Chemical Composition and Antibacterial Activity of the Bulgarian Endemic Species Achillea thracica from its Natural Habitat, and in vitro Propagated and ex vitro Established Plants

The present study reports the chemical composition of headspace volatiles (HS) and acetone extracts of the endemic Bulgarian species Achillea thracica Velen. from its natural habitat (N), in vitro propagated (IN) and ex vitro established (EX) plants. Additionally, acetone extracts were tested by a disk diffusion method for antibacterial activity. Irregular monoterpenes were the most abundant HS volatile constituents, while 0,0-dimethyl quercetin was the most abundant flavonoid in the acetone extracts. The secondary metabolites of A. thracica grown in its natural habitat (N), propagated in vitro (IN) and ex vitro established (EX) showed that the qualitative composition is mutually similar, but there are differences in the quantitative composition. Considering antibacterial activity, IN and EX samples showed moderate activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli.

Chemical Composition and Antibacterial Activity of the Bulgarian Endemic Species Achillea thracica from its Natural Habitat, and in vitro Propagated and ex vitro Established Plants

The present study reports the chemical composition of headspace volatiles (HS) and acetone extracts of the endemic Bulgarian species Achillea thracica Velen. from its natural habitat (N), in vitro propagated (IN) and ex vitro established (EX) plants. Additionally, acetone extracts were tested by a disk diffusion method for antibacterial activity. Irregular monoterpenes were the most abundant HS volatile constituents, while O,O-dimethyl quercetin was the most abundant flavonoid in the acetone extracts. The secondary metabolites of A. thracica grown in its natural habitat (N), propagated in vitro (IN) and ex vitro established (EX) showed that the qualitative composition is mutually similar, but there are differences in the quantitative composition. Considering antibacterial activity, IN and EX samples showed moderate activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli.

Bioaccumulation of HMW PAHs in the roots of wild blackberry from the Bor region (Serbia): Phytoremediation and biomonitoring aspects

In this work, the samples of roots and soils from the rooting zone of wild blackberry were collected from the urban-industrial and rural locations near "The Copper Mining and Smelting Complex Bor" (Serbia); they were analyzed by gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric method to determine the content of high-molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (HMW PAHs). The obtained results were further processed using bio-concentration factor, Pearson's correlation study and hierarchical cluster analysis with the aim of investigating if they may be in favor of wild blackberry as a suitable plant for biomonitoring or phytoremediation purposes. In spite of the fact that numerous complex factors can affect the assimilation and accumulation of PAHs in plants, the obtained data expressed clearly many interesting specifics related to HMW PAH accumulation in roots of wild blackberry that naturally grows in an area, which is heavily polluted by heavy metals. The accumulation of individual PAH compounds in plant roots was at different level. The most abundant compound in all plant samples was benzo[a]pyrene and based on the results obtained for this environmental indicator of carcinogenic PAHs, it was possible to make several central conclusions: wild blackberry showed an excellent potential for its extraction from the soil and further accumulation in root tissues which indicate that this plant species may be applied in phytoremediation procedures based on mechanisms such as phytoextraction/phytoaccumulation in roots; phytostabilization and rhizodegradation are also possible as remediation mechanisms; utilization of plant roots in soil monitoring is possible but in this case, only the combination with soil data can provide correct information.

Geographically Related Variation in Epicuticular Wax Traits of Pinus nigra Populations from Southern Carpathians and Central Balkans - Taxonomic Considerations

The chemical composition of epicuticular waxes of nine populations from three Pinus nigra J. F. Arnold subspecies (namely subsp. nigra, subsp. banatica (Borbás) Novák, and subsp. pallasiana (Lamb.) Holmboe) from Southern Carpathians and central Balkan Peninsula were analyzed using GC/MS and GC/FID chromatography, and multivariate statistical techniques with respect to biogeography and taxonomy. In the needle waxes, four primary alcohols and 14 n-alkanes ranging from C21 to C33 were identified, and the most abundant compounds were the four odd-numbered n-alkanes C27 , C25 , C23 , and C29. Multivariate statistical analyses (CDA and CA) have shown existence of three P. nigra groups and suggested clinal differentiation as a mechanism of genetic variation across a geographic area: the first group consisted of the southernmost populations of subsp. pallasiana from Macedonia, the second consisted of the northernmost subsp. banatica populations from Romania, while all populations in Serbia described as three different subspecies (nigra, banatica, and pallasiana) formed the third group together with subsp. nigra population from Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to simple linear regression, geographic latitude and four bioclimatic parameters were moderately correlated with the contents of epicuticular wax compounds that are important in population discrimination, while stepwise multiple regression showed that latitude participated in most of the regression models for predicting the composition of the epicuticular waxes. These results agree with CDA and CA analysis, and confirmed the possibility of recognition of fine geographic differentiation of the analyzed P. nigra populations.

Chemical Composition of Ballota macedonica Vandas and Ballota nigra L. ssp. foetida (Vis.) Hayek Essential Oils - The Chemotaxonomic Approach

The essential oils isolated from fresh aerial parts of Ballota macedonica (two populations) and Ballota nigra ssp. foetida were analyzed by GC and GC/MS. Eighty five components were identified in total; 60 components in B. macedonica oil (population from the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia), 34 components in B. macedonica oil (population from the Republic of Serbia), and 33 components in the oil of B. nigra ssp. foetida accounting for 93.9%, 98.4%, and 95.8% of the total oils, respectively. The most abundant components in B. macedonica oils were carotol (13.7 - 52.1%), germacrene D (8.6 - 24.6%), and (E)-caryophyllene (6.5 - 16.5%), while B. nigra ssp. foetida oil was dominated by (E)-phytol (56.9%), germacrene D (10.0%), and (E)-caryophyllene (4.7%). Multivariate statistical analyses (agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis and principal component analysis) were used to compare and discuss relationships among Ballota species examined so far based on their volatile profiles. The chemical compositions of B. macedonica essential oils are reported for the first time.

Essential Oil Chemical Composition and Headspace Volatiles Profile of Achillea coarctata from Serbia

This study reports the essential oil composition and headspace volatiles profile of Achillea coarctata Poir. from Serbia. The inflorescences, stems and leaves, and the aerial parts of A. coarctata were analyzed separately. Germacrene D, α-terpineol and 1,8-cineole were the main constituents of the aerial parts essential oil; 1,8-cineole, cis-cadin-4-en-7-ol and α-terpineol were the most dominant compounds in the inflorescence essential oil, while the most abundant components in the stem and leaf oil were germacrene D, cis-cadin-4-en-7-ol and ledol. The percentages of monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids in the aerial parts were the same, while there were differences in distribution of these compound classes in inflorescence and stem and leaf essential oils. The major components of the headspace volatiles were the same for aerial parts, inflorescence and stem and leaves: 1,8-cineole, β-pinene and α-pinene.

Essential Oil Chemical Composition and Headspace Volatiles Profile of Achillea coarctata from Serbia

This study reports the essential oil composition and headspace volatiles profile of Achillea coarctata Poir. from Serbia. The inflorescences, stems and leaves, and the aerial parts of A. coarctata were analyzed separately. Germacrene D, α-terpineol and 1,8-cineole were the main constituents of the aerial parts essential oil; 1,8-cineole, cis-cadin-4-en-7-ol and α-terpineol were the most dominant compounds in the inflorescence essential oil, while the most abundant components in the stem and leaf oil were germacrene D, cis-cadin-4-en-7-ol and ledol. The percentages of monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids in the aerial parts were the same, while there were differences in distribution of these compound classes in inflorescence and stem and leaf essential oils. The major components of the headspace volatiles were the same for aerial parts, inflorescence and stem and leaves: 1,8-cineole, β-pinene and α-pinene.

Chemotaxonomic Approach to the Central Balkan Sedum Species Based on Distribution of Triterpenoids in Their Epicuticular Waxes

Triterpenoid distribution in epicuticular waxes of 20 central Balkan Sedum L. species and four out-groups of genera: Hylotelephium H. Ohba, Crassula L., Echeveria DC., and Kalanchoe Adans. were investigated for chemotaxonomic purposes. Identification and quantification of wax triterpenoids were performed by GC/MS and GC-FID analyses. Distribution of identified triterpenoids (oleanane, lupane, and taraxerane series), as a pattern in statistical analysis, indicated very good agreement with phylogeny and systematics, except members of series Rupestria Berger, in which case the distribution of triterpenoids did not support known classification in a satisfactory manner. According to the obtained clustering, Kalanchoe is shown as similar to Sedum samples, while the other out-groups were clearly separated.

Elemental composition of edible nuts: fast optimization and validation procedure of an ICP-OES method

BACKGROUND

An inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry method for the speedy simultaneous detection of 19 elements in edible nuts (walnuts: Juglans nigra; almonds: Prunus dulcis; hazelnuts: Corylus avellana; Brazil nuts: Bertholletia excelsa; cashews: Anacardium occidentalle; pistachios: Pistacia vera; and peanuts: Arachis hypogaea) available on the Serbian markets, was optimized and validated through the selection of instrumental parameters and analytical lines free from spectral interference and with the lowest matrix effects.

RESULTS

The analysed macro-elements were present in the following descending order: Na > Mg > Ca > K. Of all the trace elements, the tested samples showed the highest content of Fe. The micro-element Se was detected in all the samples of nuts. The toxic elements As, Cd and Pb were either not detected or the contents were below the limit of detection. One-way analysis of variance, Student's t-test, Tukey's HSD post hoc test and hierarchical agglomerative cluster analysis were applied in the statistical analysis of the results.

CONCLUSION

Based on the detected content of analysed elements it can be concluded that nuts may be a good additional source of minerals as micronutrients.

Chemical Composition of the Essential Oil from Chaerophyllum temulum (Apiaceae)

The present study reports the chemical composition on the essential oil obtained from fresh roots, stems, inflorescences and fruits of Chaerophyllum temulum. In all samples, except the roots, the most dominant components were sesquiterpene hydrocarbons. (Z)-Falcarinol was the principal constituent of the root essential oils (61.7% at the flowering stage and 62.3% at the fruiting stage). The blossom oil was dominated by (Z,E)-α-famesene (23.4%), (E)-β-farnesene (9.0%) and germacrene D-4-ol (9%), whereas the oil from the fruit had germacrene D-4-ol (27.6%) as its main compound, accompanied by (Z,E)-α-famesene (13.4%). Germacrene D was the most abundant component of the stem essential oil (38.4% at the flowering stage and 32.5% at the fruiting stage). The obtained results show that the qualitative composition of the oil depends on the part of the plant which is analyzed, while the quantitative composition of the main components depends on the growing stage of the plant.

Chemical Composition of the Essential Oil from Chaerophyllum Temulum (Apiaceae)

The present study reports the chemical composition on the essential oil obtained from fresh roots, stems, inflorescences and fruits of Chaerophyllum temulum. In all samples, except the roots, the most dominant components were sesquiterpene hydrocarbons. ( Z)-Falcarinol was the principal constituent of the root essential oils (61.7% at the flowering stage and 62.3% at the fruiting stage). The blossom oil was dominated by ( Z,E)-α-farnesene (23.4%), ( E)-β-farnesene (9.0%) and germacrene D-4-ol (9%), whereas the oil from the fruit had germacrene D-4-ol (27.6%) as its main compound, accompanied by ( Z,E)-α-farnesene (13.4%). Germacrene D was the most abundant component of the stem essential oil (38.4% at the flowering stage and 32.5% at the fruiting stage). The obtained results show that the qualitative composition of the oil depends on the part of the plant which is analyzed, while the quantitative composition of the main components depends on the growing stage of the plant.

Distribution and Taxonomic Significance of Secondary Metabolites Occurring in the Methanol Extracts of the Stonecrops (Sedum L., Crassulaceae) from the Central Balkan Peninsula

The present study is engaged in the chemical composition of methanol extracts of Sedum taxa from the central part of the Balkan Peninsula, and representatives from other genera of Crassulaceae ( Crassula, Echeveria and Kalanchoe) considered as out-groups. The chemical composition of extracts was determined by HPLC analysis, according to retention time of standards and characteristic absorption spectra of components. Identified components were considered as original variables with possible chemotaxonomic significance. Relationships of examined plant samples were investigated by agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis (AHC). The obtained results showed how the distribution of methanol extract components (mostly phenolics) affected grouping of the examined samples. The obtained clustering showed satisfactory grouping of the examined samples, among which some representatives of the Sedum series, Rupestria and Magellensia, are the most remote. The out-group samples were not clearly singled out with regard to Sedum samples as expected; this especially applies to samples of Crassula ovata and Echeveria lilacina, while Kalanchoe daigremontiana was more separated from most of the Sedum samples.

Distribution and variability of n-alkanes in epicuticular waxes of sedum species from the central Balkan Peninsula: chemotaxonomic importance

For the first time, the n-alkane distribution and variability of the epicuticular waxes within 22 Sedum taxa was reported with focus on the chemotaxonomy of native Sedum representatives from the central Balkan Peninsula, compared to their relations with four other species of the Crassulaceae family. By GC/MS and GC-FID identification and quantification, it was established that n-alkanes C27 , C29 , C31 , C33 , and C35 were the dominant constituents of the examined epicuticular wax samples. Applying multivariate statistical analyses including agglomerative hierarchical clustering (AHC) and principal component analysis (PCA), the relation according to the n-alkane composition between the examined samples was established. It was shown that the n-alkane variability of the central Balkan Sedum species was considerable and that n-alkanes might not be very reliable taxonomic markers for these species.

Endemic Balkan parsnip Pastinaca hirsuta: the chemical profile of essential oils, headspace volatiles and extracts

The present study for the first time reports the chemical composition of the endemic Balkan parsnip Pastinaca hirsuta Pančić essential oil and headspace (HS) volatiles, obtained from fresh roots, stems, flowers and fruits, as well as fresh fruits n-hexane and diethyl ether extracts. According to GC-MS and GC-FID analyses, β-Pinene was one of the major components of the root and stem HS volatiles (50.6-24.1%). (E)-β-Ocimene was found in a significant percentage in the stem and flowers HS volatiles (31.6-57.3%). The most abundant constituent of the fruit HS, flower and fruit essential oils and both extracts was hexyl butanoate (70.5%, 31.1%, 80.4%, 47.4% and 52.7%, respectively). Apiole, accompanied by myristicin and (Z)-falcarinol, make up over 70% of the root essential oils. γ-Palmitolactone was the major component of the stem essential oils (51.9% at the flowering stage and 45.7% at the fruiting stage). Beside esters as dominant compounds, furanocoumarins were also identified in extracts. (Dis)similarity relations of examined plant samples were also investigated by the agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis. The obtained results show there is difference in the composition of volatile components from different plant organs, while the stage of growth mainly affects the quantitative volatiles composition.

Inferring the origin of rare fruit distillates from compositional data using multivariate statistical analyses and the identification of new flavour constituents

BACKGROUND

In Serbia, delicatessen fruit alcoholic drinks are produced from autochthonous fruit-bearing species such as cornelian cherry, blackberry, elderberry, wild strawberry, European wild apple, European blueberry and blackthorn fruits. There are no chemical data on many of these and herein we analysed volatile minor constituents of these rare fruit distillates. Our second goal was to determine possible chemical markers of these distillates through a statistical/multivariate treatment of the herein obtained and previously reported data.

RESULTS

Detailed chemical analyses revealed a complex volatile profile of all studied fruit distillates with 371 identified compounds. A number of constituents were recognised as marker compounds for a particular distillate. Moreover, 33 of them represent newly detected flavour constituents in alcoholic beverages or, in general, in foodstuffs. With the aid of multivariate analyses, these volatile profiles were successfully exploited to infer the origin of raw materials used in the production of these spirits. It was also shown that all fruit distillates possessed weak antimicrobial properties.

CONCLUSION

It seems that the aroma of these highly esteemed wild-fruit spirits depends on the subtle balance of various minor volatile compounds, whereby some of them are specific to a certain type of fruit distillate and enable their mutual distinction.

Endemic Balkan Parsnip Pastinaca Hirsuta: The Chemical Profile of Essential Oils, Headspace Volatiles and Extracts

The present study for the first time reports the chemical composition of the endemic Balkan parsnip Pastinaca hirsuta Pančić essential oil and headspace (HS) volatiles, obtained from fresh roots, stems, flowers and fruits, as well as fresh fruits n-hexane and diethyl ether extracts. According to GC-MS and GC-FID analyses, β-Pinene was one of the major components of the root and stem HS volatiles (50.6–24.1%). ( E)-β-Ocimene was found in a significant percentage in the stem and flowers HS volatiles (31.6–57.3%). The most abundant constituent of the fruit HS, flower and fruit essential oils and both extracts was hexyl butanoate (70.5%, 31.1%, 80.4%, 47.4% and 52.7%, respectively). Apiole, accompanied by myristicin and ( Z)-falcarinol, make up over 70% of the root essential oils. γ-Palmitolactone was the major component of the stem essential oils (51.9% at the flowering stage and 45.7% at the fruiting stage). Beside esters as dominant compounds, furanocoumarins were also identified in extracts. (Dis)similarity relations of examined plant samples were also investigated by the agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis. The obtained results show there is difference in the composition of volatile components from different plant organs, while the stage of growth mainly affects the quantitative volatiles composition.

Comparison of chemical composition and biological activities of Seseli rigidum fruit essential oils from Serbia

Plants from genus Seseli, have been widely used in European traditional medicine, exhibiting antibacterial, antifungal, insect repellent, emmenogogue, antiflatulence, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, anti-tumor, antirheumatic activities and protective effect on human lymphocytes DNA. They usually grow on mountain rocky terrains. Part of their habitat on Vidlic Mountain, located in South-east Serbia, was struck with a large wildfire. Seseli rigidum fruit essential oils (from post fire and control areas) compositions were analyzed by GC and GC-MS, identifying monoterpenes α-pinene and sabinene as most abundant. Statistical tests showed a non-significant difference in chemical composition of these two oils, but a significant difference in comparison with the herb from a geographically different origin. Antimicrobial tests showed strong activities of the oils against tested bacteria, thus confirming its administration in various inflammation processes as a quite effective remedy. Applying DPPH. and ABTS+. radical scavenging and total reducing Fe(III) to Fe(II) power assays, antioxidant characteristics of both studied essential oils were estimated as weak, though of close values. Seseli rigidum fruit essential oil was proven as a potent inhibitor of human and horse serum cholinesterase, recognizing its possible application as neural protective agent

A Characterization of Content, Composition and Scavenging Capacity of Phenolic Compounds in Parsnip Roots of Various Weight

The contents, composition and radical scavenging capacity of phenolic compounds from parsnips of various root weights grown in Serbia were examined. The content of phenolic compounds depended on root size, and the highest content was in the group where the samples with the lowest root size were grouped. The content of phenolic compounds varied from 109.7 to 125.3 μmol of chlorogenic acid per g dry extract, i.e.5470.8 to 6245.1 mg per kg fresh weight. Among the identified compounds were quercetin, kaempferol, apigenin and genkwanin glucosides and hydroxycinnamic and caffeoylshikimic acids. The highest antioxidant capacity was found for the group with the lowest root weight; the IC50 values ranged from 1.59 to 2.49 mg mL–1. There was positive correlation between the total phenolic content and scavenging capacity, and the kaempferol glucosides content could be an indicator of DPPH scavenging capacity of parsnip roots.

A characterization of content, composition and scavenging capacity of phenolic compounds in parsnip roots of various weight

The contents, composition and radical scavenging capacity of phenolic compounds from parsnips of various root weights grown in Serbia were examined. The content of phenolic compounds depended on root size, and the highest content was in the group where the samples with the lowest root size were grouped. The content of phenolic compounds varied from 109.7 to 125.3 micromol of chlorogenic acid per g dry extract, i.e.5470.8 to 6245.1 mg per kg fresh weight. Among the identified compounds were quercetin, kaempferol, apigenin and genkwanin glucosides and hydroxycinnamic and caffeoylshikimic acids. The highest antioxidant capacity was found for the group with the lowest root weight; the IC50 values ranged from 1.59 to 2.49 mg mL(-1). There was positive correlation between the total phenolic content and scavenging capacity, and the kaempferol glucosides content could be an indicator of DPPH scavenging capacity of parsnip roots.

Clastogenic effect of atranorin, evernic acid, and usnic acid on human lymphocytes

Three lichen secondary metabolites atranorin (1), evernic acid (2), and usnic acid (3), were evaluated for their in vitro clastogenic and antiproliferative effects on human lymphocytes using the cytochalasin-B blocked micronucleus (CBMN) assay at concentrations of 2 microg/mL, 4 microg/mL and 6 microg/mL of final culture solution. The frequency of micronucleus (MN) was scored in binucleated cells, and cytokinesis-block proliferation index (CBPI) was calculated. Among the tested compounds, 3 exhibited the most prominent effect decreasing the frequency of MN in the range of 42.5% - 48.9%, that is about double of the positive control amifostin WR-2721 that reduces MN frequency for 22.0%. The effect of evernic acid was approximately equal to action of amifostin (23.2% -32.9%). Atranorin at concentrations of 2 microg/mL and 4 microg/mL decreasing the frequency of MN only for 11.1% and 1.8%, while in concentration of 6 microg/mL increases the frequency of MN for 9.6 %. The comparable CBPI values of the investigated compounds and control suggested that they did not show a statistically significant inhibitory effect on lymphocyte cell proliferation at applied concentrations.

Chemical Composition of Angelica pancicii Essential Oil Determined by Liquid and Headspace GC-MS Techniques

The essential oil of the Balkan endemic species, Angelica pancicii, obtained by hydrodistillation, was analyzed by GC and GC-MS, applying the liquid injection mode. These results were compared with the chemical composition of volatiles achieved by the “headspace” injection mode, followed by GC and GC-MS (HS-GC-MS). A total of 40 compounds were identified in the essential oil (98.8% of the total oil) and 44 by HS-GC-MS (99.8% of the total oil). The most abundant class of compounds in both cases was monoterpenoids, which formed 92.7% of the essential oil (97.7% by HS-GC-MS) of total identified compounds. The major components in both cases were β-phellandrene (54.9% and 60.1%, respectively), α-pinene (14.5% and 20.1%, respectively) and α-phellandrene (4.5% and 4.3%, respectively).

Chemical composition of Angelica pancicii essential oil determined by liquid and headspace GC-MS techniques

The essential oil of the Balkan endemic species, Angelica pancicii, obtained by hydrodistillation, was analyzed by GC and GC-MS, applying the liquid injection mode. These results were compared with the chemical composition of volatiles achieved by the "headspace" injection mode, followed by GC and GC-MS (HS-GC-MS). A total of 40 compounds were identified in the essential oil (98.8% of the total oil) and 44 by HS-GC-MS (99.8% of the total oil). The most abundant class of compounds in both cases was monoterpenoids, which formed 92.7% of the essential oil (97.7% by HS-GC-MS) of total identified compounds. The major components in both cases were beta-phellandrene (54.9% and 60.1%, respectively), alpha-pinene (14.5% and 20.1%, respectively) and alpha-phellandrene (4.5% and 4.3%, respectively).