Irgafos 168 and Irganox 1076 as new cocaine cutting agents: A COVID-19 pandemic impact on cocaine profiling and trafficking in Brazil

BACKGROUNDS

Restrictions in movement and closure of borders imposed by the Sars-Cov- 2 worldwide pandemic have affected the global illicit drug market, including cocaine trafficking. In this scenario, comparing cutting agents added to the cocaine and the drug purity are valuable strategies to understand how the drug trade has been impacted by the pandemic.

METHODS

In this work, 204 cocaine salt materials seized in the Brazilian Federal District, before (2019) and during COVID-19 pandemics (2020) were analyzed by two analytical techniques: gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Statistical analyses, including Principal Component Analysis (PCA), were applied to evaluate the COVID-19 pandemic impact in the local market. Bibliometric analysis was performed as a forensic intelligence tool.

RESULTS

From 2019-2020, cocaine average purity decreased 26 % while the frequency of cutting agents, as caffeine and anesthetics (lidocaine, tetracaine) increased. The high percentage of unknown were increased. Different cocaine profiling seized in 2020 showed new cutting agents, such as Irganox 1076, and Irgafos 168, indicating a trend on new adulterants/diluents introduced in the local market to mitigate the local drug shortage. Also in 2020, there was an increase in the local cocaine seizures, despite of the cocaine drug purity decreased by 26 % compared to 2019.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, these data showed that the covid-19 pandemics has impacted cocaine trafficking in the Brazilian Federal District, an increase in cocaine seizures, which may indicate greater demand for the drug and, specially, changes in the cocaine purity and cutting agents profiling showing how traffickers tried to minimize difficulties in crossing the Brazilian border during COVID-19 restrictions. The information is relevant since Brazil is one of the major departure points for traded cocaine to the world. Bibliometric analysis showed that Irgafos 168 and Irganox 1076 were consistently identified as cocaine cutting agents for the first time.

An exploratory study of topographical signatures within 3D fused deposition modelling using Polylactic Acid (PLA) filament

This preliminary limited study considers the possibility of the same source identification of consecutively 3D printed components using polymer filament by the examination of deposition artifacts as distinctive macroscopic and microscopic surface characteristics upon the surface of 3D printed objects. Hot-end printer nozzle deposition using polymer filaments can create distinctive surface characteristics upon 3D FDM-printed manufactured objects that can be identified, examined, and compared. Such artifacts can occur as repeatable patterns known as 'deposition striae', 'detachment points', and 'start points' upon the surfaces of an object and on consecutively manufactured components that have used the same 3D Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) printer hardware. Some of these observable artifacts can fulfil the sufficient agreement requirements of the Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners (AFTE) Theory of Identification as it relates to tool marks when applied to consecutively produced 3D Additive Manufacture (AM) components. For this criteria to apply, the influence of subclass characteristics on any identification must be ruled out.

A footwear marks database in Western Switzerland: A forensic intelligence success

Footwear marks database has been the subject of numerous research projects over the past decades with a strong focus on the automation of the process of retrieving candidates for comparison. However, to date, there is still no tool able to perform a fully automate treatment of unknown crime scene marks. Making the assumption that a fully automated tool would not be available before a long time and not necessarily required, a project has emerged in Western Switzerland with the aim to commonly exploit footwear marks across several states. As this type of evidence is mainly collected in the context of volume crime, the exploitation of the footwear marks is mainly focused on the detection of links between cases in order to create forensic intelligence. Nevertheless, the search for associations between unknown marks and seized shoes is also carried out. This project resulted in a database developed in-house and now in operation. Through this tool, several forensic services are able to share their footwear marks, compare them and detect series. The links detected through this database are also shared with criminal analysis and intelligence systems. This project does not exploit any particular technological advance but have led to an operational database. This paper will highlight some of the factors that have led to the development and implementation of a successful footwear marks database connecting several police services.

A custom hybridisation enrichment forensic intelligence panel to infer biogeographic ancestry, hair and eye colour, and Y chromosome lineage

Massively parallel sequencing can provide genetic data for hundreds to thousands of loci in a single assay for various types of forensic testing. However, available commercial kits require an initial PCR amplification of short-to-medium sized targets which limits their application for highly degraded DNA. Development and optimisation of large PCR multiplexes also prevents creation of custom panels that target different suites of markers for identity, biogeographic ancestry, phenotype, and lineage markers (Y-chromosome and mtDNA). Hybridisation enrichment, an alternative approach for target enrichment prior to sequencing, uses biotinylated probes to bind to target DNA and has proven successful on degraded and ancient DNA. We developed a customisable hybridisation capture method, that uses individually mixed baits to allow tailored and targeted enrichment to specific forensic questions of interest. To allow collection of forensic intelligence data, we assembled and tested a custom panel of hybridisation baits to infer biogeographic ancestry, hair and eye colour, and paternal lineage (and sex) on modern male and female samples with a range of self-declared ancestries and hair/eye colour combinations. The panel correctly estimated biogeographic ancestry in 9/12 samples (75%) but detected European admixture in three individuals from regions with admixed demographic history. Hair and eye colour were predicted correctly in 83% and 92% of samples respectively, where intermediate eye colour and blond hair were problematic to predict. Analysis of Y-chromosome SNPs correctly assigned sex and paternal haplogroups, the latter complementing and supporting biogeographic ancestry predictions. Overall, we demonstrate the utility of this hybridisation enrichment approach to forensic intelligence testing using a combined suite of biogeographic ancestry, phenotype, and Y-chromosome SNPs for comprehensive biological profiling.

Technical note: The Next Step - a semi-automatic coding and comparison system for forensic footwear impressions

Footwear impression evidence is a key tool in criminal investigations, connecting suspects to the crime scene; in addition, it may provide valuable forensic intelligence linking different crime scenes in the absence of a suspect. This paper presents the development of a computer database and semi-automatic system for shoeprint comparison. The database is based on structured manual coding of elements by CSI (Crime Scene Investigators). The computer algorithm then compares the pattern information of the query footwear impression to the entire database, returning a list of possible matches ranked by pattern similarity and crime scene geographic proximity. Initial results using a database of 284 footwear impressions from real crime scenes revealed that a "match" (i.e., the same shoe model) was found for 30% of the impressions; in most cases, the "match" ranked within the top five places of the "hit" list generated by the algorithm. Our results confirm that this semi-automatic footwear comparison system is simple, cost-effective and efficient, providing great potential for linking crime scenes.

DNA microarray for forensic intelligence purposes: High-density SNP profiles obtained directly from casework-like samples with and without a DNA purification step

SNP analyses from a forensic intelligence perspective have proven to be an important tool to restrict the number of suspected offenders and find missing persons. DNA microarray assays have been demonstrated as a potential feature in forensic analysis, like such as forensic genetic genealogy. The objective of this study was to describe the results from DNA microarray assay from saliva samples deposited on a glass surface collected from by a double swab technique, commonly applied in crime scenes. Eighteen samples from the same person were subjected to Infinium® Global Screening Array-24 v1.0 (~642.824 SNP markers) in two different protocols - with or without the DNA purification procedure. The measured genotype was compared with a Consensus Genotype, obtained from standard control samples, and the parameters such as Call Rate and GenCall Scores were evaluated. Results showed that the Call Rate parameter is enough to estimate the probability of obtaining a correct genotype in the SNP assay. Reliable genotypes with a confidence level of more than 90% (at least 90.15%) were observed in Call Rates above 69.41%, regardless of the experimental condition. Our data demonstrate that DNA Microarray from samples collected under conditions such as those found at crime scenes can generate high-density SNP genetic profiles with a confidence level greater than 90%. Enzymatic adjustments and protocol changes may enable DNA microarray assays for crime analysis and investigation purposes eliminating the purification step in the future. Our data suggest that DNA microarray can support criminal investigation teams from a forensic intelligence perspective.

Impurities, adulterants and cutting agents in cocaine as potential candidates for retrospective mining of GC-MS data

Cocaine is one of the most widely used illicit drugs worldwide. Cocaine powders seized by the Police may contain numerous other substances besides the drug itself. These can be impurities originating from the coca plant or the production process, or be purposely added to the drug formulation as adulterants and cutting agents. In forensic laboratories, identification of cocaine is routinely done through GC-MS analysis, but other components are often ignored even if the method allows for their detection. Yet, they can provide valuable insight into the history of a seizure and its potential connection to other samples. To explore this idea, an extensive review of common impurities and adulterants encountered in cocaine is presented. Based on their incidence, concentration in the end product and compatibility with GC-MS methods, their overall usefulness as candidates for the statistical investigation of existing forensic data is evaluated. The impurities cis- and trans-cinnamoylcocaine, tropacocaine, norcocaine and N-benzoylnormethylecgonine as well as the adulterants lidocaine, procaine, tetracaine, benzocaine, caffeine, acetylsalicylic acid, phenacetin, ibuprofen, levamisole, hydroxyzine and diltiazem are promising candidates to provide additional forensic intelligence. Future research on optimized routine GC-MS methods, signal reproducibility, comparison, statistics and databases is suggested to facilitate this concept. Ultimately, such an approach may significantly advance the amount of information that is extracted from routine casework data, elucidate developments in the cocaine markets in the past and facilitate Police work in the future. Preliminary assessment of existing data from the forensic laboratory of the Amsterdam Police has been included to show that the detection of the identified target impurities is feasible, and that small adjustments to the analysis method could significantly increase the detectability of these analytes in prospective drug screenings. Forensic intelligence based on retrospective data mining of cocaine containing casework samples may thus be realized with minimal additional laboratory efforts by using already available instrumentation, samples and data.

Determining the impact of unknown individuals in criminality using network analysis of DNA matches

Criminal offenders missing from police files limit the capacity to reconstruct criminal networks for criminological research and operational purposes. Recent studies show that forensic DNA databanks offer potential to address this problem, through large-scale analysis of DNA matches, many of which involve unidentified offenders. Applying social network analysis (SNA) to 18 years of DNA match data from Québec, Canada, we found that 1400 unknowns do not occupy more marginal positions in the network than 13,000 known offenders, and explain up to 18% of SNA values (e.g., betweenness centrality) for the latter while supporting 46% of their clustering values. Our results contrast with previous studies, showing moreover that unknown individuals who are positioned centrally in a network may have a larger impact than previously expected on investigation policing with implications for forensic intelligence.

Forensic intelligence: Data analytics as the bridge between forensic science and investigation

Scientists should not play a role in investigations nor should investigators play a role in the scientific analyses. One way to bridge the relationship between the forensic scientist and the police investigator is through an Intelligence Analyst (IA) who is part of the forensic services operation. The IA offers the ability to walk between the role of scientist and law enforcement, receiving data after completion of scientific analyses and translating the information into actionable intelligence. The additional bridging and translating services represent a paradigm shift with increased emphasis on investigative contributions from forensic analysis. Forensic intelligence incorporates forensic data early in an investigation in a holistic case approach that incorporates possible datasets and information that could be relevant to the investigation. We present a brief review of the value added when an IA provides the bridge between the forensic laboratory and police investigators to enhance the use of forensic evidence.

Enhancing the evidential value of textile fibres Part 2: Application of a database-driven fibre comparison strategy to a cold-case investigation

This paper describes the involvement of our laboratory in a Western Australian 'cold-case' investigation that spanned 24 years. The investigation was widely considered to be the largest in Australian history. During the investigative phase, our laboratory was tasked with the collection of trace evidence of all types in connection with a sexual assault and two homicides that were suspected to be related. Textile fibres represented the vast majority of trace evidence recovered. A much greater quantity of fibres (>10,800) was collected than would be typical for a routine case, as fibres of any colour or type were potentially of investigative value. The investigation was unprecedented in its scale, and presented numerous challenges in terms of evidence recovery, analysis, interpretation, reporting, and provision of testimony. A textile fibre microspectrophotometric (MSP) database was developed specifically for the interpretation of data in connection with the investigation. The database currently contains over 25,000 normalised and first derivative spectra of casework, validation and reference textile fibres. A fibre comparison strategy was devised, involving the identification of preliminary fibre groups on the basis of corresponding/similar MSP spectra, and verification of these groups via brightfield and fluorescence comparison microscopy. A potential link to an automotive source was identified for one of the homicide victims during the investigative phase. After identification of a suspect, a total of 98 fibres recovered from victims and from a seized motor vehicle were found to correspond in properties to six different fibre types from known textile sources in connection with the suspect. A highly publicised criminal trial was held, and textile fibre evidence provided a major contribution to the trial findings, in which the accused was found guilty of two homicides.

Illicit drug profiling practices in Finland: An exploratory study about end users' perceptions

Illicit drug profiling (i.e. chemical and/or physical profiling) to compare and relate illicit drugs samples has been actively used in routine case work at the National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) in Finland. This preliminary and exploratory work reviews NBI's illicit drug profiling practices. Particular emphasis is put on communication of forensic results and how the NBI has promoted the use of forensic data in an intelligence perspective by establishing a case coordination service. Moreover, our study evaluates the comprehension, integration and usefulness of illicit drug profiling from end users' point of view by means of an online survey and face-to-face interviews. Findings are compared with theoretical aspects as described in literature. Results show that in the Finnish context illicit drug profiling is used and useful in the investigation and in court. From end users' perspective, real practical relevance relies in its use as intelligence during the investigation. However, to be truly useful, illicit drug profiling results must be communicated promptly during the investigation, with sufficient clarity and interpreted correctly by end users. Factors influencing the integration of illicit drug profiling in the forensic process are addressed.

Interpreting the link value of similarity scores between illicit drug specimens through a dual approach, featuring deterministic and Bayesian frameworks

Illicit drug trafficking and in particular amphetamine-type stimulants continue to be a major problem in Australia. With the constant evolution of illicit drugs markets, it is necessary to gain as much knowledge about them to disrupt or reduce their impact. Illicit drug specimens can be analysed to generate forensic intelligence and understand criminal activities. Part of this analysis involves the evaluation of similarity scores between illicit drug profiles to interpret the link value. Most studies utilise one of two prominent score evaluation approaches, i.e. deterministic or Bayesian. In previous work, the notion of a dual approach was suggested, which emphasised the complementary nature of the two mentioned approaches. The aim of this study was to assess the operational capability of a dual approach in evaluating similarity scores between illicit drug profiles. Utilising a practical example, link values were generated individually from both approaches, then compared in parallel. As a result, it was possible to generate more informed hypotheses, relating to specimen linkage, due to the greater wealth of information available from the two approaches working concurrently. Additionally, it was shown that applying only one approach led to less information being generated during analysis as well as potentially important links between illicit drug specimens being missed.

When does the cutting of cocaine and heroin occur? The first large-scale study based on the chemical analysis of cocaine and heroin seizures in Switzerland

BACKGROUND

Illicit drug profiling can provide knowledge about illicit drug markets, informing on the level of distribution and its evolution in space and time. Illicit drug profiling is usually limited to impurities originally present in the illicit drug (e.g. alkaloids, co-extracted compounds or by-products). However, the benefit of a comprehensive analysis of cutting agents in drug seizures for law enforcement agencies, intelligence and health policy has not been thoroughly investigated in the literature and is the focus of this research.

AIM

This research aims at assessing when and how cutting (i.e. adulteration and dilution) occurs in the supply chain by analysing cocaine and heroin seizures made between 2006 and 2015 in Switzerland.

METHODS

Cocaine and heroin seizures made along the supply chain by law enforcement agencies in the Western region of Switzerland were investigated for adulteration and dilution. A total number of 7841 cocaine and 3476 heroin specimens coming from 1341 and 721 seizures, respectively, were analysed.

RESULTS

The results show that, for both illicit drugs, adulteration and/or dilution occur before arrival into Switzerland as well as in Switzerland. While cocaine is adulterated and diluted, heroin is only adulterated. Interestingly, the same mixture of adulterants (i.e. caffeine-paracetamol) is used to cut heroin at each step in the supply chain.

CONCLUSION

Gaining knowledge about adulteration and dilution at different stages in the supply chain enhances our understanding of drug markets. It also highlights differences along the supply chain and in the distribution of both drugs in Switzerland.

Deliberate fires: From data to intelligence

Deliberate fires are a very common problem affecting all countries around the world. They create a high sense of insecurity within communities, consuming and straining many resources (human and financial). Yet, despite various attempts, significantly tackling and reducing deliberate fires has remained largely ineffective, mainly due to the case-by-case approach implemented in responding to these incidents. Drawing on the repetitive nature of some types of deliberate fires, it was shown that adopting an intelligence-based approach is promising in tackling and reducing repetitive deliberate fires. This paper presents a two-fold procedure developed to produce intelligence on a dataset of fire events that were either deliberate or unknown in origin. Firstly, through the creation of a relevant dataset (which is a peculiar problem due to the specificities of the event of fire) and secondly through the application of specific analyses. This procedure was implemented on a dataset of fire events collated from a nine-year period in the State of Geneva, Switzerland. Results show that rudimentary data and simple processing can already generate valuable intelligence, often unsuspected until then. These results provide responding agencies with a clearer understanding of the problem, which can also support their decision-making process. This study proposes the basis for the development of an integrated real-time intelligence process. Such a process would allow the systematic and real-time monitoring of fire events in general and deliberate fires in particular by providing an immediate view of the problem, detecting recurrent events and revealing linkages between cases indicating repetitions. In terms of policies and governance, such a study should encourage institutions that deal with fires to collectively reshape their objectives, share data and analyses, and coordinate their actions to reduce harm.

Elemental analysis for profiling counterfeit watches

Counterfeit watches are products of illicit activity and contain traces of their production and distribution. Traces provide pertinent information through one of their fundamental characteristics: the ability to reveal links between specimens or cases. The aim of this study was to develop an analytical strategy to obtain the elemental composition of watchcases, by analysing a selection of 35 counterfeit watches. We propose a methodology based on multivariate statistical analysis of chemical results that discriminates between watches from common and different origins, and, ultimately, classifies them into chemical groups. All watchcases were analysed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), providing representative descriptive data on the composition of watchcases. Several multivariate approaches were assessed, considering different scenarios, each using a different set of variables. It appeared that the model that performed best in terms of classification criteria could be misleading, especially in an exploratory context that focuses on the production of intelligence. At the end of the day, hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) allowed us to classify the specimens into 14 chemical classes. Information gained through chemical analysis revealed several links between the specimens. This initial study was performed on a very limited number of watches. Although still in the developmental stage, our approach exhibits promising capabilities and encourages chemical profiling of counterfeit watches on larger scale.

Forensic intelligence applied to questioned document analysis: A model and its application against organized crime

The capability of forensic sciences to fight crime, especially against organized criminal groups, becomes relevant in the recent economic downturn and the war on terrorism. In view of these societal challenges, the methods of combating crime should experience critical changes in order to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of the current resources available. It is obvious that authorities have serious difficulties combating criminal groups of transnational nature. These are characterized as well structured organizations with international connections, abundant financial resources and comprised of members with significant and diverse expertise. One common practice among organized criminal groups is the use of forged documents that allow for the commission of illegal cross-border activities. Law enforcement can target these movements to identify counterfeits and establish links between these groups. Information on document falsification can become relevant to generate forensic intelligence and to design new strategies against criminal activities of this nature and magnitude. This article discusses a methodology for improving the development of forensic intelligence in the discipline of questioned document analysis. More specifically, it focuses on document forgeries and falsification types used by criminal groups. It also describes the structure of international criminal organizations that use document counterfeits as means to conduct unlawful activities. The model presented is partially based on practical applications of the system that have resulted in satisfactory outcomes in our laboratory.

Use of AFIS for linking scenes of crime

Forensic intelligence can provide critical information in criminal investigations - the linkage of crime scenes. The Automatic Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) is an example of a technological improvement that has advanced the entire forensic identification field to strive for new goals and achievements. In one example using AFIS, a series of burglaries into private apartments enabled a fingerprint examiner to search latent prints from different burglary scenes against an unsolved latent print database. Latent finger and palm prints coming from the same source were associated with over than 20 cases. Then, by forensic intelligence and profile analysis the offender's behavior could be anticipated. He was caught, identified, and arrested. It is recommended to perform an AFIS search of LT/UL prints against current crimes automatically as part of laboratory protocol and not by an examiner's discretion. This approach may link different crime scenes.

The use of fingerprints available on the web in false identity documents: Analysis from a forensic intelligence perspective

Fingerprints present in false identity documents were found on the web. In some cases, laterally reversed (mirrored) images of a same fingerprint were observed in different documents. In the present work, 100 fingerprints images downloaded from the web, as well as their reversals obtained by image editing, were compared between themselves and against the database of the Brazilian Federal Police AFIS, in order to better understand trends about this kind of forgery in Brazil. Some image editing effects were observed in the analyzed fingerprints: addition of artifacts (such as watermarks), image rotation, image stylization, lateral reversal and tonal reversal. Discussion about lateral reversals' detection is presented in this article, as well as suggestion to reduce errors due to missed HIT decisions between reversed fingerprints. The present work aims to highlight the importance of the fingerprints' analysis when performing document examination, especially when only copies of documents are available, something very common in Brazil. Besides the intrinsic features of the fingermarks considered in three levels of details by ACE-V methodology, some visual features of the fingerprints images can be helpful to identify sources of forgeries and modus operandi, such as: limits and image contours, fails in the friction ridges caused by excess or lack of inking and presence of watermarks and artifacts arising from the background. Based on the agreement of such features in fingerprints present in different identity documents and also on the analysis of the time and location where the documents were seized, it is possible to highlight potential links between apparently unconnected crimes. Therefore, fingerprints have potential to reduce linkage blindness and the present work suggests the analysis of fingerprints when profiling false identity documents, as well as the inclusion of fingerprints features in the profile of the documents.

Expanding forensic science through forensic intelligence

Research and Development ('R&D') in forensic science currently focuses on innovative technologies improving the efficiency of existing forensic processes, from the detection of marks and traces at the scene, to their presentation in Court. R&D approached from this perspective provides no response to doubts raised by recent criminological studies, which question the effective contribution of forensic science to crime reduction, and to policing in general. Traces (i.e. forensic case data), as remnants of criminal activity are collected and used in various forms of crime monitoring and investigation. The aforementioned doubts therefore need to be addressed by expressing how information is conveyed by traces in these processes. Modelling from this standpoint expands the scope of forensic science and provides new R&D opportunities. Twelve propositions for R&D are stated in order to pave the way.

Understanding and fighting the medicine counterfeit market

Medicine counterfeiting is a serious worldwide issue, involving networks of manufacture and distribution that are an integral part of industrialized organized crime. Despite the potentially devastating health repercussions involved, legal sanctions are often inappropriate or simply not applied. The difficulty in agreeing on a definition of counterfeiting, the huge profits made by the counterfeiters and the complexity of the market are the other main reasons for the extent of the phenomenon. Above all, international cooperation is needed to thwart the spread of counterfeiting. Moreover effort is urgently required on the legal, enforcement and scientific levels. Pharmaceutical companies and agencies have developed measures to protect the medicines and allow fast and reliable analysis of the suspect products. Several means, essentially based on chromatography and spectroscopy, are now at the disposal of the analysts to enable the distinction between genuine and counterfeit products. However the determination of the components and the use of analytical data for forensic purposes still constitute a challenge. The aim of this review article is therefore to point out the intricacy of medicine counterfeiting so that a better understanding can provide solutions to fight more efficiently against it.