Promising Sources of Plant-Derived Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids: A Narrative Review

(1) Background: Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are known for their ability to protect against numerous metabolic disorders. The consumption of oily fish is the main source of PUFAs in human nutrition and is commonly used for supplement production. However, seafood is an overexploited source that cannot be guaranteed to cover the global demands. Furthermore, it is not consumed by everyone for ecological, economic, ethical, geographical and taste reasons. The growing demand for natural dietary sources of PUFAs suggests that current nutritional sources are insufficient to meet global needs, and less and less will be. Therefore, it is crucial to find sustainable sources that are acceptable to all, meeting the world population's needs. (2) Scope: This review aims to evaluate the recent evidence about alternative plant sources of essential fatty acids, focusing on long-chain omega-3 (n-3) PUFAs. (3) Method: A structured search was performed on the PubMed search engine to select available human data from interventional studies using omega-3 fatty acids of non-animal origin. (4) Results: Several promising sources have emerged from the literature, such as algae, microorganisms, plants rich in stearidonic acid and GM plants. However, the costs, acceptance and adequate formulation deserve further investigation.

Novel lipid emulsion for total parenteral nutrition based on 18-carbon n-3 fatty acids elicits a superior immunometabolic phenotype in a murine model compared with standard lipid emulsions

BACKGROUND

While lipid emulsions in modern formulations for total parenteral nutrition (TPN) provide essential fatty acids and dense calories, they also promote inflammation and immunometabolic disruptions.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to develop a novel lipid emulsion for TPN use with superior immunometabolic actions compared with available standard lipid emulsions.

METHODS

A novel lipid emulsion [Vegaven (VV)] containing 30% of 18-carbon n-3 fatty acids (α-linolenic acid and stearidonic acid) was developed for TPN (VV-TPN) and compared with TPN containing soybean oil-based lipid emulsion (IL-TPN) and fish-oil-based lipid emulsion (OV-TPN). In vivo studies were performed in instrumented male C57BL/6 mice subjected to 7-d TPN prior to analysis of cytokines, indices of whole-body and hepatic glucose metabolism, immune cells, lipid mediators, and mucosal bowel microbiome.

RESULTS

IL-6 to IL-10 ratios were significantly lower in liver and skeletal muscle of VV-TPN mice when compared with IL-TPN or OV-TPN mice. VV-TPN and OV-TPN each increased hepatic insulin receptor abundance and resulted in similar HOMA-IR values, whereas only VV-TPN increased hepatic insulin receptor substrate 2 and maintained normal hepatic glycogen content, effects that were IL-10-dependent and mediated by glucokinase activation. The percentages of IFN-γ- and IL-17-expressing CD4+ T cells were increased in livers of VV-TPN mice, and liver macrophages exhibited primed phenotypes when compared with IL-TPN. This immunomodulation was associated with successful elimination of the microinvasive bacterium Akkermansia muciniphila from the bowel mucosa by VV-TPN as opposed to standard lipid emulsions. Assay of hepatic lipid mediators revealed a distinct profile with VV-TPN, including increases in 9(S)-hydroxy-octadecatrienoic acid. When co-administered with IL-TPN, hydroxy-octadecatrienoic acids mimicked the VV-TPN immunometabolic phenotype.

CONCLUSIONS

We here report the unique anti-inflammatory, insulin-sensitizing, and immunity-enhancing properties of a newly developed lipid emulsion designed for TPN use based on 18-carbon n-3 fatty acids.

Neuroprotective Effect of Stearidonic Acid on Amyloid β-Induced Neurotoxicity in Rat Hippocampal Cells

Dietary intake of omega-3 fatty acids found in fish has been reported to reduce the risk of Alzheimer's Disease (AD). Stearidonic acid (SDA), a plant-based omega-3 fatty acid, has been targeted as a potential surrogate for fish-based fatty acids. However, its role in neuronal degeneration is unknown. This study was designed to evaluate effects of SDA on Amyloid-β(A-β)-induced neurotoxicity in rat hippocampal cells. Results showed that SDA effectively converted to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in hippocampal cells. Aβ-induced apoptosis in H19-7 cells was protected by SDA pretreatment as evidenced by its regulation on the expression of relevant pro- and anti-apoptotic genes, as well as the inhibition on caspase activation. SDA also protected H19-7 cells from Aβ-induced oxidative stress by regulating the expression of relevant pro- and anti-oxidative genes, as well as the improvement in activity of catalase. As for Aβ/LPS-induced neuronal inflammation, SDA pretreatment reduced the release of IL-1β and TNFα. Further, we found that the anti-Aβ effect of SDA involves its inhibition on the expression of amyloid precursor protein and the regulation on MAPK signaling. These results demonstrated that SDAs have neuroprotective effect in Aβ-induced H19-7 hippocampal cells. This beneficial effect of SDA was attributed to its antiapoptotic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties.

Solid-state fermentation produces greater stearidonic acid levels in genetically engineered Mucor circinelloides

Omega-3 (ω-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are important dietary components due to their health benefits and preventative role in cardiovascular disease. Fish-based and plant seed oils are rich in stearidonic acid (SDA; 18:4 n-3) which are readily metabolized into ω-3 PUFAs such as eicosapentaenoic acid. However, these natural sources of SDA are generally low yielding and are unlikely to meet global demands, so new sustainable microbial fermentative sources of SDA need to be identified. Expression of delta15-desaturase in the oleaginous filamentous fungus Mucor circinelloides (McD15D) has been used to construct a recombinant SDA-producing McD15D strain that produces 5.0% SDA levels using submerged fermentation conditions. Switching to solid-state fermentation conditions in the same medium with submerged fermentation resulted in this engineered strain producing significantly higher amounts of SDA. A Box-Behnken design (BBD) of response surface methodology (RSM) approach has been used to identify optimal glucose and ammonium tartrate concentrations and temperature levels to maximize SDA production. The use of these optimal solid-state fermentation conditions resulted in the spores and mycelium of the recombinant McD15D producing 19.5% (0.64 mg g^-1 ) and 12.2% (1.52 mg g^-1 ) SDA content respectively, which represents an overall increase in SDA yield of 188.0% when compared to SDA yields produced using submerged fermentation conditions.

Comparison of Ahiflower oil containing stearidonic acid to a high-alpha-linolenic acid flaxseed oil at two levels on tissue omega-3 enrichment in broilers

Enrichment of broiler meat with very long-chain omega-3 fatty acids (VLCn-3 FA) is of interest because of their beneficial effects on human health. The ability of Ahiflower® (AHI) oil (Buglossoides arvensis), which naturally contains stearidonic acid (SDA), and a high-alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) flaxseed (FLAX) oil to enrich VLCn-3 FA contents in broilers tissues was investigated. Fifty-five Cobb 500 chicks were fed from days 12 to 35 of life either a control (CON) diet that contained 27.9 g/kg soybean oil or AHI or FLAX oils, each individually at 7.5 or 22.5 g/kg of the diet in substitution for soybean oil (all on an as fed basis). Total VLCn-3 FA contents were greater in breast, thigh, liver, adipose tissue, and plasma of all n-3 treatments compared to CON, with the greatest increase observed at the highest level of AHI and FLAX oils (p < 0.001). AHI oil at 7.5 g/kg promoted the most efficient synthesis and deposition of VLCn-3 in broiler tissues measured as deposition of VLCn-3 FA in tissues relative to intake of n3 FA. In conclusion, both ALA and SDA oils increased VLCn-3 FA deposition in tissues, but there were diminishing returns when increasing dietary levels of the oils.

Pseudotargeted Lipidomics Strategy Enabling Comprehensive Profiling and Precise Lipid Structural Elucidation of Polyunsaturated Lipid-Rich Echium Oil

Echium oil has great nutritional value as a result of its high content of α-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3ω-3) and stearidonic acid (SDA, 18:4ω-3). However, the comprehensive lipid profiling and exact structural characterization of bioactive polyunsaturated lipids in echium oil have not yet been obtained. In this study, we developed a novel pseudotargeted lipidomics strategy for comprehensive profiling and lipid structural elucidation of polyunsaturated lipid-rich echium oil. Our approach integrated untargeted lipidomics analysis with a targeted lipidomics strategy based on Paternò-Büchi (PB)-tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) using 2-acetylpyridine (2-AP) as the reaction reagent, allowing for high-coverage lipid profiling and simultaneous determination of C═C locations in triacylglycerols (TGs), diacylglycerols (DGs), free fatty acids (FFAs), and sterol esters (SEs) in echium oil. A total of 209 lipid species were profiled, among which 162 unsaturated lipids were identified with C═C location assignment and 42 groups of ω-3 and ω-6 C═C location isomers were discovered. In addition, relative isomer ratios of certain groups of lipid C═C location isomers were revealed. This pseudotargeted lipidomics strategy described in this study is expected to provide new insight into structural characterization of distinctive bioactive lipids in food.

Bio-Guided Fractionation and Molecular Networking Reveal Fatty Acids to Be Principal Anti-Parasitic Compounds in Nordic Seaweeds

Widespread use of antimicrobial drugs has led to high levels of drug-resistance in pathogen populations and a need for novel sources of anti-bacterial and anti-parasitic compounds. Macroalgae (seaweed) are potentially a rich source of bioactive compounds, and several species have traditionally been used as vermifuges. Here, we investigated the anti-parasitic properties of four common cold-water Nordic seaweeds; Palmaria palmata (Rhodophyta), Laminaria digitata, Saccharina latissima and Ascophyllum nodosum (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae). Screening of organic extracts against helminths of swine (Ascaris suum) and sheep (Teladorsagia circumcincta) revealed that S. latissima and L. digitata had particularly high biological activity. A combination of molecular networking and bio-guided fractionation led to the isolation of six compounds from extracts of these two species identified in both fermented and non-fermented samples. The six isolated compounds were tentatively identified by using MS-FINDER as five fatty acids and one monoglyceride: Stearidonic acid (1), Eicosapentaenoic acid (2), Alpha-Linolenic acid (3), Docosahexaenoic acid (4), Arachidonic acid (5), and Monoacylglycerol (MG 20:5) (6). Individual compounds showed only modest activity against A. suum, but a clear synergistic effect was apparent when selected compounds were tested in combination. Collectively, our data reveal that fatty acids may have a previously unappreciated role as natural anti-parasitic compounds, which suggests that seaweed products may represent a viable option for control of intestinal helminth infections.

Statement complementing the EFSA Scientific Opinion on application (EFSA-GMO-NL-2010-85) for authorisation of food and feed containing, consisting of and produced from genetically modified soybean MON 87769 × MON 89788

The European Commission mandated EFSA to complement its original scientific opinion on soybean MON 87769 ×  MON 89788 (EFSA-GMO-NL-2010-85) considering additional information on the human nutritional assessment of refined bleached deodorised oil produced from the two-event stack soybean (RBD GM-oil). The assessment was mainly based on a replacement scenario with a list of target foods where RBD GM-oil is intended to be added. Intake estimations for several fatty acids present in the RBD GM-oil, in particular γ-linolenic acid (GLA), stearidonic acid (SDA) and linoleic acid (LA) were based on the consumption of the corresponding foods that are likely to be displaced. The assessment of LA considered the established adequate intake of 4% of total energy intake (E%) and that LA deficiency has not been observed with intakes > 1 E%. The assessment of GLA and SDA was conducted using maximum doses without adverse effects from intervention human studies as reference (4.2 grams/day for SDA and 2.8 grams/day for GLA) since no tolerable upper intake levels are set for these fatty acids. The decrease observed in the levels of LA in RBD GM-oil as compared to oil from conventional soybean does not represent a nutritional concern as intakes were in all cases above 1 E%. For GLA, all intake estimations were below the reference dose indicating no safety concern. SDA intake estimations do not pose any safety concerns based on the overly conservative nature of the estimates, the absence of toxicological hazards and the rapid metabolism of SDA in humans. The GMO Panel concluded that the consumption of soybean MON 87769 ×  MON 89788 and their derived products, in particular its RBD oil, does not represent a nutritional concern in humans. A post-market monitoring plan is recommended to confirm the predicted consumption and the application of conditions of uses considered during the pre-market risk assessment.

Combination of natural strategies to improve the oxidative stability of echium seed oil

Echium seed oil is an alternative source of omega 3 fatty acids but it is highly susceptible to oxidation. A combination of three natural strategies was proposed in this study aiming to improve the oxidative stability of echium oil obtained by pressing (PO) or solvent extraction (PSO), kept in the storage condition for 180 days or during the consumption for 30 days. Our results showed that the reduction of temperature was sufficient to keep the oil stable during storage for both samples. During the consumption time, the best stability was achieved by adding a mixture of antioxidants, composed of sinapic (500 ppm), ascorbic (250 ppm), and citric (150 ppm) acids, and/or 20% of high oleic sunflower oil. The combined strategies promoted a 34 to 80% reduction of peroxide value and 0 to 85% reduction of malondialdehyde concentrations in the samples, showing to be a feasible and natural alternative to improve the oxidative stability of echium oil. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Our study successfully applied an optimized combination of simple and low-cost strategies to enhance the chemical stability of echium seed oil. As the use of echium oil expands around the world, the oil industry and final consumers may benefit from our results to increase the oil shelf-life.

Possible Health Effects of a Wax Ester Rich Marine Oil

The consumption of seafood and the use of fish oil for the production of nutraceuticals and fish feed have increased over the past decades due the high content of long-chain polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids. This increase has put pressure on the sustainability of fisheries. One way to overcome the limited supply of fish oil is to harvest lower in the marine food web. Calanus finmarchicus, feeding on phytoplankton, is a small copepod constituting a considerable biomass in the North Atlantic and is a novel source of omega-3 fatty acids. The oil is, however, different from other commercial marine oils in terms of chemistry and, possibly, bioactivity since it contains wax esters. Wax esters are fatty acids that are esterified with alcohols. In addition to the long-chain polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), the oil is also rich in stearidonic acid (SDA), long-chain monounsaturated fatty acids, and the long-chain fatty alcohols eicosenol and docosenol. Recent animal studies have indicated anti-inflammatory and anti-obesogenic actions of this copepod oil beyond that provided by EPA and DHA. This review will discuss potential mechanisms behind these beneficial effects of the oil, focusing on the impact of the various components of the oil. The health effects of EPA and DHA are well recognized, whereas long-chain monounsaturated fatty acids and long-chain fatty alcohols have to a large degree been overlooked in relation to human health. Recently, however the fatty alcohols have received interest as potential targets for improved health via conversion to their corresponding fatty acids. Together, the different lipid components of the oil from C. finmarchicus may have potential as nutraceuticals for reducing obesity and obesity-related metabolic disorders.

Plant-based stearidonic acid as sustainable source of omega-3 fatty acid with functional outcomes on human health

Dietary omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC-PUFA) like eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) are known to be potent biological regulators with therapeutic and preventive effects on human health. Many global health organizations have recommended consuming marine based omega-3 sources for neonatal brain development and reducing the risk of various chronic diseases. However, due to concerns regarding the origin, sustainable supply and safety of the marine sources, alternative n-3 PUFA sources are being explored. Recently, plant-based omega-3 sources are gaining much importance because of their sustainable supply and dietary acceptance. α-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3) rich seed oils are the major omega-3 fatty acid source available for human consumption. But, efficiency of conversion of ALA to n-3 LC-PUFAs in humans is limited due to a rate-limiting step in the n-3 pathway catalyzed by Δ6-desaturase. Botanical stearidonic acid (SDA, 18:4n-3) rich oils are emerging as a sustainable omega-3 source with efficient conversion rate to n-3 LC-PUFA especially to EPA, as it bypasses the Δ6-desaturase rate limiting step. Several recent studies have identified the major plant sources of SDA and explored its potential health benefits and preventive roles in inflammation, cardiovascular disease (CVD) and cancer. This systematic review summarizes the current state of knowledge on the sources, nutraceutical roles, food-based applications and the future perspectives of botanical SDA.

Feeding a Bioactive Oil Enriched in Stearidonic Acid during Early Life Influences Immune System Maturation in Neonatal Sprague-Dawley Rats

BACKGROUND

Long-chain n-3 PUFAs (LCPUFAs) improve immune development and reduce atopic disease risk in infants. Stearidonic acid (SDA) can be a substrate for biosynthesis of n-3 LCPUFAs.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to determine the effect of feeding an SDA-enriched diet during suckling and weaning on offspring immunity and ability to develop oral tolerance (OT).

METHODS

Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned to consume either SDA (3 g SDA/100 g fat) or a control (no SDA) diet, 5 d before parturition and through lactation (21 d). For the OT treatment, 10-d-old pups were fed ovalbumin (Ova; 200 μL of 8 mg/mL) or placebo daily for 5 d. At 21 d, pups (both sexes) were weaned to their respective maternal diet until 6 wk of age or killed. Systemic immunization was induced using Ova (in 3-wk-old pups) or Ova + adjuvant (in 6-wk-old pups). The effect of suckling diet (in 3-wk-old pups) or weaning diet (in 6-wk-old pups) and OT treatment on immune function (main outcome) in spleen and blood was compared using 2-factor ANOVA.

RESULTS

An SDA-enriched maternal diet, compared with the control diet, resulted in higher plasma phospholipid (PL) EPA (15 times higher), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA; 3 times higher), and DHA (1.3 times higher) content in 3-wk-old pups, accompanied by higher B-cell function [plasma ovalbumin-specific IgG1 (Ova-IgG1), 2 times higher] ( P < 0.05). Compared with pups fed a control diet, the splenocytes from these pups had more (23%) helper T (Th) cells (CD3+CD4+) and activated (12%) Th cells (CD4+CD28+) (P < 0.02) than controls. At 6 wk, the SDA group had 30% more CD4+CD25+ splenocytes, and when stimulated ex vivo with LPS, produced less inflammatory IL-6 (50%) and TNF-α (30%) and more immunoregulatory IL-10 (45%) cytokines (P < 0.05) than the control group. The Ova-exposed group had less (30%) plasma Ova-IgG1 than the placebo group. Splenocytes and plasma PLs from the 6-wk-old SDA group had more EPA (2x) and DPA (3.5x) (P < 0.05), but not DHA, than the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

Feeding SDA during lactation and weaning altered immune responses in directions believed to be beneficial.

Partial replacement of pork fat by Echium oil in reduced sodium bologna sausages: technological, nutritional and stability implications

BACKGROUND

The present research aimed to evaluate the nutritional, technological, microstructural and sensory characteristics of bologna sausages made with pork fat replaced with Echium oil. Three different treatments were processed, all of them with approximately 35% less sodium than a regular bologna-type sausage: Control (only pork backfat addition) and T25 and T50 (replacement of 25 and 50% of the added animal fat with Echium oil respectively).

RESULTS

Proximate composition, texture profile analysis, fatty acid profile and microstructure were evaluated to characterize the products. In refrigerated storage, the following characteristics were assessed: thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) index, objective color, pH value, microbiological counts and sensory acceptance. Both samples with Echium oil (T25 and T50) showed a healthier lipid profile, with high omega-3 content, mainly from α-linolenic and stearidonic fatty acids, consequently presenting better (P ≤ 0.05) values of nutritional indices than the Control. However, the replacement of 50% animal fat with Echium oil negatively affected (P ≤ 0.05) most of the technological characteristics and the sensory acceptance of bolognas. In contrast, the treatment with 25% replacement did not show significant differences in most of the evaluated parameters compared with the Control sample.

CONCLUSION

Thus the replacement of 25% of pork backfat with Echium oil in bologna sausages can be recommended, representing a good balance between nutritional gains and sensory impairment. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Single-Dose SDA-Rich Echium Oil Increases Plasma EPA, DPAn3, and DHA Concentrations

The omega-3 (n3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are associated with health benefits. The primary dietary source of EPA and DHA is seafood. Alpha-linoleic acid (ALA) has not been shown to be a good source for EPA and DHA; however, stearidonic acid (SDA)-which is naturally contained in echium oil (EO)-may be a more promising alternative. This study was aimed at investigating the short-term n3 PUFA metabolism after the ingestion of a single dose of EO. Healthy young male subjects (n = 12) ingested a single dose of 26 g of EO after overnight fasting. Plasma fatty acid concentrations and relative amounts were determined at baseline and 2, 4, 6, 8, 24, 48, and 72 h after the ingestion of EO. During the whole examination period, the participants received standardized nutrition. Plasma ALA and SDA concentrations increased rapidly after the single dose of EO. Additionally, EPA and DPAn3 concentrations both increased significantly by 47% after 72 h compared to baseline; DHA concentrations also significantly increased by 21% after 72 h. To conclude, EO increases plasma ALA, SDA, EPA, DPAn3, and DHA concentrations and may be an alternative source for these n3 PUFAs.

Micropropagation and Quantification of Bioactive Compounds in Mertensia maritima (L.) Gray

The goal of this study was to establish an efficient protocol for the large-scale propagation of Mertensia maritima (L.) Gray, and evaluate the carotenoid, fatty acid, and tocopherol contents in the leaves of in vitro regenerated shoots. Surface-disinfected node and shoot tip explants were placed on semisolid Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium with 0-16 µM N⁶-benzyladenine (BA), kinetin, (KN), and thidiazuron (TDZ) alone, or in combination with, 1 or 2 µM α-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA). Of the three different cytokinins employed, TDZ elicited the best results for axillary shoot proliferation. A maximum frequency of shoot initiation above 84%, with a mean of 8.9 and 4.8 shoots per node and shoot tip, respectively, was achieved on the culture medium supplemented with 4 µM TDZ. A combination of TDZ + NAA significantly increased the percentage of multiple shoot formation and number of shoots per explant. The best shoot induction response occurred on MS medium with 4 µM TDZ and 1 µM NAA. On this medium, the node (93.8%) and shoot tip (95.9%) explants produced an average of 17.7 and 8.6 shoots, respectively. The highest root induction frequency (97.4%) and number of roots per shoot (25.4), as well as the greatest root length (4.2 cm), were obtained on half-strength MS medium supplemented with 4 µM indole-3-butyric acid (IBA). The presence of six carotenoids and α-tocopherol in the leaf tissues of M. maritima was confirmed by HPLC. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis confirmed the presence of 10 fatty acids, including γ-linolenic acid and stearidonic acid in the leaf tissues of M. maritima. All-E-lutein (18.49 μg g^-1 fresh weight, FW), α-tocopherol (3.82 μg g^-1 FW) and α-linolenic acid (30.37%) were found to be the significant compounds in M. maritima. For the first time, a successful protocol has been established for the mass propagation of M. maritima with promising prospects for harnessing its bioactive reserves.

The Combination of Omega-3 Stearidonic Acid and Docetaxel Enhances Cell Death over Docetaxel Alone in Human Prostate Cancer Cells

Background: Docetaxel (DOC), or Taxotere, is an anthracycline antibiotic used to treat multiple types of cancer. It is a first-line chemotherapy treatment for patients with metastasized, hormone-resistant prostate cancer (PCa) or for patients with high-risk, localized PCa that could benefit from early chemotherapy treatment. Previously, we showed that stearidonic acid (SDA), an omega-3 fatty acid, enhances the cytotoxicity of doxorubicin (DOX) in human PCa cells. This observation suggests that PCa therapies using SDA and chemotherapeutic drugs in combination offer attractive possibilities for developing treatments that ameliorate toxic side effects of some commonly used chemotherapy drugs.

Objectives: We used androgen-resistant PC3 and DU 145 cells derived from human prostate cancer to quantify the effects of combined SDA and DOC on proliferation/viability and on the production of pro-apoptotic caspases 9 and 3. We also compared the effects of SDA with those of BAY, a pharmacological inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-ĸB), in androgen-sensitive LNCaP cells. Finally, we qualitatively and quantitatively assessed the drug combination on androgen receptor (AR) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) expression in LNCaP and PC3 cells, respectively.

Methods: The half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) and combination indices of SDA and DOC in PC3 and DU 145 cells were determined using the MTT cell viability assay. To quantify the effects of SDA and BAY on NF-ĸB activity, we used luciferase reporter assays in LNCaP cells that were stably transduced with lentiviral vectors carrying NF-ĸB response element sequence upstream of the luciferase gene sequence. AR and PPARγ expression were assessed by western blotting and immunocytochemistry. We considered caspase 9 and 3 cleavage to be apoptosis markers and determined the drug combination effect on the extent of that cleavage by western blot analysis.

Results: The cytotoxic effects of DOC were synergistically enhanced by SDA when the two were added to DU145 and PC3 cell cultures. Combination index (CI) analyses based on the Chou-Talalay method and mass action law showed synergistic interaction with CI <1. SDA suppressed TNFα-induced NF-κB activity similarly to BAY. The SDA/DOC combination down regulated testosterone (T)-induced AR and troglitazone-induced PPARγ protein expression when compared to using the drugs singly. Similarly, the SDA/DOC combination induced caspase 9 and 3 production and cleavage suggesting apoptosis induction. Like our DOX studies, this work provides proof-of-concept for using SDA and DOC in combination to reduce the dose, and therefore the toxicity, of DOC and possibly increasing the survival benefit in DOC clinical translation studies.

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids reduce preterm labor by inhibiting trophoblast cathepsin S and inflammasome activation

Preterm labor is associated with inflammation and infection. The mechanisms underlying the role of omega-3 fatty acid in inflammasome activation and prevention of preterm labor remain unknown. We hypothesized that omega-3 fatty acid can reduce the rate of preterm birth induced by infection and trophoblast inflammation. In the present study, we found that inflammasome-related molecules and IL-1β in trophoblasts were activated by TNF-α derived from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated THP-1 cell-conditioned medium (CM) and recombinant TNF-α protein. The results demonstrated that stimulation with TNF-α caused lysosomal rupture in trophoblasts, which accelerated cathepsin S (CTSS) diffusion from lysosomes to the cytosol and activated NLRP1 (nacht domain-leucine-rich repeat, and pyd-containing protein 1) and absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) inflammasomes, thereby increasing IL-1β secretion. Moreover, in response to LPS challenge, TNF-α increased trophoblast cell death and decreased cell viability through inflammasome and CTSS activation. Stearidonic acid (SDA; 18:4n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n-3) inhibited inflammasome-related molecule synthesis and CTSS and caspase-1 activation, which further reduced the preterm delivery rate of pregnant mice induced by LPS (92.9 compared with 69.7% (DHA); 92.9 compared with 53.5% (SDA)). Higher expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, prostaglandin E2, and CTSS, but lower resolvin D1 expression, was observed in preterm pregnant mice than in controls. Similarly, resolvin D1 was highly expressed in women with term delivery compared with women with preterm delivery. Thus, SDA and DHA may attenuate macrophage-derived TNF-α inducing CTSS and inflammasome activation, IL-1β secretion, and placental trophoblast cell death. These functions are implicated in the preventive effects of SDA and DHA on preterm labor.

Dietary Buglossoides Arvensis Oil Increases Circulating n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in a Dose-Dependent Manner and Enhances Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated Whole Blood Interleukin-10-A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trial

Buglossoides arvensis (Ahiflower) oil is a dietary oil rich in stearidonic acid (20% SDA; 18:4 n-3). The present randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial investigated the effects of three Ahiflower oil dosages on omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content of plasma and mononuclear cells (MCs) and of the highest Ahiflower dosage on stimulated cytokine production in blood. Healthy subjects (n = 88) consumed 9.7 mL per day for 28 days of 100% high oleic sunflower oil (HOSO); 30% Ahiflower oil (Ahi) + 70% HOSO; 60% Ahi + 40% HOSO; and 100% Ahi. No clinically significant changes in blood and urine chemistries, blood lipid profiles, hepatic and renal function tests nor hematology were measured. Linear mixed models (repeated measures design) probed for differences in time, and time × treatment interactions. Amongst significant changes, plasma and MC eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5 n-3) levels increased from baseline at day 28 in all Ahiflower groups (p < 0.05) and the increase was greater in all Ahiflower groups compared to the HOSO control (time × treatment interactions; p < 0.05). Similar results were obtained for α-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3 n-3), eicosatetraenoic acid (ETA, 20:4 n-3), and docosapentaenoic acid (DPA, 22:5 n-3) content; but not docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3). Production of interleukin-10 (IL-10) was increased in the 100% Ahiflower oil group compared to 100% HOSO group (p < 0.05). IL-10 production was also increased in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated M2-differentiated THP-1 macrophage-like cells in the presence of 20:4 n-3 or EPA (p < 0.05). Overall; this indicates that the consumption of Ahiflower oil is associated with an anti-inflammatory phenotype in healthy subjects.

Effect of ruminally unprotected Echium oil on milk yield, composition and fatty acid profile in mid-lactation goats

This study investigated the effects on goat milk yield and composition of a diet supplemented with Echium plantagineum oil (EPO). Twenty-four mid-lactation multiparous Camosciata goats were divided into two balanced groups and fed for 44 d a diet based on hay and concentrate, supplemented (EPO group, Echium) or not (CON group, control) with 40 ml of ruminally unprotected EPO. Individual milk yield was recorded and individual milk samples were collected at 11, 22, 33, and 44 d after supplementation. Milk samples were analysed for milk components and fatty acids (FA). Data were statistically analysed by repeated-measures analysis of variance. Milk yield, protein and lactose contents were significantly higher in EPO than CON group. The inclusion of EPO significantly decreased total saturated FA and total branched-chain FA, and contemporarily sharply increased trans biohydrogenation intermediates (P ⩽ 0.001). Milk concentration of α-linolenic, stearidonic and γ-linolenic acids increased by 23, 1000 and 67%, respectively (P ⩽ 0.001). Due to extensive ruminal biohydrogenation, their apparent transfer rate was less than 3%. As a consequence, the milk concentrations of very long-chain (VLC) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), such as eicosapentaenoic (20:5 n-3) and dihomo-γ-linolenic (20:3 n-6) acids, significantly increased with EPO treatment, but values remained very low. Docosahexaenoic acid (22:6 n-3) was undetectable in all analysed milk samples. Results show that ruminally unprotected EPO can enhance milk yield and protein and improve the overall goat milk FA profile. However, this kind of supplementation cannot be considered a valuable strategy to develop goat functional dairy products enriched with VLC n-3 PUFA for human consumption.

Rise in DPA Following SDA-Rich Dietary Echium Oil Less Effective in Affording Anti-Arrhythmic Actions Compared to High DHA Levels Achieved with Fish Oil in Sprague-Dawley Rats

Stearidonic acid (SDA; C18:4n-3) has been suggested as an alternative to fish oil (FO) for delivering health benefits of C ≥ 20 long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC n-3 PUFA). Echium oil (EO) represents a non-genetically-modified source of SDA available commercially. This study compared EO and FO in relation to alterations in plasma and tissue fatty acids, and for their ability to afford protection against ischemia-induced cardiac arrhythmia and ventricular fibrillation (VF). Rats were fed (12 weeks) diets supplemented with either EO or FO at three dose levels (1, 3 and 5% w/w; n = 18 per group). EO failed to influence C22:6n-3 (DHA) but increased C22:5n-3 (DPA) in tissues dose-dependently, especially in heart tissue. Conversely, DHA in hearts of FO rats showed dose-related elevation; 14.8%-24.1% of total fatty acids. Kidney showed resistance for incorporation of LC n-3 PUFA. Overall, FO provided greater cardioprotection than EO. At the highest dose level, FO rats displayed lower (p < 0.05) episodes of VF% (29% vs. 73%) and duration (22.7 ± 12.0 vs. 75.8 ± 17.1 s) than the EO group but at 3% EO was comparable to FO. We conclude that there is no endogenous conversion of SDA to DHA, and that DPA may be associated with limited cardiac benefit.

Feeding laying hens stearidonic acid-enriched soybean oil, as compared to flaxseed oil, more efficiently enriches eggs with very long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids

The desaturation of α-linolenic acid (ALA) to stearidonic acid (SDA) is considered to be rate-limiting for the hepatic conversion of ALA to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in humans, rodents, and chickens. Thus, we hypothesized that feeding laying hens SDA, as a component of the oil derived from the genetic modification of the soybean, would bypass this inefficient metabolic step and result in the enrichment of eggs with EPA and DHA at amounts comparable to that achieved by direct supplementation of hens' diet with these very long-chain (VLC) n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). In a 28-d study, laying hens incorporated 0.132 mg, 0.041 mg, or 0.075 mg of VLC n-3 PUFAs into egg yolk for each milligram of ingested dietary ALA derived primarily from conventional soybean oil (CON), dietary ALA derived primarily from flaxseed oil (FLAX), or dietary SDA derived from SDA-enriched soybean oil, respectively. Moreover, the amounts of total yolk VLC n-3 PUFAs in eggs from hens fed the CON (51 mg), FLAX (91 mg), or SDA (125 mg) oils were markedly less than the 305 mg found in eggs from fish oil-fed hens. Unexpectedly, SDA appeared to be more readily incorporated into adipose tissue than into egg yolk. Since egg yolk FAs typically reflect the hens' dietary pattern, these tissue-specific differences suggest the existence of an alternate pathway for the hepatic secretion and transport of SDA in the laying hen.

First use of the WAVE™ disposable rocking bioreactor for enhanced bioproduct synthesis by N2 -fixing cyanobacteria

WAVE™ rocking disposable bioreactors have been successfully utilized for bioproduct development from bacteria, yeast, microalgae, and animal and plant cells but not from cyanobacteria so far. N2 -fixing cyanobacteria represent a prolific bioproducts source with reduced cultivation costs. In this study, 1 L cultures of the N2 -fixing cyanobacterium Anabaena siamensis grown diazotrophically in the WAVE™ bioreactor exhibited increased phosphate consumption and 37-70% higher CO2 fixation rates than those grown in conventional bubbled suspension (BS) batch cultures. This generated 40-80% increased biomass productivities in the WAVE™ bioreactor reaching 60 mg L(-1)  day(-1) when supplemented with 10% CO2 . Consequently, WAVE™ generated 36-153% more protein, lipid, and carbohydrate than BS, including 47-100% increased productivity of phycocyanin and stearidonic acid (SA) with relevant biomedical applications. While the type of culture system (BS or WAVE(TM) ) did not affect the biochemical profile of cyanobacterial biomass, 10% CO2 supplementation induced a significant decrease in fatty acids and phycocyanin contents (mg g(-1)  DW). Therefore, for commercial applications, the CO2 supplementation of WAVE™ should be optimized for each targeted bioproduct separately. This study opens possibilities for upgrading the WAVE™ systems to photobioreactors (PBRs) for bioproduct development from cyanobacteria, with opportunities and challenges critically evaluated herein.

Stearidonic and γ-linolenic acids in echium oil improves glucose disposal in insulin resistant monkeys

Echium oil (EO) contains stearidonic acid (18:4), a n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), and gamma-linolenic acids (18:3), a n-6 PUFA that can be converted to long chain (LC)-PUFAs. We aimed to compare a safflower oil (SO)-enriched diet to EO- and fish oil (FO)-enriched diets on circulating and tissue PUFAs levels and glycemic, inflammatory, and cardiovascular health biomarkers in insulin resistant African green monkeys. In a Latin-square cross-over study, eight monkeys consumed matched diets for 6 weeks with 3-week washout periods. Monkeys consuming FO had significantly higher levels of n-3 LC-PUFAs and EO supplementation resulted in higher levels of circulating n-3 LC-PUFAs and a significant increase in dihomo-gamma linolenic acid (DGLA) in red blood cells and muscle. Glucose disposal was improved after EO consumption. These data suggest that PUFAs in EO supplementation have the capacity to alter circulating, RBC and muscle LC-PUFA levels and improve glucose tolerance in insulin-resistant monkeys.

Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids may mutually benefit both obesity and osteoporosis

The overconsumption of n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), resulting in a high ratio of n-6 to n-3 PUFA, may contribute to the increased pathogenesis of obesity and osteoporosis by promoting low-grade chronic inflammation (LGCI). As evidence suggests, both obesity and osteoporosis are linked on a cellular and systemic basis. This review will analyze if a relationship exists between LGCI, fat, bone, and n-3 PUFA. During the life cycle, inflammation increases, fat mass accumulates, and bone mass declines, thus suggesting that a connection exists. This review will begin by examining how the current American diet and dietary guidelines may fall short of providing an anti-inflammatory dose of the n-3 PUFA eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). It will then define LGCI and outline the evidence for a relationship between fat and bone. Inflammation as it pertains to obesity and osteoporosis and how EPA and DHA can alleviate the associated inflammation will be discussed, followed by some preliminary evidence to show how mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) lineage commitment may be altered by inflammation to favor adipogenesis. Our hypothesis is that n-3 PUFA positively influence obesity and osteoporosis by reducing LGCI, ultimately leading to a beneficial shift in MSC lineage commitment. This hypothesis essentially relates the need for more focused research in several areas such as determining age and lifestyle factors that promote the shift in MSC commitment and if current intakes of EPA and DHA are optimal for fat and bone.