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Abualsaud R, Gad MM. Highlights on Drug and Ion Release and Recharge Capacity of Antimicrobial Removable Prostheses. Eur J Dent 2023; 17:1000-1011. [PMID: 36574783 PMCID: PMC10756732 DOI: 10.1055/s-0042-1758788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
This article aimed to review the ion and drug release, recharge abilities, and antimicrobial properties of drug/ion-releasing removable prostheses, and to assess their capability in preventing and inhibiting denture stomatitis as well preventing caries and reversing carious lesions. Data was collected from published scientific papers listed in PubMed database from January 1975 to December 2021. English full-text articles, involving clinical or in vitro studies, focusing on removable prostheses and are concerned with drug/ion release and rechargeability as a way to prevent or inhibit denture stomatitis or dental caries were included. The relevant articles reported that ion- or drug-modified polymethylmethacrylate acts as a reservoir for these ions and drugs and is capable of releasing significant amounts with sustained release effect. Recharging of modified resin resulted in greater sustainability of ion and drug release, thus improving the long-term effects of protection against demineralization and reducing the adhesion of Streptococcus mutans and Candida albicans. Modifications of removable prostheses with rechargeable ions and drugs enhance remineralization, hinder demineralization, and reduce microbial adhesion in difficult-to-access areas. Selection of denture base for clinical use will consider its ability to act as an ion/drug reservoir that is capable of release and recharge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reem Abualsaud
- Department of Substitutive Dental Sciences, College of Dentistry, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed M. Gad
- Department of Substitutive Dental Sciences, College of Dentistry, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
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Hartmann A, Jasechko S, Gleeson T, Wada Y, Andreo B, Barberá JA, Brielmann H, Bouchaou L, Charlier JB, Darling WG, Filippini M, Garvelmann J, Goldscheider N, Kralik M, Kunstmann H, Ladouche B, Lange J, Lucianetti G, Martín JF, Mudarra M, Sánchez D, Stumpp C, Zagana E, Wagener T. Risk of groundwater contamination widely underestimated because of fast flow into aquifers. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2024492118. [PMID: 33972438 PMCID: PMC8158018 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2024492118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Groundwater pollution threatens human and ecosystem health in many regions around the globe. Fast flow to the groundwater through focused recharge is known to transmit short-lived pollutants into carbonate aquifers, endangering the quality of groundwaters where one quarter of the world's population lives. However, the large-scale impact of such focused recharge on groundwater quality remains poorly understood. Here, we apply a continental-scale model to quantify the risk of groundwater contamination by degradable pollutants through focused recharge in the carbonate rock regions of Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. We show that focused recharge is the primary reason for widespread rapid transport of contaminants to the groundwater. Where it occurs, the concentration of pollutants in groundwater recharge that have not yet degraded increases from <1% to around 20 to 50% of their concentrations during infiltration. Assuming realistic application rates, our simulations show that degradable pollutants like glyphosate can exceed their permissible concentrations by 3 to 19 times when reaching the groundwater. Our results are supported by independent estimates of young water fractions at 78 carbonate rock springs over Europe and a dataset of observed glyphosate concentrations in the groundwater. They imply that in times of continuing and increasing industrial and agricultural productivity, focused recharge may result in an underestimated and widespread risk to usable groundwater volumes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Hartmann
- Hydrological Modeling and Water Resources, University of Freiburg, D-79098 Freiburg, Germany;
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bristol, BS8 1TR, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Scott Jasechko
- Bren School of Environmental Science and Management, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93117
| | - Tom Gleeson
- Department of Civil Engineering and School of Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada
| | - Yoshihide Wada
- International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, A-2361 Laxenburg, Austria
- Department of Physical Geography, Utrecht University, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Bartolomé Andreo
- Department of Geology and Centre of Hydrogeology at the University of Malaga, 29071, Malaga, Spain
| | - Juan Antonio Barberá
- Department of Geology and Centre of Hydrogeology at the University of Malaga, 29071, Malaga, Spain
| | - Heike Brielmann
- Environment Agency Austria, Groundwater Unit, Spittelauer Laende 5, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Lhoussaine Bouchaou
- Laboratory of Applied Geology and Geo- Environment, Ibn Zohr University, BP 8106 Agadir, Morocco
- International Water Research Institute, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Ben Guerir 43150, Morocco
| | - Jean-Baptiste Charlier
- BRGM, University of Montpellier, F-34000 Montpellier, France
- G-eau, INRAE, CIRAD, IRD, AgroParisTech, Supagro, BRGM, F-34196 Montpellier, France
| | | | - Maria Filippini
- Department of Biological Geological and Environmental Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, 40127, Bologna, Italy
| | - Jakob Garvelmann
- Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Campus Alpin, D-82467 Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany
- boden & grundwasser Allgäu GmbH, D-87527 Sonthofen, Germany
| | - Nico Goldscheider
- Institute of Applied Geosciences, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, D-76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Martin Kralik
- Department of Environmental Geosciences, Center for Microbiology and Environmental Systems Science, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Harald Kunstmann
- Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Campus Alpin, D-82467 Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany
- Institute of Geography, University of Augsburg, D-86135 Augsburg, Germany
| | - Bernard Ladouche
- BRGM, University of Montpellier, F-34000 Montpellier, France
- G-eau, INRAE, CIRAD, IRD, AgroParisTech, Supagro, BRGM, F-34196 Montpellier, France
| | - Jens Lange
- Hydrology, University of Freiburg, D-79098 Freiburg,Germany
| | | | - José Francisco Martín
- Department of Geology and Centre of Hydrogeology at the University of Malaga, 29071, Malaga, Spain
| | - Matías Mudarra
- Department of Geology and Centre of Hydrogeology at the University of Malaga, 29071, Malaga, Spain
| | - Damián Sánchez
- Department of Geology and Centre of Hydrogeology at the University of Malaga, 29071, Malaga, Spain
| | - Christine Stumpp
- Institute for Soil Physics and Rural Water Management, Department of Water, Atmosphere and Environment, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Eleni Zagana
- Laboratory of Hydrogeology, Department of Geology, University of Patras, 26500 Rion Patras, Greece
| | - Thorsten Wagener
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bristol, BS8 1TR, Bristol, United Kingdom
- Cabot Institute, University of Bristol, BS8 1UH, Bristol, United Kingdom
- Institute for Environmental Science and Geography, University of Potsdam, D-14476, Potsdam, Germany
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Ribeiro C, Velásquez L, Fleming P. Origin of spring waters employing a multiparametric approach with special focus on stable isotopes 2H and 18O in the Lagoa Santa Karst region, Southern Brazil. Isotopes Environ Health Stud 2020; 56:158-169. [PMID: 31957484 DOI: 10.1080/10256016.2020.1714608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Karst environments have an inherent complexity that interferes with their hydrogeology comprehension. Hence, isotope hydrology can be a valuable tool to assess trajectory of subsurface flows in an unexplored setting. The study area is located in the Lagoa Santa Karst, an environmental protection area of great economic, cultural and ecological importance, where Neoproterozoic metalimestones accommodate karst-fractured aquifers, characterized by complex water dynamics, essential vulnerability and high productivity. The purpose of this study was to investigate groundwater flow origins of springs using principally environmental stable isotopes 2H and 18O. Rainwater and spring water were sampled and analysed. The LMWL presents angular and linear coefficients strongly similar to those of the GMWL. Spring isotopic signatures, which represent the base flow and present wide-ranging of 2H and 18O, were separated into two groups. The first group can be associated with recent rainwater major contributions, while the second group shows significant evaporated water contributions, largely represented by resurgences. Tritium concentration and physico-chemical parameter data supported this interpretation, pointing that waters of the second group remained more time on the surface and subsurface. Therefore, using isotope tracers to evaluate upper groundwater zone in this tropical karst system is a powerful instrument for water resources management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Ribeiro
- Geosciences Institute of Federal University of Minas Gerais (IGC-UFMG), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Leila Velásquez
- Geosciences Institute of Federal University of Minas Gerais (IGC-UFMG), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Peter Fleming
- Nuclear Technology Development Center - Brazilian Nuclear Energy Comission (CDTN/CNEN), Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
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Dublyansky YV, Klimchouk AB, Tokarev SV, Amelichev GN, Spötl C. Groundwater of the Crimean peninsula: a first systematic study using stable isotopes. Isotopes Environ Health Stud 2019; 55:419-437. [PMID: 31416351 PMCID: PMC6816486 DOI: 10.1080/10256016.2019.1650743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Karst springs in the Main Range of the Crimean Mountains and the Crimean Piedmont show a restricted range of values (δ18O = -10.5 to -8.0 ‰, δ2H = -72 to -58 ‰), somewhat more negative than the weighted mean of meteoric precipitation. This suggests preferential recharge at higher elevations during winter months. Groundwater tapped by boreholes splits in three groups. A first group has isotopic properties similar to those of the springs. The second group shows significantly lower values (δ18O = -13.3 to -12.0 ‰, δ2H = -95 to -82 ‰), suggesting recharge during colder Pleistocene times. The third group has high isotope values (δ18O = -2.5 to +1.0 ‰, δ2H = -24 to -22 ‰); the data points are shifted to the right of the Local Meteoric Water Line, suggesting water-rock exchange processes in the aquifer. These boreholes are located in the Crimean Plains and discharge mineralized (ca. 25 g L-1) thermal (65°C) water from a depth of 1600-1800 m. Groundwater associated with mud volcanoes on the Kerch peninsula have distinct isotope characteristics (δ18O = -1.6 to +9.4 ‰, δ2H = -30 to -18 ‰). Restricted δ2H variability along with variable and high δ18O values suggest water-rock interactions at temperatures exceeding 95 °C.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sergey V. Tokarev
- Department of Geography, V. I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University, Simferopol, Republic of Crimea
| | - Gennady N. Amelichev
- Department of Geography, V. I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University, Simferopol, Republic of Crimea
| | - Christoph Spötl
- Institute of Geology, Innsbruck University, Innsbruck, Austria
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Cardoso de Salis HH, Monteiro da Costa A, Moreira Vianna JH, Azeneth Schuler M, Künne A, Sanches Fernandes LF, Leal Pacheco FA. Hydrologic Modeling for Sustainable Water Resources Management in Urbanized Karst Areas. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2019; 16:E2542. [PMID: 31315302 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16142542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2019] [Revised: 07/08/2019] [Accepted: 07/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The potential of karst aquifers as a drinking water resource is substantial because of their large storage capacity gained in the course of carbonate dissolution. Carbonate dissolution and consequent development of preferential paths are also the reasons for the complex behavior of these aquifers as regards surface and underground flow. Hydrological modeling is therefore of paramount importance for an adequate assessment of flow components in catchments shaped on karsts. The cross tabulation of such components with geology, soils, and land use data in Geographic Information Systems helps decision makers to set up sustainable groundwater abstractions and allocate areas for storage of quality surface water, in the context of conjunctive water resources management. In the present study, a hydrologic modeling using the JAMS J2000 software was conducted in a karst area of Jequitiba River basin located near the Sete Lagoas town in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. The results revealed a very high surface water component explained by urbanization of Sete Lagoas, which hampers the recharge of 7.9 hm3 yr−1 of storm water. They also exposed a very large negative difference (−8.3 hm3 yr−1) between groundwater availability (6.3 hm3 yr−1) and current groundwater abstraction from the karst aquifer (14.6 hm3 yr−1), which is in keeping with previously reported water table declines around drilled wells that can reach 48 m in old wells used for public water supply. Artificial recharge of excess surface flow is not recommended within the urban areas, given the high risk of groundwater contamination with metals and hydrocarbons potentially transported in storm water, as well as development of suffosional sinkholes as a consequence of concentrated storm flow. The surface component could however be stored in small dams in forested areas from the catchment headwaters and diverted to the urban area to complement the drinking water supply. The percolation in soil was estimated to be high in areas used for agriculture and pastures. The implementation of correct fertilizing, management, and irrigation practices are considered crucial to attenuate potential contamination of groundwater and suffosional sinkhole development in these areas.
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Liu Z, Tan H, Shi D, Xu P, Elenga HI. Origin and formation mechanism of salty water in Zuli River catchment of the Yellow River. Water Environ Res 2019; 91:222-238. [PMID: 30698893 DOI: 10.1002/wer.1040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Revised: 11/01/2018] [Accepted: 11/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The Zuli River is one of the branches of the upper Yellow River, as an inland catchment with semiarid climate in northwestern China, and the formation, evolution, and development of brackish water at such a large scale have remained unclear. This study aims to find clues about the origin and formation mechanism of salty water through multiple methods of hydrochemistry and isotope hydrology. The results show that groundwater is dominantly recharged by precipitation, and the river water was mainly recharged by groundwater discharge. The relatively high tritium content of groundwater (>5.0 TU) clearly suggests the occurrence of a modern recharge and rapid circulation. The dissolution of evaporate minerals, followed by incongruent dissolution of carbonate minerals (dolomite), constituted the main processes controlling groundwater salinization. In addition, the intense evaporation and unreasonable use of fertilizers further increase the TDS of the river, which should be the primary external mechanism of water salinization. PRACTITIONER POINTS: The authors aimed to find clues about the formation mechanism of salty water in an inland catchment of the Yellow River. The results of this research shows that the dissolution of dissolved minerals constituted the main processes controlling groundwater salinization. In addition, the intense evaporation and unreasonable use of fertilizers, which should be the primary external mechanism of water salinization. This work would provide a theoretical basis for government to develop rational utilization of brackish water resources in the study area, which is also significant for understanding the mechanism of water salinization in an inland mountain watershed and even in similar inland watersheds around the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zihao Liu
- School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
| | - Hongbing Tan
- School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
| | - Dongping Shi
- School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
| | - Peng Xu
- School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
| | - Hartman I Elenga
- School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
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Zhan L, Chen J, Zhang S, Huang D, Li L. Relationship between Dongting Lake and surrounding rivers under the operation of the Three Gorges Reservoir, China. Isotopes Environ Health Stud 2015; 51:255-270. [PMID: 25780859 DOI: 10.1080/10256016.2015.1020306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The natural flow properties of the Yangtze River have been changed completely following the construction of the Three Gorges Dam. The dam's operation has affected the resources and environment in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, changing the hydrological conditions and ecological environment of the Dongting Lake. During three different dispatching periods of the reservoir, we took triplicate samples of the river and lake water. All the samples were analysed for δ(2)H and δ(18)O to determine the relationship between the lake and the Yangtze River (and other rivers), and to evaluate objectively the influence of the dam's operation on the lake. During the period of water-supply dispatch, the Four Rivers and Miluo River are the main recharge sources of the lake. During the flood-storage dispatching period, the Dongting Lake is recharged largely by the Three Outlets and the Four Rivers, whereas during the period of water-storage dispatch, most of the lake's water originates from the Miluo, Xiang, Zi, and Yuan rivers. Although the Yangtze River only contributes significantly to the lake's recharge through the Three Outlets during the flood-storage dispatching period, the lake discharges large amounts of water into the Yangtze River during all three periods. Through the operation of the reservoir, it should be ensured that the water level of the Dongting Lake is not too low during the dry season, nor too high during the wet season, thus preventing the lake region from future flood and drought disasters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucheng Zhan
- a College of Civil and Transportation Engineering , Hohai University , Nanjing , People's Republic of China
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Shamsudduha M, Taylor RG, Chandler RE. A generalized regression model of arsenic variations in the shallow groundwater of Bangladesh. Water Resour Res 2015; 51:685-703. [PMID: 27524841 PMCID: PMC4964952 DOI: 10.1002/2013wr014572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2013] [Accepted: 12/30/2014] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Localized studies of arsenic (As) in Bangladesh have reached disparate conclusions regarding the impact of irrigation-induced recharge on As concentrations in shallow (≤50 m below ground level) groundwater. We construct generalized regression models (GRMs) to describe observed spatial variations in As concentrations in shallow groundwater both (i) nationally, and (ii) regionally within Holocene deposits where As concentrations in groundwater are generally high (>10 μg L-1). At these scales, the GRMs reveal statistically significant inverse associations between observed As concentrations and two covariates: (1) hydraulic conductivity of the shallow aquifer and (2) net increase in mean recharge between predeveloped and developed groundwater-fed irrigation periods. Further, the GRMs show that the spatial variation of groundwater As concentrations is well explained by not only surface geology but also statistical interactions (i.e., combined effects) between surface geology and mean groundwater recharge, thickness of surficial silt and clay, and well depth. Net increases in recharge result from intensive groundwater abstraction for irrigation, which induces additional recharge where it is enabled by a permeable surface geology. Collectively, these statistical associations indicate that irrigation-induced recharge serves to flush mobile As from shallow groundwater.
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Strauch G, Al-Mashaikhi KS, Bawain A, Knöller K, Friesen J, Müller T. Stable H and O isotope variations reveal sources of recharge in Dhofar, Sultanate of Oman. Isotopes Environ Health Stud 2014; 50:475-490. [PMID: 25299930 DOI: 10.1080/10256016.2014.961451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Due to the ability of stable water isotopes to characterize the origin of water and connected processes of groundwater recharge, we used the isotope variations of hydrogen and oxygen in different water sources for assessing the recharge process in the Dhofar region. δ(18)O and δ(2)H of precipitation, spring water, and groundwater cover a range from -10 to +2 and from -70 to +7 ‰ (vs Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water), respectively, and correlate in a linear relationship close to the Global Meteoric Water Line. No obvious evaporation processes are detected. A clear signal of the recent precipitation is given by the annual monsoon. The monsoon signal is confirmed by several springs existing in the south at the foot of the Dhofar mountains and sources at Gogub above 450 m and Tawi Atir at 650 m above sea level. They occur here first in the form of water intercepted by trees as stemflow and throughflow. The isotope signature of groundwater in the Dhofar mountains reflects the climatic conditions at the time of recharge and the lithological features of the limestone matrix. To the north, the isotope patterns of the groundwater are continuously depleted from the monsoon signal along the outcropping aquifer D (Lower Umm Er Radhuma). Here, a more negative signature towards the wells in the Najd desert region was observed. Cyclone water that flooded wadis in the Dhofar region occasionally, as observed in November 2011, falls isotopically into the same range as we observed in the fossil groundwater. Taking into account the different sources of precipitation and groundwater and thus a clear distinction of the isotopic composition of the water sources, we conclude a recharge process divided into a southward and a northward component in the Dhofar region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerhard Strauch
- a Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ , Leipzig , Germany
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Abstract
Background: As glass ionomers have the ability to reload fluoride from outside sources, the aim was to compare the recharge pattern of six glass ionomer cements after exposure to fluoride. Materials and Methods: Fuji VII, Fuji IX, Riva Pink, Riva Bleach, Ketac Fil and Fuji IX Extra were investigated. The fluoride-containing materials used were tooth paste and mouth wash (Colgate). Specimens of each material (n=15) were immersed separately in deionized water for 59 days. Then the samples of each material were divided into three groups of five each. Two groups were recharged for 2, 20 and 60 min daily during three consecutive weekly intervals and then no treatment for one week. The third group was used as control. Fluoride release measurements (μg/cm2/day) were made in every 24 h. One-way and repeated measures analysis of variance tests were used. Results: Tooth paste recharged materials showed higher level of recharge. On day 1, the difference of fluoride release from different treatment groups of different materials except for Fuji IX Extra were not significant (P>0.05). On days 7 and 14, the differences observed were significant (P<0.05) for all materials except for Fuji VII (tooth paste versus mouth wash) and Trial Fuji IX (mouth wash versus control) and on day 14 for Rvia Pink (mouth wash versus control). On days 21 and 28, the differences observed were significant for all the materials (P<0.05) except for Riva Pink (toothpaste versus mouth wash), Riva Bleach, Ketac Fil and Trial FujiI X (mouth wash versus control) on day 28. Conclusion: A time tabled schedule of application of fluoride-containing materials could help to achieve high fluoride release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farahnaz Arbabzadeh-Zavareh
- Dental Research Center and Department of Operative Dentistry, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
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