Who named and built the Désormeaux endoscope? The case of unacknowledged opticians Charles and Arthur Chevalier

Announced in 1855, the Désormeaux endoscope articulated a scope expansion in medical utility of the uréthroscope initially presented to the Académie de médecine in late 1853. The former epochal term was never formally claimed, and although evidencing creative thinking by Désormeaux himself, production was a poorly acknowledged but seemingly close collaboration with two leading Parisian instrument makers: Maison Chevalier for the optical parts and Maison Charrière for the accessory catheter.

Five thousand years of minimal access surgery: 1850 to 1990: Technological developments

This is the second of a three-part series that charts the history of minimal access surgery from antiquity to current times. Although rapid developments in laparoscopic and robotic surgery have transformed surgical care over the last 30 years, our predecessors made significant advances in their time which set the principles for modern practice. Part I of this series described how ancient medical practitioners developed simple instruments, from metal or wood, for viewing body cavities. Improvements in the use of metal, glass and lighting allowed for inspection of deeper parts of the body. This second part of the series will show how advances in electrical technology allowed the development of improved lighting for endoscopy and laparoscopy along with the use of electrocautery for a wide range of therapeutic procedures.

How Technology Shaped Modern Surgery

The history of endoscopy and minimally invasive surgery is the story of technological advances in illumination, optics, and imaging that allowed operations to be performed within the body. After invention of the incandescent bulb by Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison in 1879, the basic design of early cystoscopes remained unchanged during the first half of the 20th century. Three inventions made endoscopy and laparoscopy possible. Invented in the 1950s, the Hopkins glass rod lens system was so elegant and effective-it gave images 80 times better than traditional Galilean optics-that endoscopes of the same design remain in use today. Also, originating in the same decade, fiber optics had in turn two major contributions: Flexible endoscopy and the transfer of light from a high voltage source into the body to illuminate internal structures and organs. Solid-state camera technology, developed in the late 1970s and 1980s, gave images of exceptional detail from a camera chip at the eyepiece of an endoscope. The panorama of advances created by the same technologies-global telecommunications, cellphone cameras, images from interplanetary space probes-reveals endoscopy and laparoscopic surgery as two more examples of today's technological age.

Philipp Bozzini (1773-1809): The earliest description of endoscopy

The widespread use of endoscopy in today's clinical arena underscores its utility and growing significance within the field of medicine. Primitive forms of endoscopy have existed for hundreds of years, but it was not until the early 19th century that Dr Philipp Bozzini invented an endoscope that would form the basis of modern endoscopy. Born into an influential Italian family, Bozzini practiced medicine in a time and place of conflict and political unrest. His passion, ingenuity, and important social connections allowed him to create and introduce to the medical profession the Lichtleiter (light-conductor), which overcame two key issues plaguing endoscopy: inadequate lighting and poor penetration. A combination of professional rivalry and his premature passing stifled enthusiasm and further work on the Lichtleiter, but its value would not be lost forever. The advancements in the field of endoscopy that have come since the time of the Lichtleiter all build upon the principles of Bozzini, who became widely acknowledged as the father of modern endoscopy.

Rhode Island Hospital's Contribution to the Field of Endoscopic Spine Surgery

The first academic program in endoscopic spine surgery in the United States opened its doors at Rhode Island Hospital in 2012. Published advances in the field since its inception have included treatments for a myriad of pathologies including lumbar and thoracic disc herniations, spondylolisthesis, spine tumors as well as treatments for complications of other spinal procedures including spinal fusion, kyphoplasty, and total disc replacement. In this issue of the Rhode Island Medical Journal we summarize the history of the procedure as well as some of the interesting progress going on in this field in Rhode Island. [Full article available at http://rimed.org/rimedicaljournal-2017-06.asp].

[Past, present, and future of pediatric endoscopic surgery]

There has been an enormous evolution in endoscopic surgery, not only in general but also in pediatric surgery. Common pediatric endoscopic procedures, such as laparoscopic appendectomy, pyloromyotomy, and Nissen fundoplication, have been developed since the early 1990s, and many advanced pediatric endoscopic surgical techniques have been developed during the last two decades. Recently, thoracoscopic repair of tracheoesophageal fistula, laparoscopic portoenterostomy (Kasai operation) for the treatment of biliary atresia, etc., have been performed in high-volume centers of pediatric endoscopic surgery even in neonates and young infants. The evolution and development of minimally invasive pediatric endosurgery depend on the equipment and instrumentation technology, while the role of education and training in the pediatric endoscopic surgical field is extremely important. The history, present status, and future development of pediatric laparoscopic and thoracoscopic surgery are reviewed.

[Theodor Billroth: more than a century of artistic greatness]

Christian Albert Theodor Billroth, a German surgeon of great artistry and immense culture and promoter of abdominal surgery, who drove the length of the physiology of the surgical field through the use of experimental surgery, is considered the leading German medical figure of the second half of the 19th century in Europe. His works and techniques transcended through time and continue to be implemented (albeit with modifications). He founded a new school of surgery based in criticism, the influence of which affected the development of numerous European and American surgeons. He was also a born artist who excelled in the music field, with many interests in music criticism and public events.

Endoscopy and laparoscopy: a historical aspect of medical terminology

INTRODUCTION

The history of medical terminology is interrelated with the scientific advances in the field. Efforts to explore human cavities for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes began as early as the 5th century BC. The evolution of laparoscopy at the beginning of the past century has been a major step toward minimization of surgical trauma. The present article investigates the terminological origin and the evolution of the terms endoscopy and laparoscopy.

METHODS

A search of ancient bibliographical archives and a review of the modern medical literature was undertaken.

RESULTS

The word endoscopy derives from the Greek word endoscópesis, a compound word consisting of éndon, which means inside and scopeín, which means to watch carefully. Laparoscopy also is a compound word, consisting of the words lapára, which means abdomen or abdominal wall, and scopeín. The word lapára derives from the adjective laparós, which means soft. The word lapára may be traced back to the Linear B syllabic script (17th to 13th century BC), as well as in descriptions of fights by the epic poet Homer (8th century BC). Although endoscopic examinations had been performed since the 5th century BC, the term endoscopy is first encountered in medical manuscripts of the 19th century AC, after the evolution of novel instruments and following the advent of artificial light. Similarly, the word laparothoracoscopy was first used in the early 20th century.

CONCLUSIONS

The origins of the words laparoscopy and endoscopy are traced back to the archaic period and later to the classical years of ancient Greece. The everlasting semantic of these origins is revisited in the 21st century, as minimization of surgical trauma with the aid of modern technology substantiates the diachronic objective "to do no harm."

Lumen in obscuris: the winding road of modern endoscopy

The historical process leading to the recent invention of endoscopic capsules that are swallowed and travel through the alimentary canal, or to virtual voyages inside the human body--one of the last amazing digital technologies--has been long and winding. This essay seeks to retrace some steps of that process, since the second half of the 18th century. Numerous medical practitioners, technicians, and instrument makers aimed to explore inner body parts and interspaces by means of the sense of sight. In the mid-19th century Endoscope was called the instrument that would allow to bring light into unknown recesses and visualize them; urethra and bladder were the organs at first investigated, but soon the medical gaze proceeded to penetrate the esophagus and the stomach, not without several obstacles to be overcome.

[The history of endoscopy and endoscopic surgery in Japan]

In Japan, the first gastro camera was introduced as a trial in 1950, and has improved continuously. On the other hand, in Europe, it was earlier that the first laparoscopic examination was tried in 1901 by Kelling. After that, laparoscopic surgery was developed by originating in a gynecologic surgery. The historical moment came in 1987, Prof. Mouret has succeeded in laparoscopic cholecystectomy, and for 20 years, endoscopic has been developing rapidly with progress of related devices. This remarkable advance is based on the collaboration between basic medicine and clinical medicine, in other words, the concept of engineering based medicine.

The evolution of extracranial approaches to the pituitary and anterior skull base

The development of extracranial approaches to the anterior skull base has been a process in development for over a 100 years. Many neurosurgical (and non-neurosurgical) pioneers have contributed to its evolution. In this paper, we will review the major contributors and contributions to this evolving field.

[Biography of Phillip Bozzini (1773-1809) an idealist of the endoscopy]

Philipp Bozzini was born the 25 of May of 1773 in Mainz, Germany. The 12 of June of 1797 obtain the title of medicine doctor. From 1804 it is practically dedicated of complete to the development of its instrument, this have the approximated form of one metallic vase of 35 cm height, had in leather. In its previous face it has a circular opening that is divided vertically by a partition. In left half is the luminance source (a wax candle) and behind is a mirror, that it projects the light produced towards the interior of the corporal cavity to explore. By other half, the observer receives the reflected light and the image of the explored organ. In the later face they adapt according to the cavity diverse specula's, this allow to inspect ear, urethra, feminine bladder, rectum, uterine neck, nasal or wounds. Philipp Bozzini, profit with modest means available at the beginning of XIX century, to demonstrate to the medical world the way of endoscopes. It was with its instrument and ideas, 3/4 of century advanced to the technical and scientific possibilities of the moment. The historians are in agreement, in which this instrument, with artificial light, diverse mirrors and specula's war the beginning of a numerous family of endoscopies.

History of endoscopic skull base surgery: its evolution and current reality

✓The history of the endoscope exemplifies the manner in which technological advances influence medicine and surgery. Endoscopic systems have evolved and improved, and they currently provide detailed visualization of a variety of deep organ structures. Otorhinolaryngological surgeons have used the endoscope for more than 30 years. In the 1990s, a number of influential neurosurgeons and otorhinolaryngological surgeons began performing purely endoscopic pituitary surgery. Endoscopic transsphenoidal operations are now extending beyond the sella. The collaboration between otorhinolaryngologists and neurosurgeons has produced a new subspecialty of “endoscopic skull base surgery.” There is a great deal of progress still to be made in developing skills, instruments, and improving skull base repair. The extended skull base approaches allow surgical exposures from the olfactory groove to C-2 and to the infratemporal region and jugular fossa laterally. This article discusses the history of the endoscope, the pivotal technological advances, and the key figures in the burgeoning field of endoneurosurgery.

History of craniosynostosis surgery and the evolution of minimally invasive endoscopic techniques: the University of Florida experience

Craniosynostosis is the premature and abnormal fusion of 1 of the 6 suture lines that form the living skull and can occur as part of a syndrome or as an isolated defect (nonsyndromic). The first reported surgical procedure for correction of craniosynostosis was performed in 1890 by Lannelongue who advocated releasing, but not resecting, the fused suture. Craniofacial surgery has developed its own identity in the last 3 decades, with the Frenchman Tessier seen as the founding father. There have been many new developments such as distraction osteogenesis, biodegradable miniplate fixation, and the development of minimally invasive endoscopic techniques. Through the pioneering work of Jimenez and Barone, minimally invasive approaches to the surgical correction of craniosynostosis are now gaining wider acceptance. Here the authors review the history of craniosynostosis, the current literature and technique for endoscopic repair of craniosynostosis, as well as their own experience at the University of Florida, with minimally invasive endoscope-assisted techniques.

The role of the surgeon in the evolution of flexible endoscopy

Several cultures, including the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Arabs, made attempts to view accessible human body cavities using a variety of instruments such as spatulas and specula. The first endoscope was created in 1806 when Phillip Bozzini, a German-born urologist, constructed the lichtleiter, which used concave mirrors to reflect candlelight through an open tube into the esophagus, bladder, or rectum. Maximilian Carl-Friedrich Nitze, another German urologist, produced the first usable cystoscope in 1877 by using series of lenses to increase magnification. He was also the first to place light inside the organ of interest to aid visualization. In 1880 Mikulicz made the first gastroscope using a system similar to Nitze's cystoscope. Modern endoscopy was born with the introduction of the fiberoptic endoscope in the late 1950s. Over the ensuing 50 years endoscopy revolutionized many aspects of the surgeon's practice. Endoscopy can now be used to diagnose and often treat gastrointestinal cancer, hemorrhage, obstruction, and inflammatory conditions. This review was initiated by the SAGES Flexible Endoscopy Committee to chronicle the role of the surgeon in the development and introduction of flexible endoscopy into clinical practice, historically and in contemporary surgery. Flexible endoscopy evolved out of surgeons' need to overcome diagnostic and therapeutic challenges. There have been many recent technological advances that facilitate endoluminal therapies, and flexible endoscopy is now traversing new ground. Surgeons have been major contributors in the development of all aspects of endoscopy. There is a continually expanding list of therapeutic options available to patients. The difficult questions of which procedure, on which patient, and when can be answered best by the surgeon versed in endoscopic, laparoscopic, and open surgical techniques.

Technical innovations and the evolution of endoscopic sinus surgery

Since the introduction of endoscopic sinus surgery, a number of significant technological advances, as well as an improved understanding of disease pathogenesis and management, have enabled major evolutions in surgical techniques. Modifications to surgical instruments, imaging, the development of the microdebrider, and other newer instrumentation have all contributed to the current level of patient success associated with endoscopic intranasal techniques. At the same time, it has become evident that anatomic variations are less important in the pathogenesis of chronic rhinosinusitis than was previously thought, and that ventilation alone is insufficient to resolve well-established disease. This paper reviews the changes that have occurred in endoscopic sinus surgery over the past 20 years since the techniques were first introduced into the United States, and the technologies that have enabled these changes and the development of extended endoscopic techniques. Continuing developments of interactive computer-guided surgery, endoscopic 3-dimensional imagery, robotics, and improved adjunctive therapies will further extend the role of endoscopic transnasal approaches to an expanded number of skull base and intracranial lesions.

Evolution of endoscopy simulators and their application

Significant advances already have been made in the use of simulators for teaching and training in GI endoscopy. Indeed, during the past decade the evolution and improvement of these devices is readily apparent with each passing year. Doubtless, these advances have led to the increased availability and popularity of simulator-based hands-on workshops. Simulator-based skills assessment remains a relatively undeveloped field, awaiting increased realism and the development and validation of proper tests. Still, static models, ex vivo artificial models, ex vivo animal models, and computer simulators collectively represent a substantial and powerful tool for education and training in GI endoscopy. It is easy to foresee a day when hands-on training using simulators will be readily available outside the gastroenterology fellowship setting. With the progression of technology and the continuous introduction of new devices and procedures will come a parallel, compelling need for hands-on, simulator-based experience with all such new tools and techniques.

[The development of urine diagnostics and its visualisation in "frames"]

The development of urine diagnostics has been well examined historiographically. However, its importance for science studies has not yet been stressed enough. As a diagnostic tool, that survived many centuries, it underwent several changes. Therefore, its use for science studies is exemplarily displayed in this paper. An attempt is made by the authors to combine questions of the history of science with methods from the cognitive sciences. The reader is introduced into an interdisciplinary approach aiming at the visualisation of scientific shifts to make a deeper analyse of such shifts possible. Lawrence Barsalou proposed a dynamic frame model to represent cognitive structures. This model is used to reconstruct scientific revolutions (in the sense of Thomas Kuhn) as well as barely noticeable shifts (in the sense of Ludwik Fleck's shifting thought styles). The value of this approach for the history of medicine in general and the history of uroscopy in special is discussed.

George Berci: Past, Present, and Future

Dr. George Berci's contributions to the art and science of endoscopy and laparoscopy have continued unabated for nearly half a century. Fundamental advances in optics, illumination, television application, instrumentation, and operative radiology were either fostered or initiated by him, culminating in the advanced state of the technology as it is known today. As a creative force and catalytic influence, he has been a true pioneer.

[History of endonasal microsurgery of lacrimal system]

The history and development of surgical treatment of lacrimal system from rhinological point of view was presented. The lacrimal drainage system has provoked great deal of investigation throughout history, because ophtalmologists couldn't attain persistent and permeable drainage between the lacrimal and the nose. The change came, when first Italian rhinologist Toti described external dacryocystorhinostomy (DCR), and later West performed endonasal DCR. The use of microscope and endoscope in rhinosurgery caused the significant progress also in lacrimal surgery. The development of endonasal microsurgery enabled to introduce other non invasive procedure, such as endoscopic laser dacryocystorhinostomy or transcanalicular dacryo-cystorhinostomy (endo-canalicular DCR). One of the newest method in the treatment of complete and partial obstruction of lacrimal drainage system is also baloon dacryocystoplasty.

Neuroendoscopy: past, present, and future

Neuroendoscopy began with a desire to visualize the ventricles and deeper structures of the brain. Unfortunately, the technology available to early neuroendoscopists was not sufficient in most cases for these purposes. The unique perspective that neuroendoscopy offered was not fully realized until key technological advances made reliable and accurate visualization of the brain and ventricles possible. After this technology was incorporated into the device, neuroendoscopic procedures were rediscovered by neurosurgeons. Endoscopic third ventriculostomy and other related procedures are now commonly used to treat a wide array of neurosurgically managed conditions. A seemingly limitless number of neurosurgical applications await the endoscope. In the future, endoscopy is expected to become routine in modern neurosurgical practice and training.

Brief history of endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery--from Philipp Bozzini to the First World Congress of Endoscopic Skull Base Surgery

Since its inception, one of the major issues in transsphenoidal surgery has been the adequate visualization of anatomical structures. As transsphenoidal surgery evolved, technical advancements improved the surgical view of the operative field and the orientation. The operating microscope replaced Cushing's headlight and Dott's lighted speculum retractor, and fluoroscopy provided intraoperative imaging. These advances led to the modern concept of microsurgical transsphenoidal procedures in the early 1970s. For the past 30 years the endoscope has been used for the treatment of diseases of the sinus and, more recently, in the surgical treatment of pituitary tumors. The collaboration between neurological and otorhinolaryngological surgeons has led to the development of novel surgical procedures for the treatment of various pathological conditions in the skull base. In this paper the authors review the history of the endoscope--its technical development and its application--from the first endoscope described by Philipp Bozzini to the First World Congress of Endoscopic Skull Base Surgery held in 2005 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Specifically, in this review the history of endoscopy and its application in endonasal neurosurgery are presented.

Evolution of reconstructive techniques following endoscopic expanded endonasal approaches

Harvey Cushing first popularized the transsphenoidal route to the sella turcica, and Jules Hardy subsequently refined it by adding the operating microscope. Over the ensuing decades, attempts at extending the application of this approach have been advanced by Edward Laws and others. With the evolution of endoscopic approaches, the natural expansion of their use to intradural lesions followed. For the expanded endonasal approach to become a viable option, the paramount concerns surrounding consistent reconstruction of the dura mater must be overcome. In this review the authors chronicle the evolution of the reconstruction technique they currently use after performing expanded endonasal approaches. They also report the use of a balloon stent to buttress the reconstruction and counter the effects of graft migration and cerebrospinal fluid fistula formation. The technique described in this report represents an important step forward in the reconstruction of defects resulting from expanded endonasal approaches.

Skull base surgery: past, present, and future trends

The author outlines the history of skull base surgery and describes the new paradigm emerging with increasing use of endoscopic microneurosurgery.