Comparative expression of p2x receptors and ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 3 in hypocretin and sensory neurons in zebrafish

The hypocretin/orexin (HCRT/ORX) excitatory neuropeptides are expressed in a small population of lateral hypothalamic cells in mammals and fish. In humans, loss of these cells causes the sleep disorder narcolepsy. Identification of genes expressed in HCRT-producing cells may be revealing as to the regulation of sleep and the pathophysiology of narcolepsy. In this study, in situ hybridization analyses were performed to characterize the expression pattern of receptors and enzyme, which regulate ATP-mediated transmission in hypocretin cells of zebrafish larvae. The zebrafish cDNA encoding the ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 3 (ENTPD3/NTPDase3) was isolated. This transcript was found to be expressed in zebrafish HCRT cells as previously reported in mammals. It was also expressed in the cranial nerves (gV, gVII, gIV and gX) and in primary sensory neurons (i.e., Rohon-Beard neurons) in the spinal cord. The expression of known zebrafish p2rx purinergic receptor family members was next studied and found to overlap with the entpd3 expression pattern. Specifically, p2rx2, p2rx3.1, p2rx3.2 and p2rx8 were expressed in the trigeminal ganglia and subsets of Rohon-Beard neurons. In contrast to mammals, p2rx2 was not expressed in HCRT cells; rather, p2rx8 was expressed with entpd3 in this hypothalamic region. The conservation of expression of these genes in HCRT cells and sensory neurons across vertebrates suggests an important role for ATP mediated transmission in the regulation of sleep and the processing of sensory inputs.

Hypocretin/orexin-containing neurons are produced in one sharp peak in the developing ventral diencephalon

The birth date of hypocretin-containing neurons was analysed using the bromodeoxyuridine method in the rat. The results indicate that these neurons are generated between embryonic days 11 (E11) and E14, with a sharp peak on E12. This spatiotemporal pattern of genesis contrasts with that of the co-distributed neurons producing the melanin-concentrating hormone in the lateral hypothalamic area, which have been described as generated in one large peak from E10 to E16. These observations may be linked to the relative distribution area of both populations.

Multiple sites of L-histidine decarboxylase expression in mouse suggest novel developmental functions for histamine

Histamine mediates many types of physiologic signals in multicellular organisms. To clarify the developmental role of histamine, we have examined the developmental expression of L-histidine decarboxylase (HDC) mRNA and the production of histamine during mouse development. The predominant expression of HDC in mouse development was seen in mast cells. The HDC expression was evident from embryonal day 13 (Ed13) until birth, and the mast cells were seen in most peripheral tissues. Several novel sites with a prominent HDC mRNA expression were revealed. In the brain, the choroid plexus showed HDC expression at Ed14 and the raphe neurons at Ed15. Close to the parturition, at Ed19, the neurons in the tuberomammillary (TM) area and the ventricular neuroepithelia also displayed a clear HDC mRNA expression and histamine immunoreactivity (HA-ir). From Ed14 until birth, the olfactory and nasopharyngeal epithelia showed an intense HDC mRNA expression and HA-ir. In the olfactory epithelia, the olfactory receptor neurons (ORN) were shown to have very prominent histamine immunoreactivity. The bipolar nerve cells in the epithelium extended both to the epithelial surface and into the subepithelial layers to be collected into thick nerve bundles extending caudally toward the olfactory bulbs. Also, in the nasopharynx, an extensive subepithelial network of histamine-immunoreactive nerve fibers were seen. Furthermore, in the peripheral tissues, the degenerating mesonephros (Ed14) and the convoluted tubules in the developing kidneys (Ed15) showed HDC expression, as did the prostate gland (Ed15). In adult mouse brain, the HDC expression resembled the neuronal pattern observed in rat brain. The expression was restricted to the TM area in the ventral hypothalamus, with the main expression in the five TM subgroups called E1-E5. A distinct mouse HDC mRNA expression was also seen in the ependymal wall of the third ventricle, which has not been reported in the rat. The tissue- and cell-specific expression patterns of HDC and histamine presented in this work indicate that histamine could have cell guidance or regulatory roles in development.

Lateral hypothalamus: early developmental expression and response to hypocretin (orexin)

Hypocretin is a recently discovered peptide that is synthesized by neurons in the lateral hypothalamic area (LH) and is believed to play a role in sleep regulation, arousal, endocrine control, and food intake. These functions are critical for the development of independent survival. We investigated the developmental profile of the hypocretin system in rats. Northern blot analysis showed that the expression of hypocretin mRNA increased from postnatal day 1 to adulthood. Both of the identified hypocretin receptor mRNAs were strongly expressed very early in hypothalamic development, and expression subsequently decreased in the mature brain. Immunocytochemistry revealed hypocretin-2 peptide expression in the cell bodies of LH neurons and in axons in the brain and spinal cord as early as embryonic day 19. Whole-cell patch clamp recordings from postnatal P1-P14 LH slices demonstrated a robust increase in synaptic activity in all LH neurons tested (n = 20) with a 383% increase in the frequency of spontaneous activity upon hypocretin-2 (1.5 microM) application. A similar increase in activity was found with hypocretin-1 application to LH slices. Hypocretin-2 evoked a robust increase in synaptic activity even on the earliest day tested, the day of birth. Furthermore, voltage-clamp recordings and calcium digital imaging experiments using cultured LH cells revealed that both hypocretin-1 and -2 induced enhancement of neuronal activity occurred as early as synaptic activity was detected. Thus, as in the adult central nervous system, hypocretin exerts a profound excitatory influence on neuronal activity early in development, which might contribute to the development of arousal, sleep regulation, feeding, and endocrine control.

Expression of Foxb1 reveals two strategies for the formation of nuclei in the developing ventral diencephalon

Fork head b1 (Foxb1; also called Fkh5, HFH-e5.1, Mf3) is a winged helix transcription factor gene whose widespread early expression in the developing neural tube is soon restricted to the ventral and caudal diencephalon. During diencephalic neurogenesis, Foxb1 is expressed in one patch of neuroepithelium comprising a large mammillary portion and a smaller tuberal portion. The labeled cells coming from this patch contribute to nuclear formation by means of two different strategies: (1) caudally, the young neurons aggregate and settle immediately, giving rise to the nuclei of the mammillary body; (2) rostrally, the young neurons separate from the neuroepithelium forming a trail of cells which spans the mantle layer mediolaterally and which will give rise to two separate cell groups (the dorsal premammillary and part of the lateral hypothalamic area). Our results show the elaborate, regionalized histogenetic mechanisms necessary for the differentiation of the caudal diencephalon; moreover, they suggest that specifically labeled populations, arising from specifically labeled neuroepithelial patches and giving place to specific brain nuclei could be a common mechanism to build complex, nonlaminar regions of the forebrain.

Human hypothalamic neuronal system revealed with a salmon melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) antiserum

An antiserum raised against synthetic salmon melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) reveals an extensive neuronal system in the posterior lateral areas of the human hypothalamus. These neurons correspond to those previously described in the rat, which are characterized by expression of MCH-like, alpha-melanotropin-like and human growth hormone-releasing factor (1-37)-like immunoreactivities.