Effect of Lifelong Exposure to Dietary Plant and Marine Sources of n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids on Morphologic and Gene Expression Biomarkers of Intestinal Health in Early Life

Altered intestinal health is also associated with the incidence and severity of many chronic inflammatory conditions, which could be attenuated via dietary n-3 PUFA interventions. However, little is known about the effect of lifelong exposure to n-3 PUFA from plant and marine sources (beginning in utero via the maternal diet) on early life biomarkers of intestinal health. Harems of C57Bl/6 mice were randomly assigned to one of three isocaloric AIN-93G modified diets differing in their fat sources consisting of the following: (i) 10% safflower oil (SO, enriched in n-6 PUFA), (ii) 3% flaxseed oil + 7% safflower oil (FX, plant-based n-3 PUFA-enriched diet), or (iii) 3% menhaden fish oil + 7% safflower oil (MO, marine-based n-3 PUFA-enriched diet). Mothers remained on these diets throughout pregnancy and offspring (n = 14/diet) continued on the same parental diet until termination at 3 weeks of age. In ileum, villi:crypt length ratios were increased in both the FX and MO dietary groups compared to SO (p < 0.05). Ileum mRNA expression of critical intestinal health biomarkers was increased by both n-3 PUFA-enriched diets including Relmβ and REG3γ compared to SO (p < 0.05), whereas only the FX diet increased mRNA expression of TFF3 and Muc2 (p < 0.05) and only the MO diet increased mRNA expression of ZO-1 (p < 0.05). In the proximal colon, both the FX and MO diets increased crypt lengths compared to SO (p < 0.05), whereas only the MO diet increased goblet cell numbers compared to SO (p < 0.05). Further, the MO diet increased proximal colon mRNA expression of Relmβ and REG3γ (p < 0.05) and both MO and FX increased mRNA expression of Muc2 compared to SO (p < 0.05). Collectively, these results demonstrate that lifelong exposure to dietary n-3 PUFA, beginning in utero, from both plant and marine sources, can support intestinal health development in early life. The differential effects between plant and marine sources warrants further investigation for optimizing health.

Effects of flaxseed oil supplementation on metaphase II oocyte rates in IVF cycles with decreased ovarian reserve: a randomized controlled trial

Background

This study was designed to explore the effects of flaxseed oil on the metaphase II (MII) oocyte rates in women with decreased ovarian reserve (DOR).

Methods

The women with DOR were divided into a study group (n = 108, flaxseed oil treatment) and a control group (n = 110, no treatment). All patients were treated with assisted reproductive technology (ART). Subsequently, the ART stimulation cycle parameters, embryo transfer (ET) results, and clinical reproductive outcomes were recorded. The influencing factors affecting the MII oocyte rate were analyzed using univariate analysis and multivariate analysis.

Results

Flaxseed oil reduced the recombinant human follicle-stimulating hormone (r-hFSH) dosage and stimulation time and increased the peak estradiol (E2) concentration in DOR women during ART treatment. The MII oocyte rate, fertilization rate, cleavage rate, high-quality embryo rate, and blastocyst formation rate were increased after flaxseed oil intervention. The embryo implantation rate of the study group was higher than that of the control group (p = 0.05). Additionally, the female age [odds ratio (OR): 0.609, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.52-0.72, p < 0.01] was the hindering factor of MII oocyte rate, while anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH; OR: 100, 95% CI: 20.31-495, p < 0.01), peak E2 concentration (OR: 1.00, 95% CI: 1.00-1.00, p = 0.01), and the intake of flaxseed oil (OR: 2.51, 95% CI: 1.06-5.93, p = 0.04) were the promoting factors for MII oocyte rate.

Conclusion

Flaxseed oil improved ovarian response and the quality of oocytes and embryos, thereby increasing the fertilization rate and high-quality embryo rate in DOR patients. The use of flaxseed oil was positively correlated with MII oocyte rate in women with DOR.

Clinical trial number

https://www.chictr.org.cn/, identifier ChiCTR2300073785.

Microbial Conjugated Linolenic Acid-Enriched Fermented Milk Using Lipase-Hydrolyzed Flaxseed Oil: Biochemical, Organoleptic and Storage Traits

The bioactive conjugated linolenic acid (CLNA) can be microbiologically produced by different probiotic strains when in the presence of α-linolenic acid (α-LNA). Food matrices are a good vector, such as has been previously demonstrated with fermented milk enriched with microbial CLNA by Bifidobacterium breve DSM 20091 from lipase-hydrolyzed flaxseed oil. The aim of the present work was to further assess the nutritional, biochemical and organoleptic properties of the developed dairy product, as well as its storage stability throughout 28 days at 4 °C, proving its suitability for consumption. Milk lactose hydrolyzed into glucose (0.89 g/100 g) and galactose (0.88 g/100 g), which were further metabolized into lactic (0.42 g/100 g), acetic (0.44 g/100 g) and propionic (0.85 g/100 g) acids. Titratable acidity reached 0.69% and pH 4.93. Compared with the control (no CLNA), fat content was slightly higher (2.0 g/100 g). Acetic acid was the major volatile (83.32%), lacking important dairy flavor contributors, like acetaldehyde. Sensory analysis revealed predominant astringency and bitterness. No microbial concerns arose during storage, but the CLNA content increased, and some saturated fatty acids seemed to oxidize. In conclusion, the CLNA-enriched fermented milk revealed reasonable compositional properties, yet further improvements are needed for optimal consumer acceptance and a prolonged shelf-life.

Effects of different extraction methods on volatile profiles of flaxseed oils

To investigate the effects of different extraction methods on volatile compounds in flaxseed oil (FSO), we first carried out solvent extraction, cold pressing, and hot pressing treatments of flaxseed [Linum usitatissimum (L.)], then applied the headspace-gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry technology to identify the volatile substance compositions, and established flavor fingerprints of solvent-extracted FSO, cold-pressed FSO, and hot-pressed FSO. In total, 81 volatile compounds were detected, including 27 aldehydes, 14 alcohols, 13 ketones, 9 heterocycles, 8 esters, 5 acids, 4 hydrocarbons, and 1 sulfur compound (dimethyl disulfide). Extraction methods had a great influence on the volatile profile of FSO. Solvent-extracted FSO had more sweet, mild, floral, and sour volatile profiles, cold-pressed FSO had stronger volatile profiles of winey, spicy, and fatty, and hot-pressed FSO had green, grass, and plastic volatile profiles. Principal component analysis and Euclidean distance demonstrated that the volatile compounds of three FSO samples could be clearly distinguished. Of note, the cold-pressed FSO and hot-pressed FSO had similar volatile profiles, and they were different from solvent-extracted FSO. This study could provide some guidance for improving the flavor quality of FSO and selecting the proper extraction method for FSO productions. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Practical Application: This study shows extraction methods significantly affect the formation of aroma characteristics in flaxseed oil (FSO), and it provides theoretical guidance for production to use the appropriate extraction methods for high-quality FSO.

Effects of an Hourly Bolus Postruminal Infusion of Flaxseed Oil or Palm Oil on Circulating Fatty Acid Concentrations and Hepatic Expression of Pyruvate Carboxylase and Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxykinase in Dairy Cattle

Palmitic (C16:0), α-linolenic acid (C18:3n-3 cis), and propionate regulate bovine pyruvate carboxylase (PC) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PCK1) expression in vitro. The objective of this experiment was to determine the impact of C16:0, C18:3n-3 cis, propionate, and acetate postruminal infusions on hepatic PC and PCK1 expression. We hypothesized that circulating fatty acids alter hepatic PC and PCK1 in lactating dairy cows. Acetate, propionate, palm oil, and flaxseed oil were supplied postruminally to lactating cows (n = 4) using two 4 × 4 Latin square studies. For Experiment 1, cows were infused on an hourly basis with either a bolus of propionate, acetate, or the combination of propionate and palm oil, or acetate and palm oil, and Experiment 2 was similar, but flaxseed oil replaced palm oil. Flaxseed infusions increased plasma concentration and the molar percent of C18:3n-3 cis and decreased C16:0 but did not affect PC or PCK1 expression. Palm infusions did not affect blood metabolites or the hepatic expression of PC or PCK1. The lack of responses to short-chain fatty acid infusions and changes in circulating long-chain fatty acids in mature cattle are not suitable models to study the effects of α-linolenic acid and propionate on bovine PC and PCK1 expression previously observed in vitro.

Flaxseed Oil (Linum usitatissimum) Prevents Cognitive and Motor Damage in Rats with Hyperammonemia

Hyperammonemia is characterized by the excessive accumulation of ammonia in the body as a result of the loss of liver detoxification, leading to the development of hepatic encephalopathy (HE). These metabolic alterations carry cognitive and motor deficits and cause neuronal damage, with no effective treatment at present. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the effect of two subacute oral administrations of flaxseed oil (0.26 and 0.52 mL/kg) on short- and long-term memory, visuospatial memory, locomotor activity, motor coordination, and the neuronal morphology of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) via tests on Wistar rats with hyperammonemia. The goal was to identify its role in the regulation of cerebral edema, without liver damage causing cerebral failure. In contrast with an ammonium-rich diet, flaxseed oil and normal foods did not cause cognitive impairment or motor alterations, as evidenced in the short-term and visuospatial memory tests. Furthermore, the flaxseed oil treatment maintained a regular neuronal morphology of the prefrontal cortex, which represents a neuroprotective effect. We conclude that the oral administration of flaxseed oil prevents cognitive and motor impairments as well as neuronal alterations in rats with hyperammonemia, which supports the potential use of this oil to ameliorate the changes that occur in hepatic encephalopathy.

Linseed oil attenuates fatty liver disease in mice fed a high-carbohydrate diet

The impact of linseed oil as a lipid source on liver disease induced by a high-carbohydrate diet (HCD) was evaluated. Adult male Swiss mice received an HCD containing carbohydrates (72.1%), proteins (14.2%), and lipids (4.0%). The Control HCD group (HCD-C) received an HCD containing lard (3.6%) and soybean oil (0.4%) as lipid sources. The L10 and L100 groups received an HCD with 10 and 100% linseed oil as lipid sources, respectively. A group of mice were euthanized before receiving the diets (day 0) and the remaining groups after 56 days of receiving the diets (HCD-C, L10, and L-100 groups). Morphological and histopathological analyses, as well as collagen deposition were evaluated. Perivenous hepatocytes (PVH) of the HCD-C group were larger (P<0.05) than periportal hepatocytes (PPH) in the median lobe (ML) and left lobe (LL). There was a greater (P<0.05) deposition of type I collagen in PPH (vs PVH) and in the ML (vs LL). The ML exhibited a higher proportion of apoptotic bodies, inflammatory infiltrate, and hepatocellular ballooning. All these alterations (hepatocyte size, deposition of type I collagen, apoptotic bodies, inflammatory infiltrate, and hepatocellular ballooning) induced by HCD were prevented or attenuated in L10 and L100 groups. Another indicator of the beneficial effects of linseed oil was the lower (P<0.05) number of binucleated hepatocytes (HCD-C vs L10 or L100 group). In general, the L100 group had greater effects than the L10 group. In conclusion, linseed oil impedes or reduces the liver injury progression induced by an HCD.

Beneficial Effects of Dietary Flaxseed Oil through Inflammation Pathways and Gut Microbiota in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Mice

Flaxseed oil (FO) has displayed potential anti-diabetes properties by providing a high content of α-linolenic acid. However, the effects and mechanisms of FO on type 1 diabetes are still unclear. The present study aims to explore the effects of different doses of FO feeding on hepatic inflammation and gut microbiota in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. Forty-eight six-week-old C57BL/6J male mice were divided into a control group (CON), a diabetic group (MOD), a diabetes with 7.0% w/w FO feeding group (FO-L), and a diabetes with 10.5% w/w FO feeding group (FO-H) for six weeks. The 7.0% w/w and 10.5% w/w FO feeding groups exhibited potential recovery of the number and size of pancreas tissues. The fasting blood glucose level was significantly decreased only after 4 weeks of feeding with 10.5% w/w FO in diabetic mice. The 10.5% w/w FO feeding group significantly decreased the postprandial blood glucose level of mice in the OGTT test. Hepatic glycogen levels were dramatically upregulated in the mice fed with both 7.0% w/w and 10.5% w/w FO. FO feeding significantly attenuated hepatic LPS, TNF-α, and IL-1β levels. In addition, we observed that 7.0% w/w and 10.5% w/w FO feedings notably downregulated hepatic gene and protein expressions of TLR4, MyD88, and P65. Furthermore, only 10.5% FO regulated fecal microbiota by increasing the relative abundance of the Bacteroidetes phylum, Lactococcus family, and Muribaculaceae and Streptococcaceae family and genus in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. Therefore, we conclude that FO feeding plays a role in anti-inflammation via the regulation of hepatic LPS/TLR4/MyD88 pathways and gut microbiota. In addition, different doses of FO supplementation may exhibit varying mechanisms in streptozotocin-induced mice.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the omega-3 fatty acids effects on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)

BACKGROUND

Omega-3 fatty acids (omega-3 FAs) have attracted the attention of researchers because of their influence on circulatory levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Our objective was to review systematically and Meta-analyze randomized controlled trials (RCTs) to assess the effects of omega-3 FAs supplementation on serum BDNF concentration.

METHODS

Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library were systematically searched until April 2023. The Cochrane risk of bias assessment tool was utilized to evaluate the quality of the studies. A random-effects model was employed to estimate the overall effect size of BDNF levels, using the Standard Mean Difference (SMD) and a 95% confidence interval (CI). The heterogeneity among the studies was assessed using chi-squared and I2 statistics.

RESULTS

A total of 12 studies involving 587 subjects were included. The supplementation of PUFA was found to be associated with a significant increase in serum levels of BNDF in the group receiving the supplements, as compared to the placebo group (SMD: 0.72 pg/mL, 95% CI: 0.28, 1.15; P < 0.001) (I2 = 84.39%, P < 0.001). Sub-group analyses revealed similar findings in trials with fewer than 10 weeks, which utilized both animal (fish oil) and herbal (flaxseed) forms of omega-3 supplements with a high daily dosage of 2000mg.

CONCLUSION

The present systematic review and meta-analysis indicate the efficacy of omega-3 FAs in increasing the serum concentration of BDNF. Therefore, omega-3 FAs should be prioritized as agents for increasing BDNF in interventions.

Dietary Flaxseed and Flaxseed Oil Differentially Modulate Aspects of the Microbiota Gut-Brain Axis Following an Acute Lipopolysaccharide Challenge in Male C57Bl/6 Mice

The microbiota gut-brain axis (mGBA) is an important contributor to mental health and neurological and mood disorders. Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are endotoxins that are components of Gram-negative bacteria cell walls and have been widely shown to induce both systemic and neuro-inflammation. Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) is an oilseed rich in fibre, n3-poly-unsaturated fatty acid (alpha-linolenic acid (ALA)), and lignan, secoisolariciresinol diglucoside, which all can induce beneficial effects across varying aspects of the mGBA. The objective of this study was to determine the potential for dietary supplementation with flaxseed or flaxseed oil to attenuate LPS-induced inflammation through modulation of the mGBA. In this study, 72 5-week-old male C57Bl/6 mice were fed one of three isocaloric diets for 3 weeks: (1) AIN-93G basal diet (BD), (2) BD + 10% flaxseed (FS), or (3) BD + 4% FS oil (FO). Mice were then injected with LPS (1 mg/kg i.p) or saline (n = 12/group) and samples were collected 24 h post-injection. Dietary supplementation with FS, but not FO, partially attenuated LPS-induced systemic (serum TNF-α and IL-10) and neuro-inflammation (hippocampal and/or medial prefrontal cortex IL-10, TNF-α, IL-1β mRNA expression), but had no effect on sickness and nest-building behaviours. FS-fed mice had enhanced fecal microbial diversity with increased relative abundance of beneficial microbial groups (i.e., Lachnospiraceae, Bifidobacterium, Coriobacteriaceae), reduced Akkermansia muciniphila, and increased production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which may play a role in its anti-inflammatory response. Overall, this study highlights the potential for flaxseed to attenuate LPS-induced inflammation, in part through modulation of the intestinal microbiota, an effect which may not be solely driven by its ALA-rich oil component.

The Effect of Increasing Concentrations of Omega-3 Fatty Acids from either Flaxseed Oil or Preformed Docosahexaenoic Acid on Fatty Acid Composition, Plasma Oxylipin, and Immune Response of Laying Hens

BACKGROUND

There is a lack of nutrition guidelines for the feeding of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) to laying hens. Knowledge as to whether the type and concentrations of α-linolenic acid (ALA) and/or docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in the diet can make a difference to the birds' immune responses when subjected to a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge is limited.

OBJECTIVES

The study was designed to determine the potential nutritional and health benefits to laying hens when receiving dietary omega-3 PUFA from either ALA or DHA.

METHODS

A total of 80 Lohmann LSL-Classic (white egg layer, 20 wk old) were randomly assigned to 1 of 8 treatment diets (10 hens/treatment), provided 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, or 0.8% of total dietary omega-3 PUFA, provided as either ALA-rich flaxseed oil or DHA-enriched algal biomass. After an 8-wk feeding period, the birds were challenged with Escherichia coli-derived LPS (8 mg/kg; i.v. injection), with terminal sample collection 4 h after challenge. Egg yolk, plasma, liver, and spleen samples were collected for subsequent analyses.

RESULTS

Increasing dietary omega-3 supplementation yielded predictable responses in egg yolk, plasma, and liver fatty acid concentrations. Dietary intake of ALA contributed mainly to ALA-derived oxylipins. Meanwhile, eicosapentaenoic acid- and DHA-derived oxylipins were primarily influenced by DHA dietary intake. LPS increased the concentrations of almost all the omega-6 PUFA-, ALA-, and DHA-derived oxylipins in plasma and decreased hepatic mRNA expression of COX-2 and 5-LOX (P < 0.001) involved in the biosynthesis of oxylipins. LPS also increased mRNA expression of proinflammatory cytokine IFN-γ and receptor TLR-4 (P < 0.001) in the spleen.

CONCLUSIONS

These results revealed that dietary intake of ALA and DHA had unique impacts on fatty acid deposition and their derived oxylipins and inflammatory responses under the administration of LPS in laying hens.

Functional stirred yogurt manufactured using co-microencapsulated or free forms of grape pomace and flaxseed oil as bioactive ingredients: Physicochemical, antioxidant, rheological, microstructural, and sensory properties

Functional stirred yogurt samples were manufactured with combinations of grape pomace (GP) and flaxseed oil (FO) in microencapsulated or free forms (2% w/w) and quality characteristics of yogurts were investigated during 21 days of storage. The incorporation of GP and FO in microencapsulated or free forms caused a significant decrease in pH, syneresis, and a significant increase in acidity, water holding capacity, and viscosity of stirred yogurt (p < .05). While stirred yogurt containing GP and FO in free form had the highest loss modulus (G″), all yogurt samples represented solid-like behavior. Stirred yogurts containing the microencapsulated form of GP and FO showed the highest amount of phenolics and antioxidant activity compared with the two other yogurt samples (p < .05). More compact structure and higher gel strength were observed in stirred yogurts formulated with the microencapsulated or free form of GP and FO, compared to the control yogurt sample. The overall sensory acceptability of stirred yogurt manufactured using the encapsulated form of GP and FO was not significantly different from the control yogurt sample (p > .05). In conclusion of this competitive study, GP and FO as bioactive compounds could be used in the microencapsulated form in order to develop functional stirred yogurt with specific quality characteristics.

Supplementation with Flaxseed Oil Rich in Alpha-Linolenic Acid Improves Verbal Fluency in Healthy Older Adults

The effects of docosahexaenoic acid supplements on cognitive function have long been demonstrated, but the effects of alpha-linolenic acid, a precursor of docosahexaenoic acid, have not been fully tested. The search for functional foods that delay cognitive decline in the older adults is considered a very important area from a preventive perspective. The aim of this study was to conduct an exploratory evaluation of alpha-linolenic acid on various cognitive functions in healthy older subjects. Sixty healthy older adults aged 65 to 80 years, living in Miyagi prefecture, without cognitive impairment or depression, were included in the randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Study subjects were randomly divided into two groups and received either 3.7 g/day of flaxseed oil containing 2.2 g of alpha-linolenic acid, or an isocaloric placebo (corn oil) containing 0.04 g of alpha-linolenic acid for 12 weeks. The primary endpoints were six cognitive functions closely related to everyday life: attention and concentration, executive function, perceptual reasoning, working memory, processing speed and memory function. After 12 weeks of intake, changes in verbal fluency scores on the frontal assessment battery at bedside, a neuropsychological test assessing executive function, in which participants are asked to answer as many words as possible in Japanese, were significantly greater in the intervention group (0.30 ± 0.53) than in the control group (0.03 ± 0.49, p < 0.05). All other cognitive test scores were not significantly different between the groups. In conclusion, daily consumption of flaxseed oil containing 2.2 g alpha-linolenic acid improved cognitive function, specifically verbal fluency, despite the age-related decline, in healthy individuals with no cognitive abnormalities. Further validation studies focusing on the effects of alpha-linolenic acid on verbal fluency and executive function in older adults are needed, as verbal fluency is a predictor of Alzheimer's disease development, important for cognitive health.

The effects of flaxseed or its oil supplementations on polycystic ovary syndrome: A systematic review of clinical trials

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is one of the most common endocrine disorders around the world that can endanger reproductive, metabolic, and psychological health in women. Flaxseed is considered as a functional food which provides remarkable amounts of α-linolenic acid (ALA), phytosterogenic lignans, and dietary fibers. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of flaxseed or its oil supplementation on PCOS patients. We systematically searched all published randomized clinical trials indexed in PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases from inception up to May 2022. Intended exposure and outcome were flaxseed or its oil and metabolic, anthropometric, and hormonal status of women with PCOS, respectively. Initial search via related keywords revealed 69 articles. After excluding duplicates, title and abstract of 55 remaining papers were screened. Fourteen papers were obtained for full text screening. Finally, nine clinical trials published between 2011 and 2021 were included in qualitative synthesis. Based on the results of the present systematic review, we suggest that flaxseed supplementation has the potential to improve metabolic, hormonal, and anthropometric parameters in women with PCOS. However, we also deduce that due to the scarcity of high-quality studies, additional studies need to be conducted in order to derive a solid conclusion.

Composition and Antioxidant Ability of Extract from Different Flaxseed Cakes and Its Application in Flaxseed Oil

In this research, extracts from five flaxseed cakes (hot-pressed cake (HPC), cold-pressed cake (CPC), n-hexane extracted cake (HEC), supercritical CO₂ extracted cake (SCEC) and subcritical n-butane extracted cake (SBEC)) were analyzed for the contents of total phenolic, total flavonoid and antioxidant ability. At the same time, the antioxidant capacity of HPC extract and synthetic butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) in the oxidative evolution of flaxseed oil was compared by accelerated storage experiment (8 days at 65°C). The results showed that compared with other flaxseed cake extract, the extract of HPC contained the highest content of total phenolic (78.01 mg GAE/g extract) and total flavonoid (2.73 mg RE/g extract), and showed the strongest antioxidant ability on DPPH, ABTS FRAP and total reducing power assay. We also found that different concentrations (800, 1000, 2000 ppm) of flaxseed cake extract could significantly slow down the oxidation of flaxseed oil during storage at 65°C, and the antioxidant effect strengthened with the increase of extract dosage. The antioxidant effect of the 2000 ppm extract was higher than that of 200 ppm BHA. The results indicated that flaxseed cake extract could effectively inhibit the oxidation of flaxseed oil and was a good substitute for synthetic antioxidants in oil industry.

Development and characterization of probiotic (co)encapsulates in biopolymeric matrices and evaluation of survival in a millet yogurt formulation

The formulation of probiotics-enriched products still remains a challenge for the food industry due to the loss of viability, mainly occurring upon consumption and during storage. To tackle this challenge, the current study investigated the potential of using sodium alginate and inulin (SIN) in combination with various encapsulating materials such as skim milk (SKIM), whey protein concentrate (WPC), soy protein concentrate (SPC), and flaxseed oil (FS) to increase the viability of Lactobacillus casei upon freeze-drying, under simulated gastrointestinal conditions, during 28 days of storage at 4°C, and in a formulation of millet yogurt. Microstructural properties of microcapsules and co-microcapsules by SEM, oxidative stability of flaxseed oil in co-microcapsules, and physicochemical and sensory analysis of the product were performed. The produced microcapsules (SIN-PRO-SKIM, SIN-PRO-WP, and SIN-PRO-SP) and co-microcapsules (SIN-PRO-FS-SKIM, SIN-PRO-FS-WP, and SIN-PRO-FS-SP) had a high encapsulation rate >90%. Moreover, encapsulated and co-encapsulated strains exhibited a high in vitro viability accounting for 9.24 log10 CFU/g (SIN-PRO-SKIM), 8.96 log10 CFU/g (SIN-PRO-WP), and 8.74 log10 CFU/g (SIN-PRO-SP) for encapsulated and 10.08 log10 CFU/g (SIN-PRO-FS-SKIM), 10.03 log10 CFU/g (SIN-PRO-FS-WP), and 10.14 log10 CFU/g (SIN-PRO-FS-SP) for co-encapsulated. Moreover, encapsulated and co-encapsulated cells showed higher survival upon storage than free cells. Also, the SEM analysis showed spherical particles of 77.92-230.13 µm in size. The physicochemical and sensory analysis revealed an interesting nutritional content in the millet yogurt. The results indicate that the SIN matrix has significant promise as probiotic encapsulating material as it may provide efficient cell protection while also providing considerable physicochemical and nutritional benefits in functional foods.

Dietary flaxseed oil and vitamin E improve semen quality via propionic acid metabolism

Introduction

Flaxseed oil (FO) and vitamin E (VE) both have antioxidant effects on sperm. The present study investigated the effects of dietary supplementation with FO and/or VE on semen quality.

Methods

16 fertile Simmental bulls were selected and randomly divided into 4 groups (n = 4): the control group (control diet), FO group (control diet containing 24 g/kg FO), VE group (control diet containing 150 mg/kg VE) and FOVE group (control diet containing 150 mg/kg VE and 24 g/kg FO), and the trial lasted 10 weeks.

Results

The results showed that the addition of FO independently can increase sperm motion parameters, the levels of catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), testosterone (T) and estradiol (E2), while reduce oxidative stress in seminal plasma (P < 0.05). Supplement of VE independently can increased the motility, motility parameters, CAT and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels, and reduce oxidative stress in seminal plasma (P < 0.05). There was an interaction effect of FO × VE on motility and reactive oxygen species (ROS), while GSH-Px and ROS were affected by week × VE 2-way interaction, levels of T and E2 were also affected by the dietary FO × week interaction (P < 0.05). The triple interaction effects of FO, VE and week were significant for malondialdehyde (MDA) (P < 0.05). Compared with the control group, sperm from the FOVE group had a significantly higher in vitro fertilization (IVF) rate, and subsequent embryos had increased developmental ability with reduced ROS levels at the eight-cell stage, then increased adenosine triphosphate (ATP) content and gene expression levels of CAT, CDX2, Nanog, and SOD at the blastocyst stage (P < 0.05). Metabolomic and transcriptomic results indicated that dietary supplementation of FO and VE increased the expression of the metabolite aconitic acid, as well as the expression of ABAT and AHDHA genes.

Conclusion

With in-silico analysis, it can be concluded that the effects of dietary FO and VE on improving semen quality and embryo development may be related to increased aconitic acid via the ABAT and AHDHA genes involved in the propionic acid metabolism pathway.

The impact of essential fatty acid ratios and unsaturated to saturated fat ratio on growth performance of grow-finish pigs and estrus detection of gilts

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of dietary unsaturated and saturated fat ratio (U:S) and the ratio of linoleic and linolenic acid (LA:ALA) on the growth performance of grow-finish pigs and estrus detection of gilts. A total of 240 pigs with initial body weight (BW) 54.4 ± 5.5 kg were randomly assigned to a high (>1.8; HUS) or low (<1.0; LUS) U:S in combination with a high (20:1), moderate (12:1), or low (4:1) LA:ALA in a 3 × 2 factorial arrangement. Dietary ratios were achieved using blends of choice white grease, beef tallow, corn oil, flaxseed oil, or palm kernel oil. Diets were fed across three phases and balanced for energy and LA. Pigs were housed across 60 pens with either four gilts or four barrows per pen. On day 49, 1 gilt per pen was moved to individual housing at approximately 154 d of age for evaluation of reproductive characteristics. Data were analyzed as repeated measures using PROC MIXED (SAS 9.4; SAS Inst., Cary, NC) with pen as the experimental unit and U:S, LA:ALA, sex, and their interactions as fixed effects. Initial BW was fit as a covariate. Within each phase, there were no differences in BW, daily gain (ADG), feed intake (ADFI), or feed efficiency (G:F) for U:S, LA:ALA, or their interaction when averaged across sex (P ≥0.128). Gilt feed efficiency was improved during the second phase compared to barrows; however, feed efficiency was not different between barrows and gilts during the first and third phases; resulting in a similar feed efficiency between sexes for the overall period (P = 0.523). Compared to HUS, gilts receiving LUS had higher ADFI overall (P = 0.018), which translated into improved G:F for HUS gilts (P = 0.011). Overall, gilts receiving the 20:1 diet tended to have improved G:F compared to 12:1 (P = 0.086). ADG was improved in pigs fed diets formulated with unsaturated fat sources to a 20:1 LA:ALA, regardless of sex. Detection of first estrus by 235 d of age in gilts was not impacted by U:S or LA:ALA (P ≥ 0.356). In conclusion, feeding differing dietary U:S and LA:ALA ratios impacts growth of growing pigs, particularly improving feed efficiency of gilts fed diets with unsaturated fat sources or a 20:1 LA:ALA. Further investigation into the physiological mechanisms differentially affecting gilt growth when fed varying dietary LA:ALA is warranted to understand the impact on reproductive outcomes.

Linseed Oil Attenuates Liver Inflammation, Fatty Acid Accumulation, and Lipid Distribution in Periportal and Perivenous Hepatocytes Induced by a High-Carbohydrate Diet in Mice

We evaluated whether linseed oil (LO) modulates the effects of a high-carbohydrate diet (HCD) on liver inflammation, fatty acid (FA) accumulation, and lipid distribution in periportal and perivenous hepatocytes. The control group (control high-carbohydrate diet [HCD-C]) received an HCD with lard and soybean oil as the lipid source. The L10 and L100 groups received the HCD with 10% and 100% of LO as the lipid source, respectively. The animals were killed by decapitation before (day 0) and after receiving the diets. Liver FA composition, inflammation, and fibrogenesis gene expression were evaluated. Also, the percentage of lipid-occupied area in periportal end perivenous hepatocytes were measured. The L100 group exhibited a higher (P < .05) liver amount of omega-3 polyunsaturated FA (n-3 PUFA) and lower (P < .05) amounts of saturated FA (SFA), monounsaturated FA (MUFA), and omega-6 polyunsaturated FA (n-6 PUFA) compared with L10 or HCD-C mice. On day 56, interleukin 10 and type IV collagen gene expression were significantly upregulated and downregulated, respectively in L100. Also, the L100 group showed lower (P < .05) FA accumulation (i.e., total FA, SFA, MUFA, and n-6 PUFA). Also, L10 and L100 presented lower (P < .05) percentage of high lipid-containing portion in periportal and perivenous hepatocytes. We concluded that LO attenuation of liver inflammation promoted by an HCD is associated with increased liver n-3 PUFA levels, so modulating FA composition, deposition, and distribution in periportal and perivenous hepatocytes.

Flaxseed oil ameliorates aging in d-galactose induced rats via altering gut microbiota and mitigating oxidative damage

BACKGROUND

Aging causes decreased antioxidant capacity and chronic inflammation and may even elevate cancer risks. Previous studies reported that flaxseed oil (FO) can alleviate age-related diseases, including improving alcoholic liver disease, atherosclerosis and diabetes. However, whether the intestinal microbiota accountable for this alleviation is still unknown. This study aims to study the antioxidant effects of FO in an aging rat model and the underlying mechanism between the intestinal microbiota and aging.

RESULTS

Our results presented that serum and liver antioxidant capacities in FO group were up-regulated, and liver inflammation in FO group was reduced. The 16S rDNA sequencing showed that FO regulated the microbial community, including up-regulation of four families of Lactobacillus and six families of Clostridium. In addition, FO had also adjusted the relative abundance of several genera such as Ruminococcaceae_UCG-005 and Prevotella_9, which may be the key bacteria associated with the aging process. Colonic transcriptome analysis showed that there were 1679 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the Model group and the FO group (134 up-regulated and 1545 down-regulated). Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) revealed FO down-regulates the expression of the upstream genes Ptprc, Lck, Zap70, Lat and Lcp2 in the T cell receptor signaling pathway.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, FO improved antioxidant capacity and reduced intestinal microbial disturbances caused by aging damage, indicating that dietary FO has the potential to fight aging damage. This study provides a more comprehensive view of dietary intervention to improve aging. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Changes in Chemical Composition of Flaxseed Oil during Thermal-Induced Oxidation and Resultant Effect on DSC Thermal Properties

To investigate the changes in chemical composition of flaxseed oil during thermal-induced oxidation and the resultant effect on thermal properties, samples with different oxidation levels were obtained by being heated at 180 °C for two hours and four hours. The oxidation degree was evaluated using peroxide value (PV), extinction coefficient at 232 nm and 268 nm (K232 and K268), and total polar compounds (TPC). Using chromatography, the fatty acid profile and triacylglycerol (TAG) profile were examined. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was used to determine the crystallization and melting profiles. Thermal-induced oxidation of flaxseed oil led to a significant increase (p < 0.05) in PV, K232, K268, and TPC, but the relative content of linolenic acid (Ln) and LnLnLn reduced dramatically (p < 0.05). TPC derived from lipid degradation affected both crystallization and melting profiles. Statistical correlations showed that the onset temperature (Ton) of the crystallization curve was highly correlated with K232, TPC, and the relative content of LnLnLn (p < 0.05), whereas the offset temperature (Toff) of the melting curve was highly correlated with the relative content of most fatty acids (p < 0.05). This finding provides a new way of rapid evaluation of oxidation level and changes of chemical composition for flaxseed oils using DSC.

Effect of dietary flaxseed oil on the prognosis of acute anterior cruciate ligament rupture: a randomized placebo-controlled trial

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to explore whether dietary flaxseed oil has effects on acute anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) rupture prognosis after surgical reconstruction.

METHODS

Patients with primary acute ACL rupture diagnosed by magnetic resonance imaging and clinical examination were recruited at Quanzhou First Hospital Affiliated to Fujian Medical University and randomized to either the placebo group or the flaxseed oil group by computer-generated random numbers. Patients in the placebo group took six corn oil capsules daily, while patients in the flaxseed oil group took six flaxseed oil capsules daily. The outcomes were evaluated by specific scales.

RESULTS

Compared to the placebo group, the flaxseed oil group showed significantly higher International Knee Documentation Committee (IKDC) score (P = 0.007) and total Knee Injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS) (P = 0.0003) after two-year administration. Patients treated with flaxseed oil exhibited a significantly higher rate of return to sporting level before injury (P = 0.04) and a lower rate of occurrence of giving way (P = 0.04) than those in the placebo group. Patients with flaxseed oil showed significantly less severe adverse events on index knee (P = 0.047).

CONCLUSION

The administration of dietary flaxseed oil enhanced the prognosis of acute ACL rupture.

Edible oleogels stabilized solely by stigmasterol: effect of oil type and gelator concentration

BACKGROUND

Phytosterols are considered to be one of the most promising gelators for obtaining oleogel because of their additional health benefits and natural coexist with vegetable oils. Previous studies have confirmed that individual phytosterols are not capable of structuring vegetable oils unless they act synergistically with other components. However, based on the self-assembly properties of stigmasterol (ST) in organic solvents, we speculate that it can also structure vegetable oils as a gelator alone.

RESULTS

For the first time, the present study confirmed the feasibility of using ST alone as a gelator for structuring of vegetable oils, including rapeseed oil (RSO), olive oil (OLO) and flaxseed oil (FSO). RSO had the lowest ST gelation concentration (4%, w/w), and the oil-binding capacity and firmness value of the oleogels were the highest. The rheological results showed that all the samples were gelatinous (G' > G″). The results of differential scanning calorimeter and X-ray diffraction further confirmed that the properties of RSO-based oleogels are superior to those prepared by OLO and FSO. The microscopic results also confirmed that the crystal structure of RSO oleogels was more uniform, smaller and more densely distributed.

CONCLUSION

The structural properties of the oleogels were positively correlated with the ST concentration, and various analysis indicators showed that the performance of the oleogel based on RSO was better than that of OLO and FSO. In summary, the present study used ST as a gelator to successfully prepare oleogels with excellent properties, which provides a feasible reference for researchers in related fields. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

NMR Analysis of Lipid Oxidation in Flaxseed Oil-in-Water Emulsions

The formation of linolenic (Ln) and linoleic (L) acyl oxidation products during storage of flaxseed oil (FO)-in-water emulsions was monitored using proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H NMR) spectroscopy, as well as chemical analytical methods and gas chromatography. Emulsions containing 10% FO and 1% Tween 60 were prepared by homogenization and then stored at 37 °C in the dark for 21 days under accelerated oxidation conditions (500 μmol ferrous sulfate). The induction time of the emulsions, after which rapid lipid oxidation was first observed, was 5-7 days, as shown by increases in peroxide values and hydroperoxide concentrations determined by NMR spectroscopy. Analysis of the hexanal and propanal concentrations during storage by HS-SPME-GC indicated that the oxidation of Ln and L acyls in the emulsions occurred simultaneously. The oxidation products originating from the Ln and L acyls were monitored using ¹H NMR spectroscopy throughout the oxidation process. These results also showed that the Ln and L acyls oxidized simultaneously, and isomers of hydroperoxy-cyclic hydroperoxides (HCPs), Z,E-conjugated dienic hydroperoxides (ZECDHPs), and E,E-conjugated dienic hydroperoxides (EECDHPs) were the major primary oxidation products. Aldehydes were observed after 7 days, which was taken to be the start of the propagation stage, with the formation of a significant amount of oxygenated α, β-unsaturated aldehydes (OαβUAs). Based on the concentrations of hydroperoxides originating from the Ln and L acyls, our results suggested that the loss rate of L acyls was parallel to that of Ln acyls. This result was consistent with Ln acyls adopting a tighter packing at the oil-water interface in the emulsions than L acyls. This hypothesis was supported by the NMR relaxation time data. A good correlation between the isomer concentrations of ZECDHPs and HCPs in Ln acyls and between ZECDHPs and EECDHPs in L acyls was shown, with the mole ratios between them being 1.2 and 1.1, respectively. Droplet size and microstructure analyses showed that droplet aggregation occurred from 11 days onwards, which was attributed to polar oxidation products located at the oil droplet surfaces promoting coalescence. Zeta-potential measurements indicated that the droplets became more negative during storage, which was attributed to the accumulation of anionic reaction products at the droplet surfaces.

Rapid identification of flaxseed oil based on portable fiber optic Raman spectroscopy combined with an oil microscopy method

To explore a fast, simple, and accurate method to identify adulteration in flaxseed oil, the Raman spectral data of 130 samples containing flaxseed, canola, cottonseed, and adulterated oils were obtained using a portable fiber optic Raman spectrometer. The Raman spectral results showed that the Raman spectra of the flaxseed and canola oils had noticeable peak shifts, whereas the peak positions of the flaxseed and cottonseed oils were relatively similar. Clear peak intensity differences were observed in the flaxseed, cottonseed, and canola oils, mainly at 868 cm^-1 , 1022 cm^-1 , 1265 cm^-1 , and 1655 cm^-1 , with Raman shift intensities in the following order: I_{flaxseed oil}  > I_{cottonseed oil}  > I_{canola oil} . Similarly, the peak intensity of the flaxseed and adulterated oils also exhibited certain differences (at 868 cm^-1 , 1022 cm^-1 , 1265 cm^-1 , and 1655 cm^-1 ), and the Raman shift intensity tended to decrease gradually with the increasing content of canola and cottonseed oils in the flaxseed oil. Additionally, the results of Raman spectroscopy combined with the "oil microscopy" method exhibited large variations in the radar patterns of the flaxseed, canola, and cottonseed oils, whereas the radar patterns of the flaxseed and adulterated oils closely resembled each other. The results indicated that Raman spectroscopy in combination with oil microscopy more effectively revealed the subtle differences in the Raman shift intensity, serving as a more visual and comprehensive approach for differentiating the quality variations between pure flaxseed oil and other oil species and adulterated oil. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study analyzed the Raman spectra of flaxseed, canola, cottonseed, and adulterated oils using fiber optic Raman spectroscopy. Combined with the oil microscopy method for comprehensive evaluation and analysis, it is feasible to effectively identify the quality differences among flaxseed, canola, cottonseed, and adulterated oils.

Chitosan/Calcium-Alginate Encapsulated Flaxseed Oil on Dairy Cattle Diet: In Vitro Fermentation and Fatty Acid Biohydrogenation

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of using chitosan nanoparticles and calcium alginate in the encapsulation of flaxseed oil on the biohydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids and in vitro fermentation. The experiments were performed in a completely randomized design with 7 treatments. The experimental treatments included: diets without oil additive (control), diet containing 7% flaxseed oil, diet containing 14% flaxseed oil, diet containing 7% oil encapsulated with 500 ppm chitosan nanocapsules, diet containing 14% flaxseed oil encapsulated with 1000 ppm chitosan nanocapsules, diet containing 7% of flaxseed oil encapsulated with 500 ppm of calcium alginate nanocapsules, diet containing 14% flaxseed oil encapsulated with 1000 ppm calcium alginate nanocapsules. The results showed that encapsulation of flaxseed oil with calcium alginate (14%) had a significant effect on gas production (p < 0.05). The treatment containing calcium alginate (14%) increased the digestibility of dry matter compared to the control treatment, but the treatments containing chitosan caused a significant reduction (p < 0.05). The results indicated that the percentage of ruminal saturated fatty acids decreased by encapsulation of flaxseed oil with chitosan (14% and 7%). The percentage of oleic unsaturated fatty acid by encapsulating flaxseed oil with chitosan (14%) had a significant increase compared to the control treatment (p < 0.05). As a result, encapsulating flaxseed oil with chitosan (14%) reduced the unsaturated fatty acids generated during ruminal biohydrogenation.

Novel Gluten-Free Bread with an Extract from Flaxseed By-Product: The Relationship between Water Replacement Level and Nutritional Value, Antioxidant Properties, and Sensory Quality

The food industry generates a great amount of food waste and by-products, which in many cases are not fully valorized. Press cakes, deriving from oilseeds extraction, represent interesting co-products due to their nutritional value, high biopolymers content, and the presence of bioactive phytochemicals. Gluten-free breads (GFBs) are products that have disadvantages such as unsatisfactory texture, low nutritional value, and short shelf life, so natural additives containing proteins and hydrocolloids are in demand to increase GFBs value. In this study, extract from flaxseed by-product (FOCE-Flaxseed Oil Cake Extract) was used to replace water (25-100%) in GFBs formulations and their nutritional value, antioxidant properties, and sensory features were investigated. The results showed that GFBs with FOCE had an elevated nutritional and nutraceutical profile (up to 60% more proteins, significantly increased K, Mg, and P levels). Moreover, the addition of FOCE improved the technological parameters (increased specific volume, number of cells and height/width ratio, reduced density, average size, and perimeter of cells), antioxidant potential, and overall sensory quality of GFBs. This study showed an encouraging way of using a by-product that, due to its high content of proteins, polysaccharides, minerals, and antioxidants, can add value to GFBs.

Different Effects of Vitamin C-Based Supplements on the Advance of Linseed Oil Component Oxidation and Lipolysis during In Vitro Gastrointestinal Digestion

Although widely consumed, dietary supplements based on Vitamin C contain high doses of this compound, whose impact on lipid oxidation during digestion needs to be addressed. Therefore, the effect of seven commercial supplements and of pure l-ascorbic acid and ascorbyl palmitate on linseed oil during in vitro gastrointestinal digestion was tackled. The advance of lipid oxidation was studied through the generation of oxidation compounds, the degradation of polyunsaturated fatty acyl chains and of gamma-tocopherol, by employing Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. Supplements containing exclusively l-ascorbic acid enhanced the advance of linseed oil oxidation during digestion. This was evidenced by increased formation of linolenic-derived conjugated hydroxy-dienes and alkanals and by the generation of conjugated keto-dienes and reactive alpha,beta-unsaturated aldehydes, such as 4,5-epoxy-2-alkenals; moreover, gamma-tocopherol was completely degraded. Conversely, supplements composed of mixtures of ascorbic acid/salt with citric acid and carotenes, and of ascorbyl palmitate, protected linseed oil against oxidation and reduced gamma-tocopherol degradation. The study through Solid Phase Microextraction-Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry of the volatile compounds of the digests corroborated these findings. Furthermore, a decreased lipid bioaccessibility was noticed in the presence of the highest dose of l-ascorbic acid. Both the chemical form of Vitamin C and the presence of other ingredients in dietary supplements have shown to be of great relevance regarding oxidation and hydrolysis reactions occurring during lipid digestion.

Combined Effect of Flaxseed Oil and Vitamin E Supplementation During Bull Semen Cryopreservation on Sperm Characteristics

The present study was performed to investigate the effects of supplementing flaxseed oil (FO) or vitamin E (VE) or their combination to an extender for Simmental bull semen cryopreservation. In experiment 1, different concentrations of FO (0, 10, 100, and 1000 ng/mL) and VE (0.05, 0.1, and 0.2 mg/mL) were added to the extenders. In experiment 2, FO, VE, and FO + VE were added and a control group was included. Sperm viability, motility, motion parameters, acrosome integrity and membrane integrity, endogenous antioxidant indices, reactive oxygen species, and malondialdehyde levels were evaluated after semen thawing. A higher percentage of viability, motion parameters, endogenous antioxidant indices, and membrane integrity was observed after supplementation with 10 ng/mL FO or 0.1 mg/mL VE compared with the control group (p < 0.05). Also, combined supplementation of 10 ng/mL FO +0.1 mg/mL VE further improved the quality of frozen-thawed sperm by regulating viability, motion parameters, membrane integrity, and endogenous antioxidant indices compared with the FO or VE alone (p < 0.05). These results indicated that FO (10 ng/mL) + VE (0.1 mg/mL) could further improve the protective effects on bull sperm post-thaw.

Fabrication of Tizanidine Loaded Patches Using Flaxseed Oil and Coriander Oil as a Penetration Enhancer for Transdermal Delivery

Transdermal drug delivery is important to maintain plasma drug concentrations for therapeutic efficacy. The current study reports the design, formulation, and evaluation of tizanidine transdermal patches formulated using chitosan and thiolated chitosan, ethyl cellulose (EC), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), and Eudragit RL100 in different ratios. The tizanidine patches were formulated using flaxseed oil and coriander oil in the concentrations of 1% v/w, 2% v/w, 3% v/w, 4% v/w, 5% v/w, and 10% v/w. The patches were subjected to characterization of physicochemical property (thickness, weight uniformity, drug content, efficiency, percentage moisture uptake/loss), in vitro drug release and drug permeation, skin irritation, in vivo application, pharmacokinetics analysis, and stability studies. The results indicate that the interaction of thiolated chitosan with the negative charges of the skin opens the tight junctions of the skin, whereas flaxseed and coriander oils change the conformational domain of the skin. The novelty of this study is in the use of flaxseed and coriander oils as skin permeation enhancers for the formulation of tizanidine transdermal patches. The formulations follow non-Fickian drug release kinetics. The FTZNE23, FTZNE36 and FTZNE54, with 5% v/w flaxseed oil loaded formulations, exhibited higher flux through rabbit skin compared with FTZNE30, FTZNE35, FTZNE42, and FTZNE47, formulations loaded with 10% v/w coriander oil. The study concludes that flaxseed oil is a better choice for formulating tizanidine patches, offering optimal plasma concentration and therapeutic efficacy, and recommends the use of flaxseed and coriander oil based patches as a novel transdermal delivery system for tizanidine and related classes of drugs.

Comparison of Ahiflower oil containing stearidonic acid to a high-alpha-linolenic acid flaxseed oil at two levels on tissue omega-3 enrichment in broilers

Enrichment of broiler meat with very long-chain omega-3 fatty acids (VLCn-3 FA) is of interest because of their beneficial effects on human health. The ability of Ahiflower® (AHI) oil (Buglossoides arvensis), which naturally contains stearidonic acid (SDA), and a high-alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) flaxseed (FLAX) oil to enrich VLCn-3 FA contents in broilers tissues was investigated. Fifty-five Cobb 500 chicks were fed from days 12 to 35 of life either a control (CON) diet that contained 27.9 g/kg soybean oil or AHI or FLAX oils, each individually at 7.5 or 22.5 g/kg of the diet in substitution for soybean oil (all on an as fed basis). Total VLCn-3 FA contents were greater in breast, thigh, liver, adipose tissue, and plasma of all n-3 treatments compared to CON, with the greatest increase observed at the highest level of AHI and FLAX oils (p < 0.001). AHI oil at 7.5 g/kg promoted the most efficient synthesis and deposition of VLCn-3 in broiler tissues measured as deposition of VLCn-3 FA in tissues relative to intake of n3 FA. In conclusion, both ALA and SDA oils increased VLCn-3 FA deposition in tissues, but there were diminishing returns when increasing dietary levels of the oils.

Yogurt fortified with omega-3 using nanoemulsion containing flaxseed oil: Investigation of physicochemical properties

Flaxseed oil as a natural ingredient has many health benefits due to the rich contents of omega-3 fatty acids. However, its use in food formulations is limited because of low aqueous solubility, easy oxidation owing to the unsaturated nature of the fatty acids such as omega-3. The aim of this study was to prepare a stable nanoemulsion containing flaxseed oil and investigate the fortification of yogurt with this nanoemulsion compared with fortification with bulk flaxseed oil. The nanoemulsion of flaxseed oil-in-water was obtained by low-energy emulsification method. Optimized nanoemulsion contains 3% (w/w) flaxseed vegetable oil, 36% (w/w) surfactant, 10% (w/w) co-surfactant, and 51% (w/w) deionized water as a continuous phase. The result of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed that the optimal size was about 60 nm, which was stayed stable for 11 months. The results of gas chromatography (GC) indicated that the amount of omega-3 in nanoemulsion containing flaxseed oil was 27.3% and 19.8% after 7 days and 11 months, respectively. The turbidity results indicated the transparency of nanoemulsion after 11 months as well. The results of centrifuge experiments and thermal stress cycles exhibited that the optimized nanoemulsion was physically stable without any sign of creaming, phase separation, and cracking. In addition, pH and acidity of the yogurt fortified with nanoemulsion containing flaxseed oil were 4.22 and 1.41 wt%, respectively. In conclusion, fortifying yogurt with the nanoemulsion containing flaxseed oil can be considered as a solution to increase solubility, bioavailability, and protection of omega-3.

Safety of Dietary Camelina Oil Supplementation in Healthy, Adult Dogs

This study aimed to determine whether camelina oil is safe for use in canine diets, using canola oil and flax oil as controls, as they are similar and generally regarded as safe (GRAS) for canine diets. A total of thirty privately-owned adult dogs of various breeds (17 females; 13 males), with an average age of 7.2 ± 3.1 years (mean ± SD) and a body weight (BW) of 27.4 ± 14.0 kg were used. After a 4-week wash-in period using sunflower oil and kibble, the dogs were blocked by breed, age, and size and were randomly allocated to one of three treatment oils (camelina (CAM), flax (FLX), or canola (OLA)) at a level of 8.2 g oil/100 g total dietary intake. Body condition score (BCS), BW, food intake (FI), and hematological and select biochemical parameters were measured at various timepoints over a 16-week feeding period. All of the data were analyzed with ANOVA using the PROC GLIMMIX of SAS. No biologically significant differences were seen between the treatment groups in terms of BW, BCS, FI, and hematological and biochemical results. Statistically significant differences noted among some serum biochemical results were considered small and were due to normal biological variation. These results support the conclusion that camelina oil is safe for use in canine nutrition.

Dietary Intake of Flaxseed Oil since Early Stages of Life Promotes Femur Quality in Male Rats

BACKGROUND

Flaxseed oil (FO) is an alpha linolenic acid source important for growth and body development. However, there is little literature on the role of FO in critical stages of bone development and formation.

OBJECTIVE

This study evaluated the influence of a diet containing FO on rat femurs.

METHODS

After birth, mothers and pups were divided into control and flaxseed groups (n = 6 pups each) fed diets containing 7% soybean oil (C) or 7% FO. At 21 days, pups were weaned and separated from the mothers, and control or experimental diets were continued. At 67 days, the following were analyzed: osteocalcin and osteoprotegerin (OPG) levels, bone mineral density (BMD) and content, and bone area; the dimension, BMD, head radiodensity, and biomechanical proprieties of the right femur; and histomorphometric parameters of the left femur.

RESULTS

Compared to the C group, the FO group presented (p < 0.05) a lower body mass (-3.7%) and medullary area (-10.1%) and higher osteocalcin (+36.7%), OPG (+52.5%), femur width (+3.8%), absolute mass (+2.3%), femur BMD (+3.6%), head radiodensity (+6.1%), maximum force (+7.4%), breaking strength (+17.3), and cortical thickness (+7.0).

CONCLUSION

The FO diet contributed to femur quality in healthy male Wistar rats.

Oxidative Stability, Microbial Safety, and Sensory Properties of Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) Oil Infused with Spices and Herbs

In our study, we assessed whether the addition of basil, fennel, oregano, rosemary, and chili can improve oxidative stability and sensory properties of flaxseed oil (FO) during 180 days of storage or induce oil contamination by microorganisms. Results showed that addition of spices and herbs in FO affected the hydrolytic changes, but far less than 2% of free fatty acids after storage, which was in line with regulations. Further, the addition of spices and herbs in FO decreased peroxide value (even up to 68.7% in FO with oregano) vs. FO whose value increased during storage, indicating increased oxidative stability and prolongation of shelf life of infused oils. The antioxidant activity of the infused oils ranged from 56.40% to 97.66%. In addition, the phenol content was higher in all infused oils (6.81-22.92 mg/kg) vs. FO (5.44 mg/kg), indicating that herbs and spices could scavenge free radicals and inhibit lipid peroxidation, while sensory analysts showed that FO infused with chili had the lowest bitterness intensity. According to the presence of certain microorganisms, results highlighted the need to develop new methods for inactivating microorganisms that would not only provide a microbial safety, but also preserve the beneficial properties of the oils/products.

Comprehensive Thermal Characteristics of Different Cultivars of Flaxseed Oil (Linum usittatissimum L.)

The aim of this study was to describe the thermal properties of selected cultivars of flaxseed oil by the use of the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) technique. The crystallization and melting profiles were analyzed depending on different scanning rates (1, 2, 5 °C/min) as well as oxidative induction time (OIT) isothermally at 120 °C and 140 °C, and oxidation onset temperatures (Ton) at 2 and 5 °C/min were measured. The crystallization was manifested as a single peak, differing for a cooling rate of 1 and 2 °C/min. The melting curves were more complex with differences among the cultivars for a heating rate of 1 and 2 °C/min, while for 5 °C/min, the profiles did not differ, which could be utilized in analytics for profiling in order to assess the authenticity of the flaxseed oil. Moreover, it was observed that flaxseed oil was highly susceptible to thermal oxidation, and its stability decreased with increasing temperature and decreasing heating rate. Significant negative linear correlations were found between unsaturated fatty acid content (C18:2, C18:3 n-3) and DSC parameters (OIT, Ton). Principal component analysis (PCA) also established a strong correlation between total oxidation value (TOTOX), peroxide value (PV) and all DSC parameters of thermo-oxidative stability.

Flaxseed Oil and Heated Flaxseed Supplements Have Different Effects on Lipid Deposition and Ileal Microbiota in Albas Cashmere Goats

Simple Summary

With the grassland desertification intensified, pasture carrying capacity decreased, and grass seasonal changed, stall-feeding fattening has become an effective means to protect the natural environment. The stall-feeding fattening increased the cashmere goats’ weight but reduced the meat quality and increased the saturated fatty acids content in muscle and fat tissue of cashmere goats. Supplementing flaxseed and flaxseed oil rich-in linolenic acid (ALA) to diet to improve meat quality is an effective nutritional regulation means. Previous research results of our team showed that compared to diet supplemented with flaxseed oil, added flaxseed increased linoleic acid biohydrogenation by reducing the Ruminobacter relative abundance and increasing the relative abundance of Prevotellaceae_UCG-001 and Fretibacterium in rumen, protected ALA away from biohydrogenation, and more n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids entered the post-intestinal tract. Based on the previous research, this study explored whether the ALA flowing into the posterior intestine can reduce fat deposition and blood lipid by affecting intestinal microbiota. The results showed that adding flaxseed grain to diet decreased the growth performance, lipid deposition, and blood lipid content of goats by regulating the blood lipid-related enzyme activity, which positively associated with [Eubacterium]_coprostanoligenes_group, but negatively associated with unclassified_f_Peptostreptococcaceae, Intestinibacter, and Ruminococcus_2.

Abstract

The present study investigated the effect of flaxseed grain or flaxseed oil on ileal microbiota and lipid deposition of cashmere goats. Sixty kid goats (average body weight 18.6 ± 0.1 kg) were allocated to three treatments, fed for 90 days, with control treatment: basal diet (CON, total-mixed ration), experimental treatment: basal diet with added flaxseed oil (LNO), experimental treatment: basal diet with added heated flaxseed grain (HLS). The final body weight, body weight gain, the weight of kidney fat, omental fat, tail fat, and fat tissue, the activity of fatty acid synthetase, acetyl-coa carboxylase, and malic dehydrogenase, and the relative abundance (RA) of unclassified_f_Peptostreptococcaceae and Intestinibacter were remarkably higher in the LNO treatment than in the HLS treatment, but the [Eubacterium]_coprostanoligenes_group RA showed the opposite result. The content of triglyceride, cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol were significantly higher in the CON and LNO treatments than in the HLS treatment, while the hormone-sensitive lipase activity and the non-esterified fatty acid content showed the opposite result. In conclusion, the flaxseed grain is more efficient than flaxseed oil in ameliorating the blood lipid profiles and it is a potential product for decreasing the lipid deposition of cashmere goats.

The Influence of Flaxseed Oil Cake Extract on Oxidative Stability of Microencapsulated Flaxseed Oil in Spray-Dried Powders

The objective of the study was to investigate the application of flaxseed oil cake extract (FOCE) for oxidative stabilization of flaxseed oil in spray-dried emulsions. Two variants of powders with 10% and 20% of flaxseed oil (FO), FOCE, and wall material (maltodextrin and starch Capsul^®) were produced by spray-drying process at 180 °C. The oxidative stability of FO was monitored during four weeks of storage at 4 °C by peroxide value (PV) and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) measurements. Additionally, the fatty acids content (especially changes in α-linolenic acid content), radical scavenging activity, total polyphenolics content, color changes and free amino acids content were evaluated. Obtained results indicated that FOCE could be an adequate antioxidant dedicated for spray-dried emulsions, especially with a high content of FO (20%). These results have important implications for the flaxseed oil encapsulation with natural antioxidant agents obtained from plant-based agro-industrial by product, meeting the goals of circular economy and the idea of zero waste.

Formulation and Evaluation of Spray-Dried Reconstituted Flaxseed Oil-in-Water Emulsions Based on Flaxseed Oil Cake Extract as Emulsifying and Stabilizing Agent

Spray drying of emulsions is a promising way of increasing their durability, offering the possibility of reconstitution, with the addition of water. The present study aimed to examine the properties of flaxseed oil cake extract (FOCE) as an emulsifying and stabilizing agent for spray-dried reconstituted oil-in-water emulsions. Maltodextrin: starch: flaxseed oil emulsions with FOCE or distilled water as liquid phases, and 10% and 20% of oil were spray-dried at 180 °C. The solubility, flowability, cohesiveness, bulk, and tapped densities of the spray-dried powders were analyzed. Additionally, the characteristics of initial and reconstituted emulsions, such as stability, creaming index, color, particle size, and rheological properties were evaluated. Results showed that FOCE could be an adequate emulsifier for spray-dried emulsions with a high oil content providing high stability after reconstitution, when compared to emulsions based only on maltodextrin–starch wall material with water as the liquid phase. This study showed an encouraging way for producing natural and plant-based spray-dried oil-loaded emulsions for food applications.

Two Blends of Refined Rice Bran, Flaxseed, and Sesame Seed Oils Affect the Blood Lipid Profile of Chinese Adults with Borderline Hypercholesterolemia to a Similar Extent as Refined Olive Oil

BACKGROUND

Individual vegetable oils have a characteristic fatty acids (FA) composition and unique phytonutrient profiles, enabling formulation of oil blends that may have health-promoting effects.

OBJECTIVE

The primary objective of this study was to investigate effects of 2 oil blends made with refined rice bran, flaxseed, and sesame oils, with distinct monounsaturated to saturated FA, polyunsaturated to saturated FA, and omega-3 (n-3) to omega-6 FA ratios and different phytonutrient concentrations on blood lipid profile, compared with refined olive oil as a control. The secondary outcomes were other markers of cardiometabolic health.

METHODS

A parallel-design, randomized controlled trial compared consumption of 30 g of allocated intervention oil per day for a period of 8 wk. The study recruited 143 borderline hypercholesterolemic (LDL cholesterol: 3.06-4.51 mmol/L) Chinese volunteers between 50 and 70 y old and with a BMI (kg/m2) ≤27.5. All outcomes were measured every 2 wk, and the time × treatment interactions and the main effects of treatment and time were analyzed using an intention-to-treat approach.

RESULTS

Compared with baseline (week 0), there were significant reductions during the post-intervention time points in serum total cholesterol (-3.47%; P < 0.0001), LDL cholesterol (-4.16%; P < 0.0001), triglycerides (-10.3%; P < 0.0001), apoB (-3.93%; P < 0.0001), total to HDL-cholesterol (-3.44%; P < 0.0001) and apoB to apoA1 (-3.99%; P < 0.0001) ratios, systolic and diastolic blood pressures (-3.32% and -3.16%, respectively; both P < 0.0001), and serum glucose (-1.51%; P < 0.05) and a small but significant increase in body weight (+0.7%; P < 0.001) for all 3 intervention oils but no effects of intervention on HDL-cholesterol or apoA1 concentration. No significant effects of treatment or time × treatment interactions were found.

CONCLUSIONS

Using blended vegetable oils that are extensively consumed in Asia, this study found that specific oil blends can improve blood lipid profile and other cardiometabolic parameters, to a similar extent as refined olive oil, in Chinese adults with borderline hypercholesterolemia. This trial is registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03964857.

Effect of Dietary Flaxseed Oil Supplementation on the Redox Status, Haematological and Biochemical Parameters of Horses' Blood

Simple Summary

Flaxseed oils have long been used in animal feeding and human nutrition due to the beneficial effects of their biologically active substances, especially omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). This study aimed to evaluate the effect of the replacement of soybean oil (SO) with flaxseed oil (FO) in the horses’ diet on biochemical, haematological, and redox status parameters of the blood. We found FO contributed to an improvement of lipid profile, haematological parameters of the blood and enhanced antioxidant defence mechanisms of horses. This suggests that substitution of SO with FO in the diet of horses is beneficial for their health status.

Abstract

This study compared the effect of two dietary vegetable oils on plasma biochemical indices, haematological parameters, and redox status of horses. Forty riding horses (20 mares and 20 stallions) of the Malopolski breed were divided equally into two groups that were similar in terms of age, sex, and body weight (on average 530 ± 30 kg). The horses received soybean oil (SO) or flaxseed oil (FO) in the amount of 25 mL per 100 kg BW/day. After 60 days, blood was collected for biochemical and haematological analyses. The results show that horses receiving FO as compared to the SO group had significantly lower plasma levels of glucose, low density lipoprotein cholesterol, total cholesterol/high-density lipoprotein (HDL) ratio and triacylglycerols, as well as the activities of alanine aminotransferase and alkaline phosphatase. In turn, %HDL-TC and lactate dehydrogenase activity were significantly higher in the FO group. The inclusion of FO in the diet contributed to an increase in antioxidant indices: creatinine, vitamin C, copper, and zinc contents and also superoxide dismutase and catalase activities. The level of the end product of lipid peroxidation, i.e., malonyl dialdehyde, in the FO group as compared to the SO group was significantly lower. Moreover, FO caused an elevation in red blood cell indicators, lymphocyte count and lysozymes. In conclusion, FO exerts a beneficial effect by stimulating antioxidant defence mechanisms of horses and reducing the severity of oxidative stress. FO also improved the lipid profile and haematological parameters of the blood. The replacement of SO by FO is recommended based on these findings.

Comparative Effects of Flaxseed Sources on the Egg ALA Deposition and Hepatic Gene Expression in Hy-Line Brown Hens

Healthy diets are necessary for both humans and animals, including poultry. These diets contain various nutrients for maintenance and production in laying hens. Therefore, research was undertaken to explore the efficiency of various dietary flaxseed sources on the n-3 deposition in the egg yolk and gene expression in laying hens. Five dietary groups were analyzed, i.e., (i) a corn-based diet with no flaxseed (FS) as a negative control (NC), (ii) a wheat-based diet supplemented with 10% whole FS without multi-carbohydrase enzymes (MCE) as a positive control (PC), (iii) ground FS supplemented with MCE (FS), (iv) extruded flaxseed meal was supplemented with MCE (EFM), (v) flaxseed oil supplemented with MCE (FSO). Results indicated that egg weight was highest in the NC, FS, EFM, and FSO groups as compared to PC in the 12th week. Egg mass was higher in enzyme supplemented groups as compared to the PC group, but lower than NC. In the 12th week, the HDEP (hen day egg production) was highest in the FS and EFM groups as compared to FSO, PC, and NC. The FCR (feed conversion ratio) was better in enzyme supplemented groups as compared to the PC group. Enzyme addition enhanced the egg quality as compared to PC in the 12th week. The HDL-C (high-density lipoprotein cholesterol) was increased, while LDL-C (low-density lipoprotein cholesterol), VLDL-C (very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol), TC (total cholesterol), and TG (total triglycerides) were reduced in the enzyme supplemented groups as compared to PC and NC. The FSO deposit more n-3 PUFA and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in the egg yolk as compared to FS and EFM groups. The expression of ACOX1, LCPT1, FADS1, FADS2, and ELOV2 genes were upregulated, while PPAR-α was downregulated in the FSO group. The LPL mRNA expression was upregulated in the FS, EFM, and FSO groups as compared to the PC and NC groups. It was inferred that FSO with enzymes at 2.5% is cost-effective, improves the hen performances, upregulated the fatty acid metabolism and β-oxidation genes expression, and efficiently deposits optimal n-3 PUFA in the egg as per consumer’s demand.

Effect of flaxseed oil on biochemical parameters, hormonal indexes and stereological changes in ovariectomized rats

The ovariectomized rat is a widely used preclinical model for studying postmenopausal and its complications. In this study, the therapeutic effect of flaxseed oil on the ovariectomized adult rats was investigated. Our results showed that biochemical parameters including calcium, oestrogen and progesterone levels increase 8 weeks after ovariectomy in rats. Also, the amount of alkaline phosphatase decreased significantly after 8 weeks compared with the OVX rat. The healing potential of flaxseed oil was proven by successfully recovering the affected tissue and preventing the unpleasant symptoms of ovariectomized rats. The biological effects of flaxseed oil may be due to high amounts of fatty acids, phytoestrogens and an array of antioxidants. The results suggest that flaxseed oil can mimic the action of oestrogen and can be a potential treatment for hormone replacement therapy (HRT).

Enhanced omega-3 index after long- versus short-chain omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in dogs

Background

The Omega‐3 Index is a test that measures the amount of the long‐chain omega‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n‐3 PUFAs), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in red blood cell membranes, which is expressed as a percentage of all fatty acids. However, alpha‐linolenic acid (ALA) from flaxseed oil, which is a short‐chain n‐3 PUFA, is often promoted in pet feed as a n‐3 source, implicitly assuming it is an effective precursor of EPA and DHA.

Objective

This study was aimed to compare the effect of supplementation with a plant‐based short‐chain n‐3 PUFA source (flaxseed oil, FSO) with a marine long‐chain n‐3 PUFA source (astaxanthin krill oil, AKO) to increase the Omega‐3 Index in dogs.

Methods

Ten adult Alaskan Huskies of both genders were supplemented daily with 1,155 mg of EPA/DHA from AKO, whereas another 10 dogs received 1,068 mg ALA from flaxseed oil for 6 weeks. Fatty acid and Omega‐3 Index measurements of the two groups were taken after 0, 3 and 6 weeks for comparison.

Results

The EPA and DHA concentrations increased significantly only in the dogs fed with AKO resulting in a significant increase in mean Omega‐3 Index, from 1.68% at baseline to 2.7% after 6 weeks of supplementation (p < .0001). On the contrary, both EPA and DHA concentrations decreased significantly in the dogs fed with FSO, which led to a significant decrease in mean Omega‐3 Index from 1.6% at baseline to 0.96% at study end (p < .0001).

Conclusions

The results showed that supplementation of AKO from Antarctic krill led to a significant increase in the Omega‐3 Index in comparison to FSO in dogs. This suggests that preformed marine EPA and DHA sources are needed in dog feeds, as the dietary requirements proposed by feed industry organizations are not met with conversion from short‐chain n‐3 fatty acids.

Extraction and Characterization of Flaxseed Oil Obtained with Subcritical n-Butane

In this study, subcritical n-butane was adopted to extract oil from flaxseed. The extraction conditions i.e. extraction temperature, extraction time, and liquid-solid ratio were investigated and optimized by response surface methodology. The flaxseed oil obtained by subcritical n-butane were characterized and compared with those prepared by n-hexane and cold pressing. Results indicated that the optimal combination of parameters was 53.93℃, 56.82 min, and 19.98:1 mL/g. Subcritical n-butane had higher yield (28.75%) than n-hexane and cold pressing. GC analysis indicated that subcritical n-butane extraction had no obvious influence on the fatty acid composition. Nevertheless, the oil obtained by subcritical n-butane with higher contents of phytosterols (2.93 mg/g) and carotenoids (46.56 mg/kg), and presented a higher oxidation stability (9.27 h). Thus, it was suggested that subcritical n-butane extraction is a promising alternative to extract high quality flaxseed oil.

Carboxymethyl chitosan-decorated proliposomes as carriers for improved stability and sustained release of flaxseed oil

A flaxseed oil carboxymethyl chitosan-decorated proliposome system was fabricated in this research. The physicochemical characteristics, stability, and in vitro release behaviors of flaxseed oil were studied and compared with that of flaxseed oil-loaded liposomes. The results of dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, and oxidation stability indicated that the storage stability of proliposomes was better. After 28 days of storage, the peroxide value of flaxseed oil-loaded liposomes (20.1 meq/kg) was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than that of flaxseed oil-loaded proliposomes (9.0 meq/kg); the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances in the former (0.53 mmol/kg) was also higher than that in the latter (0.27 mmol/kg). The in vitro release behavior of flaxseed oil indicated the proliposomes were more stable in the simulated gastrointestinal fluids. Therefore, the flaxseed oil-loaded proliposome system could be a promising vehicle for delivery flaxseed oil in food industry. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: A flaxseed oil-loaded proliposome delivery system was fabricated in this research. Their physical and oxidation stability of flaxseed oil were improved, and the in vitro cumulative release of flaxseed oil was delayed compared with flaxseed oil liposomes. This system may provide an effective strategy for the flaxseed oil encapsulation in the food industry.

Design, Optimization, Manufacture and Characterization of Efavirenz-Loaded Flaxseed Oil Nanoemulsions

The formation, manufacture and characterization of low energy water-in-oil (w/o) nanoemulsions prepared using cold pressed flaxseed oil containing efavirenz was investigated. Pseudo-ternary phase diagrams were constructed to identify the nanoemulsion region(s). Other potential lipid-based drug delivery phases containing flaxseed oil with 1:1 m/m surfactant mixture of Tween® 80, Span® 20 and different amounts of ethanol were tested to characterize the impact of surfactant mixture on emulsion formation. Flaxseed oil was used as the oil phase as efavirenz exhibited high solubility in the vehicle when compared to other vegetable oils tested. Optimization of surfactant mixtures was undertaken using design of experiments, specifically a D-optimal design with the flaxseed oil content set at 10% m/m. Two solutions from the desired optimization function were produced based on desirability and five nanoemulsion formulations were produced and characterized in terms of in vitro release of efavirenz, physical and chemical stability. Metastable nanoemulsions containing 10% m/m flaxseed oil were successfully manufactured and significant isotropic gel (semisolid) and o/w emulsions were observed during phase behavior studies. Droplet sizes ranged between 156 and 225 nm, zeta potential between -24 and -41 mV and all formulations were found to be monodisperse with polydispersity indices ≤ 0.487.

LOMIX, a Mixture of Flaxseed Linusorbs, Exerts Anti-Inflammatory Effects through Src and Syk in the NF-κB Pathway

Although flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) has long been used as Ayurvedic medicine, its anti-inflammatory role is still unclear. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the anti-inflammatory role of a linusorb mixture (LOMIX) recovered from flaxseed oil. Effects of LOMIX on inflammation and its mechanism of action were examined using several in vitro assays (i.e., NO production, real-time PCR analysis, luciferase-reporter assay, Western blot analysis, and kinase assay) and in vivo analysis with animal inflammation models as well as acute toxicity test. Results: LOMIX inhibited NO production, cell shape change, and inflammatory gene expression in stimulated RAW264.7 cells through direct targeting of Src and Syk in the NF-κB pathway. In vivo study further showed that LOMIX alleviated symptoms of gastritis, colitis, and hepatitis in murine model systems. In accordance with in vitro results, the in vivo anti-inflammatory effects were mediated by inhibition of Src and Syk. LOMIX was neither cytotoxic nor did it cause acute toxicity in mice. In addition, it was found that LOB3, LOB2, and LOA2 are active components included in LOMIX, as assessed by NO assay. These in vitro and in vivo results suggest that LOMIX exerts an anti-inflammatory effect by inhibiting the inflammatory responses of macrophages and ameliorating symptoms of inflammatory diseases without acute toxicity and is a promising anti-inflammatory medication for inflammatory diseases.

An Approach to Manufacture of Fresh Chicken Sausages Incorporated with Black Cumin and Flaxseed Oil in Water Gelled Emulsion

In order to investigate the use of oil in water gelled emulsion (GE) prepared with healthier oil combinations as beef fat replacer in the fresh chicken sausage formulations, four batches of fresh sausages were produced. The first batch was control (C) sample formulated with %100 beef fat, other batches were codded as GE50, GE75, and GE100 respective to the percentage of beef fat replaced with GE. The addition of GE to sausage formulation resulted in an increment in moisture and protein contents while a decrement was observed in fat content (p<0.05). pH, cooking yield and water holding capacity values of GE added samples were found lower than C (p<0.05). GE addition caused lower CIE L* values in samples, however, this trend was not observed in CIE a* and CIE b* values. Initially, the lowest peroxide and the highest TBARS values were recorded in GE100 samples on the 0^th d (p<0.05). Peroxide and TBARS values were in the limits. The texture of samples was softened while total saturated fatty acid content reduced up to 52.61% with the incorporation of GE (p<0.05). Taken together, our results showed that GEs can be used as fat replacers in meat product formulations without causing undesirable quality changes.

Preparation of high-quality concentrated fragrance flaxseed oil by steam explosion pretreatment technology

In this study, flaxseed was pretreated by steam explosion technology and subsequently pressed to prepare flaxseed oil. GC, UPLC, HPLC, and GC-MS techniques were used to analyze the quality characteristics of the prepared flaxseed oil. These included the food safety risk indices, micronutrient components, and oxidative stability. The effects of different steam explosion pressures on the quality characteristics and relative volatile components of flaxseed oil were also investigated. The results revealed that steam explosion pretreatment technology could significantly increase the oil yield, improve micronutrient content, and strengthen the oxidation stability of the product. Moreover, the food safety risk indices (e.g., benzopyrene) were controlled within a reasonable range, while the fatty acid content remained almost unchanged. Notably, the relative pyrazine content in the total volatile components of flaxseed oil was 68.25% when the steam explosion pressure reached 1.2 MPa. This was considered as the main factor that contributed to the unique concentrated fragrance of the produced flaxseed oil. To prove the superiority of the steam explosion pretreatment, we compared this technique with traditional high-temperature roasting and popular microwave pretreatment techniques. The results revealed that flaxseed oil prepared by steam explosion pretreatment displayed the best quality characteristics and most concentrated fragrance. Thus, steam explosion technology shows great potential for application to produce high-quality concentrated fragrance flaxseed oil. This study provides significant reference and guidance for the preparation process of flaxseed oil.