residents with a febrile history in the foci within two weeks and the accompanists of the cases, and then the rapid malaria diagnosis tests were used to screen the malaria carriers.

RESULTS

Totally 145 imported malaria cases were reported in Tengchong City between 2015 and 2016, and the focus investigation and disposal rate within 7 d was 100% (145/145). A total of 16 186 mosquitoes of 12 species of Anopheles were captured, among which An. sinensis was the predominant, accounting for 64.31% (10 410/16 186), followed by An. kunmingensis and An. minimus, with the constituent ratios of 14.15% (2 291/16 186) and 11.66% (1 887/16 186), respectively. One person (1.96%, 1/51) in the 51 accompanists of the cases was positive in the malaria rapid diagnosis test.

CONCLUSIONS

The malaria transmission vectors such as An. sinensis, An. kunmingensis, An. minimus etc. are still distributed in Tengchong City, and An. sinensis is the predominant species. Therefore, the relevant authorities should continue to strengthen the focus investigation and disposal to interrupt the potential introduced malaria transmission by imported cases in the future.

Focused ultrasound treatment for central nervous system disease: neurosurgeon's perspectives

The concept of focused ultrasound (FUS) and its application in the field of medicine have been suggested since the mid-20th century. However, the clinical applications of this technique in central nervous system (CNS) diseases have been extremely limited because the skull inhibits efficient energy transmission. Therefore, early application of FUS treatment was only performed in patients who had already undergone invasive procedures including craniectomy and burr hole trephination. In the 1990s, the phased array technique was developed and this enabled the focus of ultrasonic energy through the skull, and in conjunction with another technique, magnetic resonance thermal monitoring, the possibility of applying FUS in the CNS was further strengthened. The first clinical trial using FUS treatment for CNS diseases was performed in the early 21^st century in patients with glioblastoma, which consists of highly malignant primary brain tumors. However, this trial resulted in a failure to make lesions in the tumors. Various causes were suggested for this outcome including different acoustic impedances across heterogeneous intracranial tissue (not only brain tissue, but also fibrous or tumor tissue). To avoid the influence of this factor, the targets for FUS treatment were shifted to functional diseases such as essential tremor, Parkinson's disease, and psychiatric disease, which usually occur in normal brain structures. The first trial for functional diseases was started in 2010, and the results were successful as accurate lesions were made in the target area. Nowadays, the indication of FUS treatment for functional CNS diseases is gradually widening, and many trials using the FUS technique are reporting good results. In addition to the lesioning technique using high intensity FUS treatment, the possibility of clinical application of low intensity FUS to CNS disease treatment has been investigated at a pre-clinical level, and it is expected that FUS treatment will become one of the most important novel techniques for the treatment of CNS diseases in the near future.

"Who" should be focused? The influence of focus status on pronoun resolution

Focus is assumed to be able to enhance the salience of a focused constituent and thereby facilitate the interpretation of a pronoun that refers to a focused antecedent relative to an unfocused antecedent. To assess how discourse-based focus structure influences the interpretation of a pronoun and whether this process is modulated by the grammatical role of the antecedent, we conducted an ERP study in which the focus status of a pronoun's potential antecedents was manipulated by means of a wh-question-answer structure. We found that, relative to those in the focused position, pronouns referring to antecedents in the unfocused position evoked enhanced positive responses in both early (180-230 ms) and late time windows (400-800 ms). Moreover, while a larger positivity was evoked by object-referring pronouns compared to subject-referring pronouns in the 400-800 ms time window over the right hemisphere, there was no effect of grammatical role in the 180-230 ms time window. These findings indicate that, while the initial stage of pronoun resolution is modulated by focus information assigned via a wh-question structure, integration of the pronoun and its antecedent into a coherent discourse representation at the later stage could be constrained by various factors, including the focus status and possibly the grammatical role of the antecedent.

Focusing on butterfly eyespot focus: uncoupling of white spots from eyespot bodies in nymphalid butterflies

BACKGROUND

Developmental studies on butterfly wing color patterns often focus on eyespots. A typical eyespot (such as that of Bicyclus anynana) has a few concentric rings of dark and light colors and a white spot (called a focus) at the center. The prospective eyespot center during the early pupal stage is known to act as an organizing center. It has often been assumed, according to gradient models for positional information, that a white spot in adult wings corresponds to an organizing center and that the size of the white spot indicates how active that organizing center was. However, there is no supporting evidence for these assumptions. To evaluate the feasibility of these assumptions in nymphalid butterflies, we studied the unique color patterns of Calisto tasajera (Nymphalidae, Satyrinae), which have not been analyzed before in the literature.

RESULTS

In the anterior forewing, one white spot was located at the center of an eyespot, but another white spot associated with either no or only a small eyespot was present in the adjacent compartment. The anterior hindwing contained two adjacent white spots not associated with eyespots, one of which showed a sparse pattern. The posterior hindwing contained two adjacent pear-shaped eyespots, and the white spots were located at the proximal side or even outside the eyespot bodies. The successive white spots within a single compartment along the midline in the posterior hindwing showed a possible trajectory of a positional determination process for the white spots. Several cases of focus-less eyespots in other nymphalid butterflies were also presented.

CONCLUSIONS

These results argue for the uncoupling of white spots from eyespot bodies, suggesting that an eyespot organizing center does not necessarily differentiate into a white spot and that a prospective white spot does not necessarily signify organizing activity for an eyespot. Incorporation of these results in future models for butterfly wing color pattern formation is encouraged.

A widening gap? Static and dynamic performance differences between specialist and general hospitals

This paper develops and tests a dynamic model of hospital focus. It does so by tracing the performance trajectories of specialist and general hospitals to identify whether a performance gap exists and whether it widens or shrinks over time. Our longitudinal analyses of all hospital organizations within the English National Health Service (NHS) reveal not only a notable performance gap between specialist and general hospitals in particular with regards to patient satisfaction that widens over time, but also the emergence of a gap especially with regards to hospital staff job satisfaction. These findings reflect the considerable potential of specialization as a means to enhance hospital effectiveness. However, they also alert health policy makers to the threat of a widening performance gap between specialist and general hospitals with potential negative repercussions at the patient and health system level.

Neurobiology of KB220Z-Glutaminergic-Dopaminergic Optimization Complex [GDOC] as a Liquid Nano: Clinical Activation of Brain in a Highly Functional Clinician Improving Focus, Motivation and Overall Sensory Input Following Chronic Intake

Background

With neurogenetic and epigenetic tools utilized in research and neuroimaging, we are unraveling the mysteries of brain function, especially as it relates to Reward Deficiency (RDS). We encourage the development of pharmaceuticals or nutraceuticals that promote a reduction in dopamine resistance and balance brain neurochemistry, leading to dopamine homeostasis. We disclose self-assessment of a highly functional professional under work-related stress following KB220Z use, a liquid (aqua) nano glutaminergic-dopaminergic optimization complex (GDOC).

Case presentation

Subject took GDOC for one month. Subject self-administered GDOC using one-half-ounce twice a day. During first three days, unique brain activation occurred; resembling white noise after 30 minutes and sensation was strong for 45 minutes and then dissipated. He described effect as if his eyesight improved slightly and pointed out that his sense of smell and sleep greatly improved. Subject experienced a calming effect similar to meditation that could be linked to dopamine release. He also reported control of going over the edge after a hard day’s work, which was coupled with a slight increase in energy, increased motivation to work, increased focus and multi-tasking, with clearer purpose of task at hand. Subject felt less inhibited in a social setting and suggested Syndrome that GDOC increased his Behavior Activating System (reward), while having a decrease in the Behavior Inhibition System (caution).

Conclusion

These results and other related studies reveal an improved mood, work-related focus, and sleep. These effects as a subjective feeling of brain activation maybe due to direct or indirect dopaminergic interaction. While this case is encouraging, we must await more research in a larger randomized placebo-controlled study to map the role of GDOC, especially in a nano-sized product, to determine the possible effects on circuit inhibitory control and memory banks and the induction of dopamine homeostasis independent of either hypo- or hyper-dopaminergic traits/states.

Ecology of Yersinia pestis and the Epidemiology of Plague

This chapter summarizes information about the natural foci of plague in the world. We describe the location, main hosts, and vectors of Yersinia pestis. The ecological features of the hosts and vectors of plague are listed, including predators - birds and mammals and their role in the epizootic. The epizootic process in plague and the factors affecting the dynamics of epizootic activity of natural foci of Y. pestis are described in detail. The mathematical models of the epizootic process in plague and predictive models are briefly described. The most comprehensive list of the hosts and vectors of Y. pestis in the world is presented as well.

How information structure influences the processing of rhythmic irregularities: ERP evidence from German phrases

This study explores the influence of focus and givenness on the cognitive processing of rhythmic irregularities occurring in natural speech. Previous ERP studies showed that even subtle rhythmic deviations are detected by the brain if attention is directed towards the rhythmic structure. By using question-answer pairs, it was investigated whether subtle rhythmic irregularities in form of stress clashes (two adjacent stressed syllables) and stress lapses (two adjacent unstressed syllables) are still perceived when presented in post-focus position in an answer sentence and attention is directed away from them, towards the meaning of the element in narrow focus position by the preceding wh-question. Moreover, by visually presenting the lexical-semantic input of the deviating structure in the question, the influence of rhythmical and lexical properties in these two forms of rhythmic deviations are disentangled. While words in the present stress clash condition do not deviate from lexical stress, stress lapses contain deviations from metrical and lexical stress. The data reveal an early negativity effect for stress clashes but not for stress lapses, supporting the assumption that they are processed differently. The absence of a negative component for stress lapses indicates that the metrical deviation alone is not salient enough to be registered in non-focus position. Moreover, the lack of a late positive component suggests that subtle rhythmic deviations are less perceivable and hence more acceptable when presented in non-focus position. Thus, these results show that attentional shift induced by information structure influences the degree of the processing of rhythm.

Context-driven expectations about focus alternatives

What is conveyed by a sentence frequently depends not only on the descriptive content carried by its words, but also on implicit alternatives determined by the context of use. Four visual world eye-tracking experiments examined how alternatives are generated based on aspects of the discourse context and used in interpreting sentences containing the focus operators only and also. Experiment 1 builds on previous reading time studies showing that the interpretations of only sentences are constrained by alternatives explicitly mentioned in the preceding discourse, providing fine-grained time course information about the expectations triggered by only. Experiments 2 and 3 show that, in the absence of explicitly mentioned alternatives, lexical and situation-based categories evoked by the context are possible sources of alternatives. While Experiments 1-3 all demonstrate the discourse dependence of alternatives, only explicit mention triggered expectations about alternatives that were specific to sentences with only. By comparing only with also, Experiment 4 begins to disentangle expectations linked to the meanings of specific operators from those generalizable to the class of focus-sensitive operators. Together, these findings show that the interpretation of sentences with focus operators draws on both dedicated mechanisms for introducing alternatives into the discourse context and general mechanisms associated with discourse processing.

A review on the cognitive function of information structure during language comprehension

During communication, information structure can be used to highlight the most relevant piece of information, so that sufficient amount of attention can be allocated to the most important information. This paper aims to review the cognitive function of information structure during language comprehension from a neurocognitve perspective. First, we gave a brief introduction to the concept of information structure that has been studied mostly in linguistic field. Then we introduced recent studies on information structure using electrophysiological and neuroimaging techniques. After that, we discussed the relationship between attention and language processing more generally. Finally, we discussed potential directions for future studies.

The safety of the Harmonic® FOCUS in open thyroidectomy: a prospective, randomized study comparing the Harmonic® FOCUS and traditional suture ligation (knot and tie) technique

Since Kocher and Billroth refined an acceptable technique, the thyroidectomy has become one of the most frequent procedures in endocrine surgery and bilateral total thyroidectomy is performed in the majority of thyroid diseases. This work evaluated the use of the Harmonic(®) FOCUS and traditional suture ligation (knot and tie) technique in a prospective, randomized study of open thyroidectomy. Eighty two patients were randomized and divided into two similarly sized groups: the Harmonic(®) FOCUS group (F group) and traditional group (T group). The use of the harmonic FOCUS shows some statistically significant advantages limited to a few intraoperative parameters: surgical time and volume of blood loss. The surgical time was significantly shorter in F group than in the T group (105 ± 27 min vs 143 ± 32 respectively; p < 0.05). Intraoperative volume blood loss was significantly more in the T group than in the F group (36 ± 23 ml vs. 24 ± 18; p < 0.05). The postoperative parameters (volume of drainage fluid, serum calcium at 12 and 48 h, hypocalcemia, wound complication, RLN palsy, postoperative pain and length of hospital stay) showed no statistical difference. The Harmonic Focus may provide a cost-effective option only in high volume centers where reducing operative time may balance the number of daily procedures.

Effect of the accommodation-vergence conflict on vergence eye movements

With the broader use of stereoscopic displays, a flurry of research activity about the accommodation-vergence conflict has emerged to highlight the implications for the human visual system. In stereoscopic displays, the introduction of binocular disparities requires the eyes to make vergence movements. In this study, we examined vergence dynamics with regard to the conflict between the stimulus-to-accommodation and the stimulus-to-vergence. In a first experiment, we evaluated the immediate effect of the conflict on vergence responses by presenting stimuli with conflicting disparity and focus on a stereoscopic display (i.e. increasing the stereoscopic demand) or by presenting stimuli with matched disparity and focus using an arrangement of displays and a beam splitter (i.e. focus and disparity specifying the same locations). We found that the dynamics of vergence responses were slower overall in the first case due to the conflict between accommodation and vergence. In a second experiment, we examined the effect of a prolonged exposure to the accommodation-vergence conflict on vergence responses, in which participants judged whether an oscillating depth pattern was in front or behind the fixation plane. An increase in peak velocity was observed, thereby suggesting that the vergence system has adapted to the stereoscopic demand. A slight increase in vergence latency was also observed, thus indicating a small decline of vergence performance. These findings offer a better understanding and document how the vergence system behaves in stereoscopic displays. We describe what stimuli in stereo-movies might produce these oculomotor effects, and discuss potential applications perspectives.

Breast magnetic resonance imaging: management of an enhancing focus

An enhancing focus is a commonly encountered type of lesion on breast magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. No set criteria for appropriate management are available. Often management of these lesions depends on the interpreting radiologist, with varying recommendations for biopsy, short-term follow-up, or routine surveillance. This article reviews published studies in order to develop a strategy for the management of enhancing foci identified on breast MR imaging.

Optimal attentional focus during exposure in specific phobia: a meta-analysis

Over the last 30 years, researchers have disagreed over the consequences of diverting attention from threat for exposure efficacy, which is an important theoretical and clinical debate. Therefore, the present meta-analysis assessed the efficacy of attentionally focused exposure against distracted and attentionally uninstructed exposure regarding distress, behavioral, and physiological outcomes. We included 15 randomized studies with specific phobia, totaling 444 participants and targeting outcomes at post-exposure and follow-up. Results indicated no difference between the efficacy of distracted exposure as opposed to focused or uninstructed exposure for distress and physiology. For behavior, at post-exposure, results were marginally significant in favor of distracted as opposed to focused exposure, while at follow-up results significantly favored distraction. However, concerning behavior, uninstructed exposure was superior to distraction. Moderation analyses revealed that, regarding distress reduction and approach behavior, distracted exposure significantly outperformed focused exposure when the distracter was interactive (g=1.010/g=1.128) and exposure was spread over the course of multiple sessions (g=1.527/g=1.606). No moderation analysis was significant for physiological measures. These findings suggest that distraction during exposure could be less counterproductive than previously considered and even beneficial under certain circumstances. Theoretical implications and future directions for research are discussed.