Alkaline sphingomyelinase (NPP7) impacts the homeostasis of intestinal T lymphocyte populations

Background and aim

Alkaline sphingomyelinase (NPP7) is expressed by intestinal epithelial cells and is crucial for the digestion of dietary sphingomyelin. NPP7 also inactivates proinflammatory mediators including platelet-activating factor and lysophosphatidylcholine. The aim of this study was to examine a potential role for NPP7 in the homeostasis of the intestinal immune system.

Methods

We quantified the numbers of B-lymphocytes, plasma cells, T-lymphocytes including regulatory T-lymphocytes (T_regs), natural killer cells, dendritic cells, macrophages, and neutrophils, in the small and large intestines, the mesenteric lymph nodes and the spleens of heterozygous and homozygous NPP7 knockout (KO) and wildtype (WT) mice. Tissues were examined by immunohistochemistry and stainings quantified using computerized image analysis.

Results

The numbers of both small and large intestinal CD3ε⁺, CD4⁺, and CD8α⁺ T-lymphocytes were significantly higher in NPP7 KO compared to WT mice (with a dose-response relationship in the large intestine), whereas T_reg numbers were unchanged, and dendritic cell numbers reduced. In contrast, the numbers of CD3ε⁺ and CD4⁺ T-lymphocytes in mesenteric lymph nodes were significantly reduced in NPP7 KO mice, while no differences were observed in spleens. The numbers of B-lymphocytes, plasma cells, natural killer cells, macrophages, and neutrophils were similar between genotypes.

Conclusion

NPP7 contributes to the regulation of dendritic cell and T-lymphocyte numbers in mesenteric lymph nodes and both the small and large intestines, thus playing a role in the homeostasis of gut immunity. Although it is likely that the downstream effects of NPP7 activity involve the sphingomyelin metabolites ceramide and spingosine-1-phosphate, the exact mechanisms behind this regulatory function of NPP7 need to be addressed in future studies.

Molecular modeling of human alkaline sphingomyelinase

Alkaline sphingomyelinase, which is expressed in the human intestine and hydrolyses sphingomyelin, is a component of the plasma and the lysosomal membranes. Hydrolase of sphingomyelin generates ceramide, sphingosine, and sphingosine 1-phosphate that have regulatory effects on vital cellular functions such as proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. The enzyme belongs to the Nucleotide Pyrophosphatase/Phosphodiesterase family and it differs in structural similarity with acidic and neutral sphingomyelinase. In the present study we modeled alkaline sphingomyelinase using homology modeling based on the structure of Nucleotide Pyrophosphatase/Phosphodiesterase from Xanthomonas axonopodis with which it shares 34% identity. Homology modeling was performed using Modeller9v7. We found that Cys78 and Cys394 form a disulphide bond. Further analysis shows that Ser76 may be important for the function of this enzyme, which is supported by the findings of Wu et al. (2005), that S76F abolishes the activity completely. We found that the residues bound to Zn(2+) are conserved and geometrically similar with the template. Molecular Dynamics simulations were carried out for the modeled protein to observe the effect of Zinc metal ions. It was observed that the metal ion has little effect with regard to the stability but induces increased fluctuations in the protein. These analyses showed that Zinc ions play an important role in stabilizing the secondary structure and in maintaining the compactness of the active site.

Familial adenomatous polyposis is associated with a marked decrease in alkaline sphingomyelinase activity: a key factor to the unrestrained cell proliferation?

The hydrolysis of sphingomyelin generates key molecules regulating cell growth and inducing apoptosis. Data from animal cancer models support an inhibitory role for this pathway in the malignant transformation of the colonic mucosa. In the intestinal tract, a sphingomyelinase with an optimum alkaline pH has been identified. We recently found that the activity of alkaline sphingomyelinase is significantly decreased in colorectal adenocarcinomas, indicating a potential anticarcinogenic role of this enzyme. To further examine whether the reduction of sphingomyelinase is present already in the premalignant state of neoplastic transformation, we measured sphingomyelinase activities in patients with familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) and in sporadic colorectal tubulovillous adenomas. Tissue samples were taken from adenomas and surrounding macroscopically normal mucosa from 11 FAP patients operated with ileorectal anastomosis, from three FAP patients with intact colon, from 13 patients with sporadic colorectal adenomas and from 12 controls. Activities of acid, neutral and alkaline sphingomyelinase were measured together with alkaline phosphatase. In FAP adenoma tissue, alkaline sphingomyelinase activity was reduced by 90% compared to controls (P < 0.0001), acid sphingomyelinase by 66% (P < 0.01) and neutral sphingomyelinase by 54% (P < 0.05). Similar reductions were found in the surrounding mucosa. In sporadic adenoma tissue, only alkaline sphingomyelinase was reduced significantly, by 57% (P < 0.05). Alkaline phosphatase was not changed in FAP adenomas, but decreased in the sporadic adenomas. We conclude that the markedly reduced levels of alkaline sphingomyelinase activities in FAP adenomas and in the surrounding mucosa may be a pathogenic factor that can lead to unrestrained cell proliferation and neoplastic transformation.