The development and status of forensic anthropology in India: A review of the literature and future directions

Forensic anthropology deals with the identification of human remains in a legal setting. The primary role of a forensic anthropologist is to evaluate human skeletal remains and ascertain the biological profile of the deceased. Forensic anthropologists thus use their expertise to assist medical examiners, as well as law enforcement agencies. Forensic anthropology was not recognised as a subject specialty of much significance in most parts of the world for a long time. However, now its status has changed, mostly in the USA and parts of Europe. The scope of the subject ranges from evaluation of human skeletal remains to the identification of the living. In the new millennium, the role of forensic anthropologists includes disaster victim identification, photographic superimposition, facial image reconstruction in CCTV footage, gait pattern analysis from video surveillance, ascertaining the age of an individual in absence of legal documents and paedo-pornographic materials. Despite its relevance in human identification, the development of forensic anthropology in India is not very encouraging. Only a few institutions in India include forensic anthropology as a part of the forensic science degree programme, and there are no certified courses in anthropology either. Likewise, there are limited employment opportunities for forensic anthropologists in medical institutes/organisations/universities. This comprehensive review focuses on the status and development of forensic anthropology in India and emphasises the need for its recognition as a specialty of significance. The article also throws light on the comparison of its status in the Indian context vis a vis developed nations.

MH17: the Malaysian experience

A disaster is a natural or man-made (or technological) hazard resulting in an event of substantial extent causing significant physical damage or destruction, loss of life, or drastic change to the environment. It is a phenomenon that can cause damage to life and property and destroy the economic, social and cultural life of the people; and overwhelms the capacity of the community to cope with the event. The recent tragic aviation accidents in 2014 involving Malaysia Airlines flights MH370 and MH17 shocked the world in an unprecedented manner. This paper focuses on the Malaysian experience in the MH17 mission in Ukraine as well as the first ever international Disaster Victim Identification (DVI) operation for the Malaysian DVI team. The DVI operations in Hilversum, the Netherlands were well described in stages. The Netherlands' Landelijk Team Forensische Opsporing as the lead DVI team in Hilversum operated systematically, ensuring the success of the whole mission. This paper discusses the lessons learned by the Malaysian team on proper DVI structure, inter- and intra-agency cooperation, facilities planning and set up, logistics and health and safety aspects, as well as effective communication and collaboration with other international delegates. Several issues and challenges faced by the Malaysian team were also documented. In addition, the authors shared views, opinions and recommendations for a more comprehensive DVI operation in the future.

Panel 2.16: Forensic Aspects of Disaster Fatality Management

This is a summary of the presentations and discussion of Panel 2.16, Forensic Aspects of Disaster Fatality Management of the Conference, Health Aspects of the Tsunami Disaster in Asia, convened by the World Health Organization (WHO) in Phuket, Thailand, 04–06 May 2005. The topics discussed included issues related to forensic aspects that pertain to the responses to the deaths created by the Earthquake and Tsunami. It is presented in the following major sections: (1) overview of victim identification; (2) resource factors in mass-fatality management; (3) mass-fatality management in protecting public health; and (4) reasons to use deoyxribose nucleic acid (DNA) to identify the deceased.

Problems of identification associated with victims of aerodisaster: the Port Harcourt experience in December 2005

BACKGROUND

The problems associated with identification of victims after mass disaster such as aero-accident require an elaborate study with an attempt at proffering solutions in the midst of limited facilities.

METHODOLOGY

This is a case study of aero-disaster carried out by the authors at Port Harcourt International Airport on 10th December 2005. Information was adequately disseminated through different media to alert the public to come for the identification of the bodies. The 106 victims were then separated into those whose bodies were intact with few areas of burns, crushed/multiple fractures, those with severe burns, and dismembered or disintegrated bodies.

RESULTS

Problems of identification was noticed in 26 (24.5%) of the victims which form the basis for this study. Those disputed by more than one family n = 11 (42.3%), those without dispute but very difficult to identify n = 6 (23.1%) and those that could not be identified n = 9 (34.6%). The cause of the identification difficulty also ranged from total disintegration of the bodies n = 9 (34.6%), severely burnt bodies n = 12 (46.2%) to those crushed with multiple fractures n = 5 (19.2%).

CONCLUSION

Problems of identification of severely injured victims of aero-disaster in a limited facility setting can be minimized if strict and well documented pre-travel biometric profiles are taken. Facility for DNA fingerprint, forensic odontologists and forensic anthropologist should be provided. There should also be institution of aviation accident investigation team (AAIT) and mass disaster planning team (MDPT) to aid the identification of victims and probe into the cause and effect of the accident.

[Mass disasters with higher quantity of dead bodies and DVIT concept in the Czech Republic]

Authors deal with problems related to identification of higher number of dead bodies in cases of mass disaster, organization and DVI (disaster victim identification) teams assignment in the Czech Republic, interoperation with so-called Integrated Rescue System and cooperation between experts by mass disaster solution. The paper comes out from investigation of the research project and the main principles for organization of operations in victims identification of mass disaster are mentioned.

[Process of exhumation and identification of victims of the 1992-1995 war in the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina]

Three and half years of war in Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1992-1995 took lives of thousands of people. About 30,000 of them were accounted for and reported as missing. Fighting and ethnic cleansing took place throughout the country. In consequence bodies of killed persons were buried in endless number of clandestine mass graves, dumped into rivers, wells, septic tanks and caves, or simply left unburied in fields, meadows and forests. Therefore, it is essential to obtain information about the potential grave or graves, which allows their proper location. More than 20,000 victims were exhumed to the end of 2008. Unfortunately, majority of remains recovered from secondary graves represents either incomplete skeletons, not associated bones or bone fragments. In this situation, only a large-scale DNA testing, in the future, will answer for question how many people are victims of that war. It is predicted that process of exhumation and identification will be finished until 2015 year.

The 11 March 2004 Madrid terrorist attacks: the importance of the mortuary organisation for identification of victims. A critical review

On the morning of 11 March 2004, Madrid lived the worst terrorist attack in its modern history, resulting to 191 people killed and more than 1,800 injured. The attacks evidenced a series of significant deficiencies in forensic task planning, especially in using standardised post-mortem data forms and gathering ante-mortem medical and dental data, responsible for the delay in identifying corpses in the worst state, which had to wait for DNA analysis. Fortunately, the ultimate result can be considered satisfactory, given the rapid response of the forensic team in examination and identification of the large number of victims (80% of the victims were identified within 40 h), consequence of a good mortuary organization in the Pavilion 6 of the Madrid Trade Fair (IFEMA), the professional fervor whereupon the different involved professionals acted, some personal initiatives and the good general state of most of the corpses.

Future project concerning Mass Disaster Management: a forensic odontology prospectus

The world has experienced a plethora of mass disasters in recent years: acts of terrorism, bombings, earthquakes, hurricanes, typhoons, air crashes and other transportation mishaps, not to mention armed conflicts and migrants drowned in the Mediterranean Sea. In reviewing mass disasters to date, the principal difficulties have not changed: (1) large numbers of humans fragmented, co-mingled, and burned remains; (2) difficulty in determining who was involved in the disaster; (3) acquisition of useful medical and dental records and radiographs; (4) legal, jurisdictional, organisational, and political issues; (5) internal and external documentation and communication problems; (6) application of universal human forensic identification codes. Forensic dentistry plays a major role in victim identification. DNA and dental identification of human remains depends on sufficient availability of ante mortem information, existence of sufficient post mortem material and a comparison or match between ante and post mortem details. Forensic odontology is a specialty with a specific training, and cannot simply be carried out by dentists without such training. Strategies for developing an international forensic odontology capacity and resources are needed for the management of dead bodies following a mass disaster, together with universal guidelines and codes. To this end, Interpol's forms have proved to be a good starting point to meet these requirements.

[Common principles of person identification in disasters with a great number of victims]

The authors give a detailed definition of the notion "identification of the dead body". They formulate and validate an algorithm of expert actions in identification of the dead and missing persons in disasters. Sound choice of specialists at different stages of identification is essential.

[Approaches to setting up the Center for identification of exhumed bodies in Chechen Republic]

The authors participated in the activity of a group of European experts who visited Moscow, Rostov-on-Don and Grozny in September 2005 to clarify situation with identification of exhumed unknown dead bodies of the civil population. The European experts recommend to set up Center for Identification in Chechen Republic (in Grozny). The authors propose to make DNA identification tests in the Russian Federation Center for Forensic Medical Evaluation in Moscow which has much experience and staff skilled in identification of unknown exhumed bodies and can solve the problem of genetic identification of unidentified bodies of people missed in the Chechen Republic more effectively.

The place of a forensic archaeologist at a crime scene involving a buried body

This paper examines the place that forensic archaeologists should hold at scenes of crime where a body has been buried. The forensic archaeologist is rapidly becoming a key player whose specialty should be explained, and role defined. A high level of interaction between the forensic archaeologist and other personnel implies good communications skills as well as a precarious mix of receiving orders, assistance and advice as well as giving directions to other staff. The extent to which each of these should be applied will be discussed as well as underlying the absolute need for forensic archaeologist to attend these types of scenes.

[The dentist on the DVI team--interdisciplinary philosophy of the Interpol DVI team]

Recent experiences from mass disasters have shown that a structured and uniform methodology is the only good way to come to quick and correct results in disaster victim identification. It is therefore mandatory that everyone included in such operations is not only conscious of the procedures, but also willing to apply them. This can only be achieved by providing adequate information and training to all personnel involved, tactical and technical. It seems thus not unreasonable that in the future, DVI Interpol would only be willing to work with accredited personnel and DVI teams, in order to optimize the results of disaster victim identification operations.

The USS Iowa disaster: success of the forensic dental team

The authors record the contributions of dentistry to the identification of the crew members who were in one of the most significant peacetime military accidents in U.S. Navy history-the April 1989 explosion in a gun turret on the battleship USS Iowa and the deaths of 47 U.S. Navy personnel. Dental identification was the primary means of identification for most because a very high percentage of the bodies were burned or fragmented. The dental-identification team's success was a direct result of its preparedness, its use of dental personnel with mass-disaster experience, and the overall excellent quality of the antemortem dental records. The dental-identification team's successful involvement in the USS Iowa tragedy was considered a model for success and therefore was instrumental in contributing to the development of the American Board of Forensic Odontology "Guidelines for the Development of a Disaster Dental Identification Team."

Guidelines for international forensic bio-archaeology monitors of mass grave exhumations

The systematic exhumation of mass graves is becoming a frequent occurrence globally. Historically, it has been mostly anthropologists with their particular expertise in osteology that have been engaged by non-governmental organizations (NGO) to monitor mass grave exhumations and postmortem examinations, conducted by a host country or international forensic team, to ensure competence and a concern for justice. The excavation of graves and examination of their contents for the purposes of personal identification of victims and/or collection of evidence for prosecution require the creation of standards that meet international concerns for forensic investigation of the highest quality. However, many anthropologists are not experienced with large sites; do not have much, if any, expertise in archaeology; and are not equipped by training to assess the quality of a forensic pathologist's autopsy. This contribution is directed to both the NGO and the bio-archaeologist who are involved in the exhumation of mass graves. The experience and skills appropriate for the bio-archaeological monitor are outlined; similarly, the policies and standard operating procedures (SOP's) of the NGO that will enable the bio-archaeologist to perform their task are detailed. It is becoming increasingly clear that how a grave site was created, filled, and concealed, along with subsequent processes of site formation (e.g. slumping, robbing, animal scavenging and taphonomic alteration), require the expertise of a forensic archaeologist to discover and record site complexity along with associated forensic evidence. Similarly, the bodies themselves which are often skeletonized, fragmented and commingled pose challenges for the anthropologists and pathologists whose postmortem examinations must be critically evaluated. A model protocol for observations to make at the site as well as at the mortuary facility is provided to guide the monitor and to provide a structure for reports which are of standardized content suitable for international agencies concerned with mass grave investigation.

From dust to dust: ethical and practical issues involved in the location, exhumation, and identification of bodies from mass graves

There are many potential purposes served by the investigation of human remains: criminal fact-finding, archaeological exploration, forensic research, and others. This paper focuses on the identification of remains from mass graves to find missing persons. The primary goal of such efforts is to honor the memory of the dead by bringing closure to living family members, thus supporting the human rights of both the living and the deceased. Cultures, customs, political, and interpersonal specifics will vary, but that singular goal should remain the central guiding principle. This article presents ethical and practical issues resulting from efforts to locate, exhume, and identify the remains of mass fatalities.

[Problems encountered during natural disasters: a questionnaire study]

Human being has been encountering huge natural mass disasters since the dawn of existence. In the earthquake both Marmara region on August 17 1999 and Duzce region on November 12 1999, according to official records, 18.287 people were dead and 46.857 were injured. The purpose of this study is to get information by bilateral interviews with those who witnessed this big earthquake in different districts and to contribute in forming a prepared "disaster administration" consciousness for the prospective disasters, under the basis of these information. This study was made by interviewing with 262 people, 82 of whom witnessed the earthquake in the city of Yalova, 90 in Izmit, Bolu and Golcuk and 90 in Istanbul, used a questionnaire form consisted of multi choice and commentary questions. It is of very importance to diffuse educational programmes to increase social consciousness and sensibility about earthquake. Some projects to meet the basic requirements like communication, rescue, accommodation, nutrition and urgent medical support must be developed and embodied. Measures enabling to determine the identities of those who lose their lives in the earthquake must be determined and organized with the collaboration of forensic medical units.

Identification of missing persons: the Spanish "Phoenix" program

In 1999, Spain was the first country to officially start a National Program to try to identify cadavers and human remains which could not be identified by the use of traditional forensic approaches. This attempt is called "Phoenix Program". Two independent mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) databases were generated, which can automatically compare and match identical or similar sequences. One is the Reference Database, with mtDNA sequences from maternal relatives of missing persons, who provide the samples (buccal swabs) voluntarily; the other is the Questioned Database, comprised of mtDNA data of unknown remains and cadavers. Although the first phase of the program (typing of all unidentified human remains) will probably not be completed until December 2003, positive identifications are being made in the interim. To date, more than 1,200 families have contacted Phoenix, and at least 280 reference samples and 48 questioned evidences have been analyzed. When mtDNA matches are found, another independent analysis is performed as a part of the quality control mechanism. Once a match is confirmed (so far in 6 cases), an attempt is made to analyze short tandem repeat (STR) loci. We call for international collaboration to make this effort valuable worldwide.

Mass identification of persons missing from the break-up of the former Yugoslavia: structure, function, and role of the International Commission on Missing Persons

The staff of the International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) is attempting to undertake the largest mass human identification effort in history. Through the generosity of numerous governmental and private corporations the ICMP has established or is currently establishing a strong network of political allies, family outreach centers, and DNA laboratories throughout the former Yugoslavia. Furthermore, the ICMP is currently working to streamline current technology as well as employ new technology in its efforts to assist in identifying missing individuals. ICMP will continue to act as a link between the family associations in the region and will synchronize the work of the DNA identification process in the countries affected by the war in the regions of the former Yugoslavia. In the longer term, ICMP seeks to contribute to the closure of the missing persons issue, to raise awareness of the human dimension of the missing persons tragedy, and to preserve a shared and common memory of the missing in the former Yugoslavia.

Forensic anthropology in Latin America

Forensic anthropology has been one of the fastest growing medico-legal disciplines both in its contribution to the practical needs of the legal system and research accomplishments. New anthropological standards were developed to apply to a specific population of a region. The purpose of this paper is to analyze a large sample of anthropological forensic cases and to review pertinent literature that deals with anthropological standards developed for the population of the continent of Central and South America. Using Uruguay as an example, there was not a single office or anthropologist assigned to analyze human skeletal remains in Uruguay. In 1991 the Laboratorio de Antropología Forense at the Morgue Judicial of Montevideo was created. A total of 189 forensic anthropological cases (276 individuals) were analyzed since this date. Twenty six percent of cases involving human remains were positively identified. The majority came from the Departamento de Montevideo, the largest population district of the country. Most of the cases fell into the 60 to 69 years old age range (35%). Females represented 32% of the total. Since the establishment of the laboratory, the number of forensic cases increased considerably from 20 in 1991 to 40 in 1997. The case studies were accompanied with skull-photo superimposition and facial reconstruction when no other evidence for positive identification was available. This service provided by the laboratory was quickly known to coroners, law enforcement agencies, and other legal authorities and thus utilized not only in Uruguay but also in several other countries in the continent. Because of the obvious need for an anthropologist, there are now university programs to provide forensic anthropological education. Yet, research has lagged behind considerably. Deficiencies are obvious in basic osteological standards of estimating age, calculating stature, determining sex and assessing race that can be applied to populations of the continent. Regional standards are also needed to estimate postmortem interval, to identify culture specific causes of trauma and other forensic phenomena. Some of these can be remedied if there is a database where the available literature is stored and osteometric information is shared.

Medicolegal anthropology in France

Medicolegal anthropology has a very long history in France. Basic studies on human skeletal remains started as early as the 18th century. The 19th century produced many medical theses and research papers on age, sex, as well as stature estimation. The research proliferated in the first 60 years of the 20th century, much of which is still in use in France and abroad. The later half of the 20th century, however, was dormant in research on human skeletal biology at a time when forensic anthropology was becoming an active field worldwide. In the last decade, medicolegal anthropology took a different perspective, independent of its traditional roots. Research and practice have both been in the professional domain of forensic physicians unlike the situation in many other countries. Population based studies requiring large databases or skeletal collections have diminished considerably. Thus, most research has been on factors of individualization such as trauma, time since death, crime scene investigation, and facial reconstruction. It is suggested that there is a need for cooperation between the forensic physician and anthropologist to further research. This also encourages anthropologists to carry out research and practice that can fulfill the needs of the medicolegal system of the country.

[The coordination of the forensic medical service with the medical criminology subdivisions of internal affairs organs in the personal identification of unidentified corpses]

In order to improve the cooperation between medical criminology departments of the organs of home affairs and forensic medical service in personality identification of unidentified corpses, the authors propose amendments to the routine procedure regulated by documents of the Ministry of Home Affairs of the Russian Federation, for these documents are in need of serious correction and revision, so that they conform to the judicial legislation and other documents.