Acrylamide and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural formation during biscuit baking. Part II: Effect of the ratio of reducing sugars and asparagine

Monitoring furanic and dicarbonyl compounds in pea-based and wheat-based sponge cakes during in vitro digestion

The increasing tendency to use animal-free and gluten-free proteins leads to replacing traditional with legume-based ingredients. Of these, refined pea (Pisum sativum L.) is gaining momentum due to its availability, nutritional value and low allergenicity. However, little is known of the propensity of pea ingredients to generate process-induced compounds in high-temperature processed foods, and the reactivity of contaminant during digestion. This study explored the levels and behavior of selected newly formed compounds (NFCs) (furfural, 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural (HMF), 3-deoxyglucosone (3-DG), 1-deoxyglucosone (1-DG), glyoxal (GO), methylglyoxal (MGO), dimethylglyoxal (DMGO), glucosone (GCO)) in a pea-based sponge cake baked at 200 °C and subjected to in vitro digestion, by comparison with a reference wheat-based cake. The pea formulation generated the highest levels of furanic and dicarbonyl compounds, with 3-DG and HMF being the most abundant (162.44 ± 2.79 and 270.61 ± 14.91 μg/g dry cake, respectively), compared to the wheat-based formulation (131.43 ± 4.34 and 166.83 ± 0.88 μg/g dry cake, respectively). The differences in NFC levels between pea- and wheat-based cakes were maintained during in vitro digestion. Generally, furanic compounds decreased, glyoxales increased and deoxyglucosones were more stable during digestion. Surprisingly, even after any decrease, NFC levels remained high at the end of digestion in both pea- and wheat-based products (up to 215.18 ± 0.42, 188.96 ± 3.02, and 15.76 ± 0.26 μg/g dry cake for HMF, 3-DG, and MGO, respectively). These amounts resulted from the balance between formation and consumption reactions, influenced by gastric and intestinal environments and cake composition. This study has therefore highlighted key safety aspects by considering the behavior during digestion of process-induced compounds in complex, legume-based food matrices.

Baby Foods: 9 Out of 62 Exceed the Reference Limits for Acrylamide

Acrylamide (AA) is a contaminant resulting from the Maillard reaction and classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a probable carcinogen in Group 2A, with proven neurotoxic effects on humans. European Union (EU) Regulation No. 2017/2158 is currently in force, which establishes measures meant to reduce AA levels in food and sets reference values, but not legal limits, equal to 40 and 150 μg/kg AA in processed cereal-based foods intended for infants and young children and in biscuits and rusks, respectively. For this reason, sixty-two baby foods were analyzed using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with diode array detector and quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-DAD-Q-TOF/MS) to check whether industries were complying with these values, even though AA control is not legally mandatory. In total, 14.5% of the samples exceeded the reference values; these were homogenized chicken products (211.84 ± 16.53, 154.32 ± 12.71, 194.88 ± 7.40 μg/kg), three biscuits (276.36 ± 0.03, 242.06 ± 0.78, 234.78 ± 4.53 μg/kg), a wheat semolina (46.07 ± 0.23 μg/kg), a homogenized product with plaice and potatoes (45.52 ± 0.28 μg/kg), and a children's snack with milk and cocoa (40.95 ± 0.32 μg/kg). Subsequently, the daily intake of AA was estimated, considering the worst-case scenario, as provided by the consumption of homogenized chicken products and biscuits. The results are associated with margins of exposure (MOEs) that are not concerning for neurotoxic effects but are alarming for the probable carcinogenic effects of AA.

Utilization of Peptidoglycans from Lactic Acid Bacterial Cell Walls for the Mitigation of Acrylamide and 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural

Acrylamide (AA) and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), which are potentially carcinogenic to humans, are often produced during the hot processing of foods. This study first used a molecular docking model to simulate the binding behavior of four lactic acid bacteria peptidoglycans (PGNs) to AA/HMF, and the binding rate of LAB-based PGNs to AA/HMF was evaluated in vitro. In silico results show that interaction energy is the driving force responsible for the adsorption of LAB-derived PGNs to AA/HMF. In vitro results showed that the PGN of B. lactis B1-04 bound the most AA (28.7%) and HMF (48.0%), followed by L. acidophilus NCFM, B. breve CICC 6079, and L. plantarum CICC 22135. Moreover, an AA/HMF-bound layer on the cell surface of B. lactis B1-04 was observed via AFM and SEM due to adsorption. XPS analysis indicated the removal rate of AA/HMF by selected strains was positively correlated with the proportion of C-O, C=O, and N-H groups of PGNs. The atoms O1, O2, O3, O4, N1, N2, N3, H1, and H2 are involved in the adsorption of LAB-based PGNs to AA/HMF. Thus, the PGNs derived from these four Lactobacillus strains can be regarded as natural adsorbents for the binding of AA/HMF.

Adsorption of trace heavy metals through organic compounds enriched biochar using isotherm adsorption and kinetic models

Trace heavy metals such as copper and nickel, when exceeds a certain level, cause detrimental effects on the ecosystem. The current study examined the potential of organic compounds enriched rice husk biochar (OCEB's) to remove the trace heavy metals from an aqueous solution in four steps. In 1st step, biochar' physical and chemical properties were analyzed through scanning electron microscope (SEM) and Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). In the 2nd step, two biochar vis-a-vis glycine, alanine enriched biochar (GBC, ABC) was selected based on their adsorption capacity of four different metals Cr, Cu, Ni and Pb (chromium, copper, nickel, and lead). These two adsorbents (GBC, ABC) were further used to evaluate the best interaction of biochar for metal immobilization based on varying concentrations and times. Langmuir isotherm model suggested that the adsorption of Ni and Cu on the adsorbent surface supported the monolayer sorption. The qmax value of GBC for Cu removal increased by 90% compared to SBC (Simple rice husk biochar). The interaction of Cu and Ni with GBC and ABC was chemical, and 10 different time intervals were studied using pseud first and second-order kinetics models. The current study has supported the pseudo second-order kinetic model, which exhibited that the sorption of Ni and Cu occurred due to the chemical processes. The % removal efficiency with GBC was enhanced by 21% and 30% for Cu and Ni, respectively compared to the SBC. It was also noticed that GBC was 21% more efficient for % removal efficiency than the CBC. The study's findings supported that organic compound enriched rice husk biochar (GBC and ABC) is better than SBC for immobilizing the trace heavy metals from an aqueous solution.

Advanced glycation end product signaling and metabolic complications: Dietary approach

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are a heterogeneous collection of compounds formed during industrial processing and home cooking through a sequence of nonenzymatic glycation reactions. The modern western diet is full of heat-treated foods that contribute to AGE intake. Foods high in AGEs in the contemporary diet include processed cereal products. Due to industrialization and marketing strategies, restaurant meals are modified rather than being traditionally or conventionally cooked. Fried, grilled, baked, and boiled foods have the greatest AGE levels. Higher AGE-content foods include dry nuts, roasted walnuts, sunflower seeds, fried chicken, bacon, and beef. Animal proteins and processed plant foods contain furosine, acrylamide, heterocyclic amines, and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. Furosine (2-furoil-methyl-lysine) is an amino acid found in cooked meat products and other processed foods. High concentrations of carboxymethyl-lysine, carboxyethyl-lysine, and methylglyoxal-O are found in heat-treated nonvegetarian foods, peanut butter, and cereal items. Increased plasma levels of AGEs, which are harmful chemicals that lead to age-related diseases and physiological aging, diabetes, and autoimmune/inflammatory rheumatic diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis. AGEs in the pathophysiology of metabolic diseases have been linked to individuals with diabetes mellitus who have peripheral nerves with high amounts of AGEs and diabetes has been linked to increased myelin glycation. Insulin resistance and hyperglycemia can impact numerous human tissues and organs, leading to long-term difficulties in a number of systems and organs, including the cardiovascular system. Plasma AGE levels are linked to all-cause mortality in individuals with diabetes who have fatal or nonfatal coronary artery disease, such as ventricular dysfunction. High levels of tissue AGEs are independently associated with cardiac systolic dysfunction in diabetic patients with heart failure compared with diabetic patients without heart failure. It is widely recognized that AGEs and oxidative stress play a key role in the cardiovascular complications of diabetes because they both influence and are impacted by oxidative stress. All chronic illnesses involve protein, lipid, or nucleic acid modifications including crosslinked and nondegradable aggregates known as AGEs. Endogenous AGE formation or dietary AGE uptake can result in additional protein modifications and stimulation of several inflammatory signaling pathways. Many of these systems, however, require additional explanation because they are not entirely obvious. This review summarizes the current evidence regarding dietary sources of AGEs and metabolism-related complications associated with AGEs.

Impact of Some Enzymatic Treatments on Acrylamide Content in Biscuits

Since its discovery in many heat-treatment foods in 2002, many efforts have been made to reduce acrylamide levels in foods. Methods to reduce acrylamide levels by reducing Maillard reaction products have been considered. However, baking cookies produces acrylamide, a carcinogenic compound. This study aimed to use a new quantitative index and formula for L-asparaginase, glucose oxidase, their 1:1 blending enzymes, baker’s yeast, and green tea powder (0.5 g/kg wheat flour) at a new proposed temperature of 37 °C for 30 min to reduce acrylamide production in biscuits and bakery products using new indicators such as asparagine reduction (%), the asparagine/acrylamide ratio, acrylamide reduction (%), and the asparagine/reducing sugar ratio. The highest acrylamide concentrations were reduced from 865 mg/kg in the blank sample (BT0) to 260 and 215 mg/kg in the mixed enzyme powder (1:1) (BT3)- and BT4-treated samples, respectively. The biscuit samples treated with 0.5 g/kg L-asparaginase reduced the acrylamide levels by approximately 67.63%, while the BT3 samples showed acrylamide levels of 69.94% and asparagine levels of 68.75% and 47%, respectively, compared with percentage in the untreated sample (blank), 95%. This percentage was 54.16% for the BT4 samples. The results showed that acrylamide was formed during baking, and all treatment samples inhibited its formation, making it possible to produce foods with low levels of acrylamide in starchy foods in the food industry at 37 °C for 30 min and preserving the quality and nutritional value of the final product. It can be used as a specialty food or functional food and protects school-agechildren, as well as youth on campus, from approximately 70–80% of their daily intake of acrylamide.

Investigation on the contents of heat-induced hazards in commercial nuts

The purpose was to investigate the contents of heat-induced hazards by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in 44 commercial nuts. Results showed that content ranges of Acrylamide (AA), 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF), N^ε-carboxymethyl-lysine (CML), N^ε-carboxyethyl-lysine (CEL), 3-Deoxyglucosone (3-DG), Glyoxal (GO), and Methylglyoxal (MGO) were ND-123.57 µg/kg, 0.57-213.42 mg/kg, 3.18-18.67 mg/kg, 3.98-57.85 mg/kg, 1.5-133.86 mg/kg, 0.45-1.59 mg/kg and 0.29-13.84 mg/kg, respectively. Sunflower seeds contained more heat-induced hazards followed by pistachios, cashews, almonds, walnuts and hazelnuts. The content of 5-HMF was positively correlated with the content of 3-DG. CML exhibited positive correlation with content of GO while no correlation between CEL and MGO. Higher levels of 3-DG and 5-HMF were observed in nuts produced with sugar and honey. Deep processing had a stronger promoting effect on CML and CEL formation. These data could provide a crucial guide for consumers to select nut products which might reduce heat-induced hazards intake.

Appraisal of cytotoxicity and acrylamide mitigation potential of L-asparaginase SlpA from fish gut microbiome

L-asparaginase catalyzes the hydrolysis of L-asparagine to L-aspartic acid and ammonia. It has application in the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia in children, as well as in other malignancies, in addition to its role as a food processing aid for the mitigation of acrylamide formation in the baking industry. Its use in cancer chemotherapy is limited due to problems such as its intrinsic glutaminase activity and associated side effects, leading to an increased interest in the search for novel L-asparaginases without L-glutaminase activity. This study reports the cloning and expression of an L-asparaginase contig obtained from whole metagenome shotgun sequencing of Sardinella longiceps gut microbiota. Purified recombinant glutaminase-free L-asparaginase SlpA was a 74 kDa homodimer, with maximal activity at pH 8 and 30 °C. K_m and V_max of SlpA were determined to be 3.008 mM and 0.014 mM/min, respectively. SlpA displayed cytotoxic activity against K-562 (chronic myeloid leukemia) and MCF-7 (breast cancer) cell lines with IC₅₀ values of 0.3443 and 2.692 U/mL, respectively. SlpA did not show any cytotoxic activity against normal lymphocytes and was proved to be hemocompatible. Pre-treatment of biscuit and bread dough with different concentrations of SlpA resulted in a clear, dose-dependent reduction of acrylamide formation during baking. KEY POINTS: • Cloned and expressed L-asparaginase (SlpA) from fish gut microbiota • Purified SlpA displayed good cytotoxicity against K-562 and MCF-7 cell lines • SlpA addition caused a significant reduction of acrylamide formation during baking.

Effect of acidity regulators on acrylamide and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural formation in French fries: The dual role of pH and acid radical ion

The influence of acidity regulators and buffers on the formation of acrylamide (AA) and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) in French fries and the underlying mechanism were evaluated. Prior to frying, the potato strips were dipped in the corresponding acidity regulator solutions or buffers for 30 min at room temperature. The results showed that acids inhibited AA formation, but increased 5-HMF levels. The AA level decreased and 5-HMF level increased with decreasing pH of potato strips. Interestingly, increasing concentration of acid radical ions resulted in AA increase and 5-HMF decrease, which was opposite to the acidification effect of citric acid and acetic acid. Both pH and acid radical ion were important factors for AA and 5-HMF formation. Moreover, acidity regulators might impact AA formation by acting on the generation of methylglyoxal (MGO) and glyoxal (GO) and impact 5-HMF formation by acting on the generation of 3-deoxyglucosone (3-DG).

The antioxidant and antiglycation activities of selected spices and other edible plant materials and their decay in sugar-protein systems under thermal stress

Antiglycation activities of herbs and spices, have been described in relation to their in vivo anti-diabetic or anti-aging activity at physiological temperature. Under the hypothesis that those natural antioxidants may inhibit the formation of Maillard intermediates, the behavior of several hydroalcoholic plant extracts was analyzed in sugar-protein systems. Allspice, thyme, green pepper and black pepper extracts were the most efficient inhibitors, decreasing furosine formation by 60, 45, 40 and 30%, respectively. 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furfural formation decreased in the presence of the extracts and protein glycation was inhibited by the thyme extract in advanced stages. Antiglycation activities were related to polyphenols content, to radical scavenging and to iron-reducing power. In the protein-sugar systems studied at the time in which 4000 ppm of furosine were formed, the antioxidant activity dropped between 30 and 40%. Polyphenols inhibit Maillard intermediates formation, revealing the incidence of oxidative pathways, but they are depleted as a function of time.

Processing contaminants in wheat-based foods - a systematic review, meta-analysis and bibliometric analysis

Wheat is one of the main cereals grown around the world and is the basis for several foods such as bread, cakes and pasta. The consumption of these foods raises a concern with food safety, as toxic substances such as acrylamide, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are formed during their processing. To assess the occurrence of processing contaminants in wheat-based foods, a systematic search was carried out in four databases: PubMed, Embase, Web of Science and Scopus. Of the 1479 results, 28 were included for a meta-analysis. Most studies (69.7%) evaluated acrylamide in bread, cookies, and pasta, while PAHs (26.2%) were determined mainly in wheat grains and pasta. HMF was the least determined contaminant (4.1%), with only four studies on cookies included in the meta-analysis. The highest concentration was for acrylamide (136.29 µg·kg-1) followed by HMF (70.59 µg·kg-1) and PAHs (0.11 µg·kg-1). Acrylamide is the main processing contaminant researched, and no studies on the subject have been found in commercial samples in some regions of the world. This result shows a gap in the dates available about process contaminants in wheat-based foods and how the levels can change depending on the process parameters and the ingredients used.

Chemical Stability of Proteins in Foods: Oxidation and the Maillard Reaction

Protein is a major nutrient present in foods along with carbohydrates and lipids. Food proteins undergo a wide range of modifications during food production, processing, and storage. In this review, we discuss two major reactions, oxidation and the Maillard reaction, involved in chemical modifications of food proteins. Protein oxidation in foods is initiated by metal-, enzyme-, or light-induced processes. Food protein oxidation results in the loss of thiol groups and the formation of protein carbonyls and specific oxidation products of cysteine, tyrosine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, and methionine residues, such as disulfides, dityrosine, kynurenine, m-tyrosine, and methionine sulfoxide. The Maillard reaction involves the reaction of nucleophilic amino acid residues with reducing sugars, which yields numerous heterogeneous compounds such as α-dicarbonyls, furans, Strecker aldehydes, advanced glycation end-products, and melanoidins. Both protein oxidation and the Maillard reaction result in the loss of essential amino acids but may positively or negatively impact food structure and flavor. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, Volume 13 is March 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Low Acrylamide Flatbreads Prepared from Colored Rice Flours and Relationship to Asparagine and Proximate Content of Flours and Flatbreads

Acrylamide is a potentially toxic compound present in many plant-based foods, such as coffee, breads, and potato fries, which is reported to have carcinogenic, neurotoxic, and antifertility properties in vivo, suggesting the need to keep the acrylamide content of widely consumed food as low as possible. As pigmented rice contains bioactive phenolic and flavonoid compounds, the objective of this study was to potentially enhance the beneficial properties of flatbreads by evaluating the acrylamide content and proximate composition of 12 novel flatbreads prepared from the following commercial pigmented rice seeds: Black Japonica, Chinese Black, French Camargue, Himalayan Red, Long Grain Brown, Purple Sticky, Short Grain Brown, Wehani, Wild, Indian Brown Basmati, Organic Brown Jasmine, and Organic Jade Pearl. Although acrylamide levels ranged from 4.9 µg/kg in Long Grain Brown to 50.8 µg/kg in Chinese Black, the absolute values were all low (though statistically significantly differences existed among varieties). Acrylamide content did not correlate with its precursor asparagine. The variations in protein, carbohydrate, fat, ash, dry matter, and water content determined by proximate analysis, and the reported health benefits of colored rice cultivars used to prepare the flatbreads, might also be useful for relating composition to nutritional qualities and health properties, facilitating their use as nutritional and health-promoting functional foods.

Quality Formation of Adzuki Bean Baked: From Acrylamide to Volatiles under Microwave Heating and Drum Roasting

Baked adzuki beans are rich in tantalizing odor and nutritional components, such as protein, dietary fiber, vitamin B, and minerals. To analyze the final quality of baked beans, the acrylamide and volatile formation of adzuki beans were investigated under the conditions of microwave baking and drum roasting. The results indicate that the acrylamide formation in baked adzuki beans obeys the exponential growth function during the baking process, where a rapid increase in acrylamide content occurs at a critical temperature and low moisture content. The critical temperature that leads to a sudden increase in acrylamide content is 116.5 °C for the moisture content of 5.6% (w.b.) in microwave baking and 91.6 °C for the moisture content of 6.1% (w.b.) in drum roasting. The microwave-baked adzuki beans had a higher formation of the kinetics of acrylamide than that of drum-roasted beans due to the microwave volumetric heating mode. The acrylamide content in baked adzuki beans had a significant correlation with their color due to the Maillard reaction. A color difference of 11.1 and 3.6 may be introduced to evaluate the starting point of the increase in acrylamide content under microwave baking and drum roasting, respectively. Heating processes, including microwave baking and drum roasting, for adzuki beans generate characteristic volatile compounds such as furan, pyrazine, ketone, alcohols, aldehydes, esters, pyrroles, sulfocompound, phenols, and pyridine. Regarding flavor formation, beans baked via drum roasting showed better flavor quality than microwave-baked beans.

Biscuit Contaminants, Their Sources and Mitigation Strategies: A Review

The scientific literature is rich in investigations on the presence of various contaminants in biscuits, and of articles aimed at proposing innovative solutions for their control and prevention. However, the relevant information remains fragmented. Therefore, the objective of this work was to review the current state of the scientific literature on the possible contaminants of biscuits, considering physical, chemical, and biological hazards, and making a critical analysis of the solutions to reduce such contaminations. The raw materials are primary contributors of a wide series of contaminants. The successive processing steps and machinery must be monitored as well, because if they cannot improve the initial safety condition, they could worsen it. The most effective mitigation strategies involve product reformulation, and the use of alternative baking technologies to minimize the thermal load. Low oxygen permeable packaging materials (avoiding direct contact with recycled ones), and reformulation are effective for limiting the increase of contaminations during biscuit storage. Continuous monitoring of raw materials, intermediates, finished products, and processing conditions are therefore essential not only to meet current regulatory restrictions but also to achieve the aim of banning dietary contaminants and coping with related diseases.

Acrylamide in Bakery Products: A Review on Health Risks, Legal Regulations and Strategies to Reduce Its Formation

Acrylamide is a contaminant as defined in Council Regulation (EEC) No 315/93 and as such, it is considered a chemical hazard in the food chain. The toxicity of acrylamide has been acknowledged since 2002, among its toxicological effects on humans being neurotoxicity, genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and reproductive toxicity. Acrylamide has been classified as carcinogenic in the 2A group, with human exposure leading to progressive degeneration of the peripheral and central nervous systems characterized by cognitive and motor abnormalities. Bakery products (bread, crispbread, cakes, batter, breakfast cereals, biscuits, pies, etc.) are some of the major sources of dietary acrylamide. The review focuses on the levels of acrylamide in foods products, in particular bakery ones, and the risk that resulting dietary intake of acrylamide has on human health. The evolving legislative situation regarding the acrylamide content from foodstuffs, especially bakery ones, in the European Union is discussed underlining different measures that food producers must take in order to comply with the current regulations regarding the acrylamide levels in their products. Different approaches to reduce the acrylamide level in bakery products such as the use of asparginase, calcium salts, antioxidants, acids and their salts, etc., are described in detail.

Simultaneously Mitigation of Acrylamide, 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural, and Oil Content in Fried Dough Twist via Different Ingredients Combination and Infrared-Assisted Deep-Frying

The effect of main ingredients (wheat flours, polyol sweeteners, and frying oil) and infrared-assisted deep-frying on the acrylamide, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), oil content, and physicochemical characteristics of fried dough twist (FDT) were investigated. The amount of acrylamide and HMF produced in FDT made with low-gluten flour is significantly lower than that of flour with high gluten content. Among polyol sweeteners, maltitol causes the greatest reduction in acrylamide and HMF in FDT. Moreover, the oil content of FDT was significantly reduced by optimizing the infrared-assisted deep-frying process. At last, compared with deep-frying FDT made of sucrose, infrared-assisted deep-frying FDT made of maltitol reduced acrylamide, HMF, and oil content by 61.8%, 63.4%, and 27.5%, respectively. This study clearly showed that the ingredients, flour and polyol sweeteners used to process FDT are the two major determinants of the formation of acrylamide and HMF in FDT, and infrared-assisted deep-frying can significantly affect the oil content in FDT. Simultaneously, the mitigation of the acrylamide, HMF, and oil content in FDT can be achieved by using low-gluten flour and maltitol in the ingredients, combined with infrared-assisted deep-frying.

Biomedical rationale for acrylamide regulation and methods of detection

Acrylamide is the product of the Maillard reaction, which occurs when starchy, asparagine-rich foods including potato or grain products and coffee are fried, baked, roasted, or heated. Studies in rodents provide evidence that acrylamide is carcinogenic and a male reproductive harmful agent when administered in exceedingly high levels. A 2002 study identified acrylamide in popular consumer food and beverage products, stimulating the European Union (EU) and California to legislate public notice of acrylamide presence in fried and baked foods, and coffee products. The regulatory legislation enacted in the EU and California has scientists working to develop foods and processes aimed at reducing acrylamide formation and advancing rapid and accurate analytical methods for the quantitative and qualitative determination of acrylamide in food and beverage products. The purpose of this review is to survey the studies performed on rodents and humans that identified the potential health impact of acrylamide in the human diet, and provide insight into established and emerging analytical methods used to detect acrylamide in blood, aqueous samples, and food.

Production of grape pekmez by Ohmic heating-assisted vacuum evaporation

Pekmez is a concentrated syrup-like food conventionally produced by vacuum evaporation process from sugar-rich fruits. In this study, the applicability of grape pekmez production by ohmic heating assisted vacuum evaporation (ΩVE) method was investigated. Conventional vacuum evaporation (CVE) and ΩVE methods were compared in terms of physicochemical properties, HMF (5-hydroxymethylfurfural) contents, rheological properties, and energy consumptions. ΩVE was run at four different voltage gradients (17.5, 20, 22.5, and 25 V/cm). Total process times for grape pekmez production were determined as 57, 28.5, 32, 39, and 50 minutes for CVE, ΩVE (25 V/cm), ΩVE (22.5 V/cm), ΩVE (20 V/cm) and ΩVE (17.5 V/cm), respectively. Energy consumption of CVE method was higher than ΩVE method for all voltage gradients. Energy efficiency increased as the voltage gradient increased. There was no significant difference between CVE and ΩVE methods for HMF contents. The results show that the ΩVE method could be an alternative to the CVE process for grape pekmez production.

Influence of caramel and molasses addition on acrylamide and 5-hydroxylmethylfurfural formation and sensory characteristics of non-centrifugal cane sugar during manufacturing

BACKGROUND

The aims of this study are to (i) evaluate the effects of color enhancers, caramel (C) and molasses (M), on acrylamide and 5-hydroxylmethylfurfural (HMF) formation in non-centrifugal cane sugar (NCS) and to (ii) perform nine-point hedonic scale and evaluation of sensory attributes, encompassing the appearance, flavor, texture and aftertaste, by 71 consumers on NCS, NCS_C, and NCS products made with a blend of molasses and sugar (NCS_MS) and steam processing (NCS_S).

RESULTS

With the addition of molasses and caramel at the maximum allowable level of 5 g kg^-1 in sugarcane juice, significantly greater acrylamide or HMF did not accumulate in NCS_C and NCS_M during the thermal manufacturing process, while color values of NCS_C significantly changed (P < 0.05). The increases in acrylamide and HMF contents were influenced by pH because they were produced by the Maillard reaction. Hedonic responses showed that NCS_MS was rated with the highest score for overall acceptance, whereas NCS_S, with the lowest content of acrylamide, exhibited the lowest score for every attribute. In addition, the appearance acceptance score of NCS_C was significantly higher than that of NCS (P < 0.05). Significant differences were also found between NCS and NCS_C in the frequency of 9 of 16 items with which consumers selected to characterize the appearance in a check-all-that-apply questionnaire (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The association between hedonic evaluations and sensory profiles in visual attributes of NCS_C indicated that caramel could be a promising addition in Maillard reaction-mitigated NCS products to improve consumer preferences through color strengthening without safety concerns. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Evaluation of acrylamide levels in cereal products from the Romanian market during the 2017 and 2018 period

Cereal products are the most consumed in Romania being the main contributors to daily acrylamide exposure. The paper aims to present for the first time a general situation regarding the evolution of the acrylamide levels content from cereal products, on the Romanian market, during 2017-2018 periods, as a result of legislative measures imposed by the European Union (EU). For this purpose, the levels of acrylamide in 55 selected cereal products samples were evaluated. The cereal products analyzed were grouped in biscuits, confectionery, expanded cereals, bakery products and specialties. The acrylamide content from the cereal products were detected using GC-MS/MS method. The highest level of acrylamide was found in biscuits, whereas the lowest level was determined in bakery products. The most of the cereal products samples analyzed (90.9%) was below the reference levels established by the EU Regulation for the acrylamide level from 2017 EC (2013/647/EU) and 2018 EC (2017/2158/ EU). From the 55 cereal products analyzed, only 5 biscuits samples exceeded the reference levels established by the European Commission, one in 2017 and four in 2018 period.

Characterization of the flavor compounds in wheat bran and biochemical conversion for application in food

Wheat bran, an abundant and low-cost by-product from agricultural processing, can be used as an alternative food resource. Biochemical conversion of wheat bran to food ingredient involves pretreatments of bran to enhance its acceptability. In this work, the effects of the Maillard reaction and enzymolysis on flavor properties of wheat bran and sensory evaluation of steamed buns fortified with wheat bran were analyzed using GC-MS combined with sensory evaluation. The results showed that the Maillard reaction and enzymatic hydrolysis, as well as flavoring process, could effectively improve the flavor profiles of wheat bran. The flavor compounds in modified wheat bran products as well as its fuzzy sensory score increased significantly (P < 0.05) compared with those in commercially available dry malt extract. Additionally, steamed buns fortified with wheat bran had enhanced flavor and overall acceptability. The study can be useful in valorization a plethora of grain bran (waste) into valuable resources.

The Correlation between Soil Nutrient and Potato Quality in Loess Plateau of China Based on PLSR

Potato tuber quality is influenced by the interaction of soil nutrients. Hence, simple correlation analysis cannot accurately reflect the true relationship between soil nutrients and potato tuber quality. In this study, potato tuber quality and soil nutrient content were used as research materials in the Loess Plateau of China. The partial least square regression (PLSR) method was used to establish the regression equation between potato quality and soil nutrient. The major soil nutrient indexes influencing potato quality were screened out to provide theoretical basis for potato field management. The results showed that the major soil nutrient factors influencing the potato tuber quality in Loess Plateau were soil ammonium nitrogen, soil nitrate nitrogen, soil available phosphorus, pH, and soil available potassium. Soil pH value is the most important factor affecting potato starch, reducing sugar content, and soluble protein content. Soil nitrate nitrogen is one of the important factors affecting potato tuber soluble total sugar content, vitamin C, browning intensity, and polyphenol oxidase activity. Soil ammonium nitrogen was positively correlated with the total soluble sugar content of potato tubers, and negatively correlated with reducing sugar content, browning intensity, and polyphenol oxidase activity. However, soil available potassium has positive effects on potato starch and reducing sugar content, and negative effects on soluble protein and browning strength. Results of this study indicates that the major soil nutrient factors influencing potato tuber quality were soil nitrate nitrogen and soil pH value.

Simultaneous mitigation of 4(5)-methylimidazole, acrylamide, and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in ammonia biscuits by supplementing with food hydrocolloids

In the current work, methodological approach for the incorporation of food hydrocolloids gum Arabic (GA), pectin, and carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) in biscuit dough was firstly investigated to mitigate simultaneously the formation of 4(5)-methylimidazole (4(5)-MI), acrylamide (AA), and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) in ammonia biscuits. Results revealed that the percent inhibition of 4(5)-MI was ranged from 50.5% to 89.9% by increasing the GA amount from 0.01 g to 0.05 g, respectively. Furthermore, the use of 0.05 g GA reduced significantly AA content up to 58.6% compared to the control biscuits. Moreover, the highest inhibition of 5-HMF with 74% depression was achieved by 0.05 g GA. Reasons could be referred to the formation of GA layer on the surface of biscuits. This was confirmed by scanning electron microscope and water loss analysis. Additionally, browning intensity and sensory analysis showed that the supplementation with GA had preserved the quality and consumers' overall acceptability of ammonia biscuits.

Determination of Acrylamide in Biscuits by High-Resolution Orbitrap Mass Spectrometry: A Novel Application

Acrylamide (AA), a molecule which potentially increases the risk of developing cancer, is easily formed in food rich in carbohydrates, such as biscuits, wafers, and breakfast cereals, at temperatures above 120 °C. Thus, the need to detect and quantify the AA content in processed foodstuffs is eminent, in order to delineate the limits and mitigation strategies. This work reports the development and validation of a high-resolution mass spectrometry-based methodology for identification and quantification of AA in specific food matrices of biscuits, by using LC-MS with electrospray ionization and Orbitrap as the mass analyser. The developed analytical method showed good repeatability (RSDr 11.1%) and 3.55 and 11.8 μg kg-1 as limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ), respectively. The choice of multiplexed targeted-SIM mode (t-SIM) for AA and AA-d3 isolated ions provided enhanced detection sensitivity, as demonstrated in this work. Statistical processing of data was performed in order to compare the AA levels with several production parameters, such as time/cooking temperature, placement on the cooking conveyor belt, color, and moisture for different biscuits. The composition of the raw materials was statistically the most correlated factor with the AA content when all samples are considered. The statistical treatment presented herein enables an important prediction of factors influencing AA formation in biscuits contributing to putting in place effective mitigation strategies.

Mitigation of 3-deoxyglucosone and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in brown fermented milk via an alternative browning process based on the hydrolysis of endogenous lactose

During the conventional production of brown fermented milk (BFM), unhealthy substances (3-deoxyglucosone (3-DG), methylglyoxal (MGO), and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF)) are generated during the Maillard browning step. Here, an alternative browning process based on the hydrolysis of endogenous lactose was established. Compared with the conventional process, 3-DG and HMF were decreased by 5.91 mg kg-1 and 0.39 mg kg-1 in the brown milk base under the alternative browning process, and thereafter, 3-DG and HMF were decreased by 54.5% and 65.0% in BFM. Investigation into the formation of 3-DG, MGO, and HMF in different chemical models showed that different sugars lead to different Maillard reaction products and browning rates, contributing to the mitigation of 3-DG and HMF. Apart from the mitigation of unhealthy Maillard compounds, hydrolyzing lactose and avoiding the addition of external glucose make the alternative browning process a theoretical and practical basis for improving the quality and safety of BFM.

Effects of Dark Brown Sugar Replacing Sucrose and Calcium Carbonate, Chitosan, and Chitooligosaccharide Addition on Acrylamide and 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural Mitigation in Brown Sugar Cookies

The objective of this study was to evaluate effects of dark brown sugar on acrylamide and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) levels in brown sugar cookies. Dark brown sugar was used as a raw material instead of sucrose, and chitosan, chitooligosaccharides, or calcium carbonate were added to investigate their effect on acrylamide and HMF mitigation. The results demonstrated that the higher the content of acrylamide in the dark brown sugar, the higher the amount of acrylamide produced in baked brown sugar cookies. The addition of dark brown sugar significantly increased the diameter and decreased the thickness of cookies, which induced more acrylamide formation. Therefore, the sucrose control cookies were harder and thicker than dark brown sugar cookies. The addition of 1% chitosan, chitooligosaccharide, or calcium carbonate did not reduce the acrylamide formation of the brown sugar cookies. The content of acrylamide and HMF in the sucrose control group was lower than that in dark brown sugar groups, and chitooligosaccharide increased the level of HMF. This is due to the fact that the content of reducing sugar in dark brown sugar is higher than that in sucrose, and dark brown sugar contains acrylamide. There was no difference in the concentration of reducing sugar between test and control cookies (p > 0.05). The L values of brown sugar were lower than those of sucrose cookies, especially for chitooligosaccharide addition (p < 0.05). The addition of chitooligosaccharide generated more Maillard reaction products and caramelization. The reducing power of dark brown sugar cookies was higher than that of sucrose control cookies. The baking industry should choose sucrose or dark brown sugar containing a low acrylamide content as an ingredient to prevent the final products from containing high levels of acrylamide.

Simultaneous Determination of Acrylamide and Hydroxymethylfurfural in Extruded Products by LC-MS/MS Method

The aim of this study was to develop a liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry LC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous determination of acrylamide and hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) in corn snack products enriched with food industry by-products: brewer's spent grain (BSG), sugar beet pulp (SBP) and apple pomace (AP). Development of the method included the study of different sources for ionization, different mobile phases, different extraction conditions as well as different methods of sample preparation. Finally, the single LC-MS/MS method was developed for the analysis of both analytes in one step with a duration of 20 min using a simple single-step extraction. The method with apparent recoveries of 91.4 and 90.4 for acrylamide and HMF, respectively, was applied for the analysis of non-extruded and extruded samples. The obtained results shown that the acrylamide content was Collapse

Key Words

• LC-MS/MS method
• acrylamide
• extruded snack products
• hydroxymethylfurfural

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MESH Headings

• Acrylamide/analysis
• Beta vulgaris/chemistry
• Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid
• Food Contamination/analysis
• Food Industry
• Furaldehyde/analogs & derivatives
• Furaldehyde/analysis
• Malus/chemistry
• Tandem Mass Spectrometry/methods
• Zea mays/chemistry

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Grants

• 1321 Hrvatska Zaklada za Znanost

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Affiliation(s)

Antun Jozinović Faculty of Food Technology Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Franje Kuhača 20, 31000 Osijek, Croatia.
Bojan Šarkanj Department of Food Technology, University Centre Koprivnica, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, 48000 Koprivnica, Croatia.
Đurđica Ačkar Faculty of Food Technology Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Franje Kuhača 20, 31000 Osijek, Croatia.
Jelena Panak Balentić Faculty of Food Technology Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Franje Kuhača 20, 31000 Osijek, Croatia.
Domagoj Šubarić Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, University of Zagreb, Marulićev trg 19, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia.
Tanja Cvetković Research and Development, Podravka d.d., Ante Starčevića 32, 48000 Koprivnica, Croatia.
Jasmina Ranilović Research and Development, Podravka d.d., Ante Starčevića 32, 48000 Koprivnica, Croatia.
Sunčica Guberac Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Vladimira Preloga 1, Osijek 31000, Croatia.
Jurislav Babić Faculty of Food Technology Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Franje Kuhača 20, 31000 Osijek, Croatia.

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Occurrence of patulin and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in apple sour, which is a traditional product of Kastamonu, Turkey

Apple sour is a traditional product of Kastamonu, Turkey. It is consumed by spreading on bread or drinking after diluting with water. The aim of this study was to determine patulin (PAT) and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) in apple sour. This study is the first to evaluate the occurrence of PAT and HMF in apple sour. The samples were extracted with ethyl acetate using liquid-liquid extraction technique. PAT and HMF were determined by HPLC with UV detection. PAT was detected in all samples, and the PAT level in 94.9% of samples was found to be equal or greater than the legal limit for juice concentrates. The mean value for PAT was found to be 284 ± 307 μg kg^-1. PAT levels in 13 of 39 samples were in the range of 100 ≤ x < 200 μg kg^-1, two samples were in the range of 0 ≤ x < 50 μg kg -1 and two samples were in the range of 1000 ≤ x < 1500 μg kg¹. HMF levels of all samples were above the legal limit for solid molasses. The mean value for HMF was found to be 16215 ± 13317 mg kg^-1. HMF levels of 10 of 39 samples were determined to be in the range of 10000 ≤ x < 20000 mg kg^-1, eight samples were in the range of 20000 ≤ x < 30000 mg kg^-1 and only three samples were in the range of 100 ≤ x < 1000 mg kg^-1. There was a significant and inverse relationship between HMF and pH of the samples. These results indicate that consumption of apple sour is a considerable risk in terms of HMF and PAT toxicity.

Kinetic modelling of acrylamide formation during the finish-frying of french fries with variable maltose content

In light of a recent update in EU regulations governing levels of acrylamide in foodstuffs, further understanding of the role of different precursors is fundamental to extending mitigation strategies into a wider product range. Kinetic modelling was used to investigate the role of maltose in the formation of acrylamide during the finish-frying of french fries. The maltose concentration of raw white potato strips was systematically increased from 0 to 1.4% to observe the effect of this reducing disaccharide on acrylamide formation. A mathematical model, incorporating glucose, fructose and maltose and based on known Maillard reaction pathways, was developed which showed that acrylamide formation from maltose only contributed <10% to the total acrylamide. An additional kinetic model allowed for the formation of acrylamide directly from sugar-asparagine glycoconjugates. This model suggested that under these conditions, it is unlikely that acrylamide is formed directly from the maltose-asparagine conjugate.