Anticancer polysaccharides from natural resources: a review of recent research

An arabinogalactan isolated from Pollen Typhae induces the apoptosis of RKO cells by promoting macrophage polarization

An arabinogalactan (PTPS-1-2) was isolated and characterized from Pollen Typhae, and its potential antitumor effects on activating macrophages to produce immunomodulatory factors and promoting apoptosis in colorectal cancer cells were investigated. Structural characterization showed that PTPS-1-2 had a molecular weight of 59 kDa and was composed of rhamnose, arabinose, glucuronic acid, galactose, and galacturonic acid with a molar ratio of 7.6: 17.1: 6.5: 61.4: 7.4. Its backbone was predominantly composed of T-β-D-Galp, 1,3-β-D-Galp, 1,6-β-D-Galp, 1,3,6-β-D-Galp, 1,4-α-D-GalpA, 1,2-α-L-Rhap, additionally, branches contained 1,5-α-L-Araf, T-α-L-Araf, T-β-D-4-OMe-GlcpA, T-β-D-GlcpA and T-α-L-Rhap. PTPS-1-2 activated RAW264.7 cell by triggering the NF-kB signaling pathway and M1 macrophage polarization. Furthermore, the conditioned medium (CM) of Mφ pretreated with PTPS-1-2 exerted marked antitumor effects by inhibiting RKO cell proliferation and suppressing cell colony formation. Collectively, our findings suggested that PTPS-1-2 might be a therapeutic option for the prevention and treatment of tumors.

Chemical Evaluation of Liquidambar styraciflua L. Fruits Extracts and Their Potential as Anticancer Drugs

Liquidambar styraciflua L. is an aromatic species, popularly used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat diarrhea, dysentery, coughs, and skin sores. The present study was designed to investigate the chemical composition and biological potential of extracts obtained from the fruits of this plant. For the chemical evaluation, it was used mainly liquid and gas chromatography, plus NMR, and colorimetric methods. The aqueous extract (EA) originated two other fractions: an aqueous (P-EA) and an ethanolic (S-EA). The three extracts were composed of proteins, phenolic compounds, and carbohydrates in different proportions. The analyses showed that the polysaccharide extract (P-EA) contained pectic polysaccharides, such as acetylated and methyl esterified homogalacturonans together with arabinogalactan, while the fraction S-EA presented phenolic acids and terpenes such as gallic acid, protocathecuic acid, liquidambaric acid, combretastatin, and atractyloside A. EA, P-EA, and S-EA showed antioxidant activity, with IC50 values of 4.64 µg/mL, 16.45 µg/mL, and 3.67 µg/mL, respectively. The cytotoxicity followed the sequence S-EA > EA > P-EA, demonstrating that the toxic compounds were separated from the non-toxic ones by ethanol precipitation. While the fraction S-EA is very toxic to any cell line, the fraction P-EA is a promising candidate for studies against cancer due to its high toxicity to tumoral cells and low toxicity to normal cells.

Efforts in Bioprospecting Research: A Survey of Novel Anticancer Phytochemicals Reported in the Last Decade

Bioprospecting natural products to find prominent agents for medical application is an area of scientific endeavor that has produced many clinically used bioactive compounds, including anticancer agents. These compounds come from plants, microorganisms, and marine life. They are so-called secondary metabolites that are important for a species to survive in the hostile environment of its respective ecosystem. The kingdom of Plantae has been an important source of traditional medicine in the past and is also enormously used today as an exquisite reservoir for detecting novel bioactive compounds that are potent against hard-to-treat maladies such as cancer. Cancer therapies, especially chemotherapies, are fraught with many factors that are difficult to manage, such as drug resistance, adverse side effects, less selectivity, complexity, etc. Here, we report the results of an exploration of the databases of PubMed, Science Direct, and Google Scholar for bioactive anticancer phytochemicals published between 2010 and 2020. Our report is restricted to new compounds with strong-to-moderate bioactivity potential for which mass spectroscopic structural data are available. Each of the phytochemicals reported in this review was assigned to chemical classes with peculiar anticancer properties. In our survey, we found anticancer phytochemicals that are reported to have selective toxicity against cancer cells, to sensitize MDR cancer cells, and to have multitarget effects in several signaling pathways. Surprisingly, many of these compounds have limited follow-up studies. Detailed investigations into the synthesis of more functional derivatives, chemical genetics, and the clinical relevance of these compounds are required to achieve safer chemotherapy.

An Overview of Antitumour Activity of Polysaccharides

Cancer incidence and mortality are rapidly increasing worldwide; therefore, effective therapies are required in the current scenario of increasing cancer cases. Polysaccharides are a family of natural polymers that hold unique physicochemical and biological properties, and they have become the focus of current antitumour drug research owing to their significant antitumour effects. In addition to the direct antitumour activity of some natural polysaccharides, their structures offer versatility in synthesizing multifunctional nanocomposites, which could be chemically modified to achieve high stability and bioavailability for delivering therapeutics into tumor tissues. This review aims to highlight recent advances in natural polysaccharides and polysaccharide-based nanomedicines for cancer therapy.

Structural characterization of a new high molecular weight polysaccharide from jujube fruit

From Ziziphus Jujuba cv. Muzao fruit, a new polysaccharide (PZMP3-1) with high molecular weight was isolated. Constructional characterization revealed that PZMP3-1 comprized 2.56 rhamnose, 7.70 arabinoses, 3.73 galactose, and 6.73 galactose, and it has a 241 kDa average molecular weight. The principal structural components of PZMP3-1 were 1,2,4 and 1,4-linked GalpA, 1,4-linked Galp, 1,3 and 1,5-linked Araf, and 1-linked Rhap based on methylation and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) analyses. X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) structural analysis of PZMP3-1 revealed a tangled and branching pattern. Overall, these structural results suggested that PZMP3-1 could have unique bioactivities and be widely used in nutritional supplements.

Biomolecule-Based Optical Metamaterials: Design and Applications

Metamaterials are broadly defined as artificial, electromagnetically homogeneous structures that exhibit unusual physical properties that are not present in nature. They possess extraordinary capabilities to bend electromagnetic waves. Their size, shape and composition can be engineered to modify their characteristics, such as iridescence, color shift, absorbance at different wavelengths, etc., and harness them as biosensors. Metamaterial construction from biological sources such as carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids represents a low-cost alternative, rendering high quantities and yields. In addition, the malleability of these biomaterials makes it possible to fabricate an endless number of structured materials such as composited nanoparticles, biofilms, nanofibers, quantum dots, and many others, with very specific, invaluable and tremendously useful optical characteristics. The intrinsic characteristics observed in biomaterials make them suitable for biomedical applications. This review addresses the optical characteristics of metamaterials obtained from the major macromolecules found in nature: carbohydrates, proteins and DNA, highlighting their biosensor field use, and pointing out their physical properties and production paths.

Microbial polysaccharides: An emerging family of natural biomaterials for cancer therapy and diagnostics

Microbial polysaccharides (MPs) offer immense diversity in structural and functional properties. They are extensively used in advance biomedical science owing to their superior biodegradability, hemocompatibility, and capability to imitate the natural extracellular matrix microenvironment. Ease in tailoring, inherent bio-activity, distinct mucoadhesiveness, ability to absorb hydrophobic drugs, and plentiful availability of MPs make them prolific green biomaterials to overcome the significant constraints of cancer chemotherapeutics. Many studies have demonstrated their application to obstruct tumor development and extend survival through immune activation, apoptosis induction, and cell cycle arrest by MPs. Synoptic investigations of MPs are compulsory to decode applied basics in recent inclinations towards cancer regimens. The current review focuses on the anticancer properties of commercially available and newly explored MPs, and outlines their direct and indirect mode of action. The review also highlights cutting-edge MPs-based drug delivery systems to augment the specificity and efficiency of available chemotherapeutics, as well as their emerging role in theranostics.

Research progress on natural β-glucan in intestinal diseases

β-Glucan, an essential natural polysaccharide widely distributed in cereals and microorganisms, exhibits extensive biological activities, including immunoregulation, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor properties, and flora regulation. Recently, increasing evidence has shown that β-glucan has activities that may be useful for treating intestinal diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and colorectal cancer. The advantages of β-glucan, which include its multiple roles, safety, abundant sources, good encapsulation capacity, economic development costs, and clinical evidence, indicate that β-glucan is a promising polysaccharide that could be developed as a health product or medicine for the treatment of intestinal disease. Unfortunately, few reports have summarized the progress of studies investigating natural β-glucan in intestinal diseases. This review comprehensively summarizes the structure-activity relationship of β-glucan, its pharmacological mechanism in IBD and colorectal cancer, its absorption and transportation mechanisms, and its application in food, medicine, and drug delivery, which will be beneficial to further understand the role of β-glucan in intestinal diseases.

Structure and bioactivity of polysaccharide from a subseafloor strain of Schizophyllum commune 20R-7-F01

Fungal polysaccharide is a kind of biomacromolecule with multiple biological activities, which has a wide application prospect and may play an important role in organisms to cope with extreme environments. Herein, we reported an extracellular polysaccharide (EPS) produced by Schizophyllum commune 20R-7-F01 that was isolated from subseafloor sediments at ~2 km below the seafloor, obtained during expedition 337. The monosaccharide of EPS was glucose and its molecular weight was 608.8 kDa. Methylation and NMR analysis indicated that the backbone of the EPS was (1 → 3)-β-D-glucan with a side chain (1 → 6) β-D-glucan linking at every third residue. Bio-active assays revealed that the EPS had potent antioxidant activity and could promote RAW264.7 cells viability and phagocytosis. These results suggest that fungi derived from sediments below seafloor are important and new source of polysaccharides and may be involved in the adaptation of fungi to anoxic subseafloor extreme ecosystem.

Seaweeds in the Oncology Arena: Anti-Cancer Potential of Fucoidan as a Drug—A Review

Marine natural products are a discerning arena to search for the future generation of medications to treat a spectrum of ailments. Meanwhile, cancer is becoming more ubiquitous over the world, and the likelihood of dying from it is rising. Surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy are the mainstays of cancer treatment worldwide, but their extensive side effects limit their curative effect. The quest for low-toxicity marine drugs to prevent and treat cancer is one of the current research priorities of researchers. Fucoidan, an algal sulfated polysaccharide, is a potent therapeutic lead candidate against cancer, signifying that far more research is needed. Fucoidan is a versatile, nontoxic marine-origin heteropolysaccharide that has received much attention due to its beneficial biological properties and safety. Fucoidan has been demonstrated to exhibit a variety of conventional bioactivities, such as antiviral, antioxidant, and immune-modulatory characteristics, and anticancer activity against a wide range of malignancies has also recently been discovered. Fucoidan inhibits tumorigenesis by prompting cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, blocking metastasis and angiogenesis, and modulating physiological signaling molecules. This review compiles the molecular and cellular aspects, immunomodulatory and anticancer actions of fucoidan as a natural marine anticancer agent. Specific fucoidan and membranaceous polysaccharides from Ecklonia cava, Laminaria japonica, Fucus vesiculosus, Astragalus, Ascophyllum nodosum, Codium fragile serving as potential anticancer marine drugs are discussed in this review.

Cardio-Oncology: Mechanisms, Drug Combinations, and Reverse Cardio-Oncology

Chemotherapy, radiotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy have brought hope to cancer patients. With the prolongation of survival of cancer patients and increased clinical experience, cancer-therapy-induced cardiovascular toxicity has attracted attention. The adverse effects of cancer therapy that can lead to life-threatening or induce long-term morbidity require rational approaches to prevention and treatment, which requires deeper understanding of the molecular biology underpinning the disease. In addition to the drugs used widely for cardio-protection, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formulations are also efficacious and can be expected to achieve "personalized treatment" from multiple perspectives. Moreover, the increased prevalence of cancer in patients with cardiovascular disease has spurred the development of "reverse cardio-oncology", which underscores the urgency of collaboration between cardiologists and oncologists. This review summarizes the mechanisms by which cancer therapy induces cardiovascular toxicity, the combination of antineoplastic and cardioprotective drugs, and recent advances in reverse cardio-oncology.

Anticancer Secondary Metabolites: From Ethnopharmacology and Identification in Native Complexes to Biotechnological Studies in Species of Genus Astragalus L. and Gloriosa L

Some of the most effective anticancer compounds are still derived from plants since the chemical synthesis of chiral molecules is not economically efficient. Rapid discovery of lead compounds with pronounced biological activity is essential for the successful development of novel drug candidates. This work aims to present the chemical diversity of antitumor bioactive compounds and biotechnological approaches as alternative production and sustainable plant biodiversity conservation. Astragalus spp., (Fabaceae) and Gloriosa spp. (Liliaceae) are selected as research objects within this review because they are known for their anticancer activity, because they represent two of the largest families respectively in dicots and monocots, and also because many of the medicinally important plants are rare and endangered. We summarized the ethnobotanical data concerning their anticancer application, highlighted the diversity of their secondary metabolites possessing anticancer properties such as saponins, flavonoids, and alkaloids, and revealed the potential of the in vitro cultures as an alternative way of their production. Since the natural supply is limited, it is important to explore the possibility of employing plant cell or organ in vitro cultures for the biotechnological production of these compounds as an alternative.

Fucoidan-based nanomaterial and its multifunctional role for pharmaceutical and biomedical applications

Fucoidans are promising sulfated polysaccharides isolated from marine sources that have piqued the interest of scientists in recent years due to their widespread use as a bioactive substance. Bioactive coatings and films, unsurprisingly, have seized these substances to create novel, culinary, therapeutic, and diagnostic bioactive nanomaterials. The applications of fucoidan and its composite nanomaterials have a wide variety of food as well as pharmacological properties, including anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-thrombic, anti-coagulant, immunoregulatory, and anti-viral properties. Blends of fucoidan with other biopolymers such as chitosan, alginate, curdlan, starch, etc., have shown promising coating and film-forming capabilities. A blending of biopolymers is a recommended approach to improve their anticipated properties. This review focuses on the fundamental knowledge and current development of fucoidan, fucoidan-based composite material for bioactive coatings and films, and their biological properties. In this article, fucoidan-based edible bioactive coatings and films expressed excellent mechanical strength that can prolong the shelf-life of food products and maintain their biodegradability. Additionally, these coatings and films showed numerous applications in the biomedical field and contribute to the economy. We hope this review can deliver the theoretical basis for the development of fucoidan-based bioactive material and films.

Current advances and potential trends of the polysaccharides derived from medicinal mushrooms sanghuang

For thousands of years, sanghuang is distinctive as a general designation for a group of precious and rare Chinese medicinal mushrooms. Numerous investigations have revealed that polysaccharide is one of the important biological active ingredients of sanghuang with various excellent biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-aging, anti-tumor, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, hepatoprotective, and anti-microbial functionalities. For the past two decades, preparation, structural characterization, and reliable bioactivities of the polysaccharides from fruiting bodies, cultured mycelia, and fermentation broth of sanghuang have been arousing extensive interest, and particularly, different strains, sources, and isolation protocols might result in obvious discrepancies in structural features and bioactivities. Therefore, this review summarizes the recent reports on preparation strategies, structural features, bioactivities, and structure-activity relationships of sanghuang polysaccharides, which will enrich the knowledge on the values of natural sanghuang polysaccharides and support their further development and utilization as therapeutic agents, vaccines, and functional foods in tonic and clinical treatment.

Effect of Bergamot and Laoxianghuang Polysaccharides on Gut Microbiota Derived from Patients with Hyperlipidemia: An Integrative Analysis of Microbiome and Metabolome during In Vitro Fermentation

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of bergamot polysaccharide (BP) and Laoxianghuang polysaccharides (LPs, fermented bergamot) on the microbiome and metabolome during the in vitro fermentation of gut microbiota from patients with hyperlipidemia. Results indicated that both BP and LPs were able to increase the production of acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric acid. However, only LPs could decrease the content of isobutyric acid and isovaleric acid, which are detrimental to gut health. A 16S rRNA analysis showed that both BP and LPs could reduce the proportion of Fusobacterium, whereas they increased the Bacteroides content in hyperlipidemia. Untargeted UPLC-MS/MS metabolomic profiling found six bio-markers that were significantly changed after BP and LPs intervention, and four of the down-regulated metabolites were long-chain fatty acids associated with vascular diseases. These findings provide new evidence that BP and LPs have the potential to regulate imbalances in the gut microbiota in patients with hyperlipidemia and ameliorate its metabolic abnormalities.

A Systematic Review of New Trends in Ionic Liquids Applied to Electrolytes on Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are formed by a long chain of monosaccharides, with the main function of promoting energetic and structural reserves for plants and animals. They can be applied as a base of electrolytes, using ionic liquids (ILs) as a solvent base. The study of electrolytes is an emerging field, as they are applied as secondary batteries, fuel cells, solar cells, supercapacitors and chemical sensors. They operate stably under extreme conditions, maintaining their high thermal stability. Furthermore, their low cost and environmentally safe character, compared to conventional electrolytes, have attracted considerable attention in the scientific field. ILs are composed entirely of ions and could be potentially applied as solvents. As electrolytes, ILs are environmentally friendly, and their use in combination with polysaccharides leads to a synergic effect. In the present study, a systematic review was performed of all papers published from 2014 to 2022 regarding ILs and polysaccharides through a search of three databases. Due to the large number of results found, only papers about electrolytes were considered and the main findings described. This study allows for easy identification of the most relevant fields of study with respect to ILs and polysaccharides, as well as the main gaps to be explored in the literature.

Dual Effect of the Extract from the Fungus Coriolus versicolor on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Cytokine Production in RAW 264.7 Macrophages Depending on the Lipopolysaccharide Concentration

Purpose

Extract from the fungus Coriolus versicolor (CV) is classified as an immunological response modifier. Previously, we have shown that this extract induces interleukin 6 (IL-6)-related extension of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced fever. This study investigated the effect of CV extract on the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the expression of components of signal transduction pathways leading to the secretion of cytokines from RAW 264.7 macrophages stimulated with different doses of LPS.

Methods

RAW 264.7 cells were stimulated with CV extract alone or co-treated with CV extract and LPS. The level of IL-6 and tumour necrosis factor α (TNF-α) in the culture media was measured using ELISA. Protein expression of Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4, phosphorylated IκB (p-IκB), CD14 glycoprotein and phospho-phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (p-PI3K) was evaluated using Western blot. The effects of TLR4, nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) and p-PI3K on cytokine secretion were estimated using inhibitors: TAK-242, JSH-23 and LY294002.

Results

CV extract itself stimulates the secretion of IL-6 and TNF-α and increases the expression of TLR4, p-IκB and p-PI3K. The presence of CV extract during the treatment of cells with lower concentrations of LPS (10 and 100 ng/mL) increases the cytokine production. Co-stimulation of cells with CV extract and LPS at a higher dose (500 ng/mL) decreases the secretion of cytokines. This effect is related to the changes in the expression of TLR4, CD14 glycoprotein, p-IκB and p-PI3K.

Conclusion

This is the first report showing that the CV extract-induced production of cytokines is mediated by the PI3K signalling pathway. This extract acts antagonistically or additively with LPS on the production of IL-6 and TNF-α, depending on the LPS concentration. Our results are helpful for illustrating the mechanisms for the immunostimulatory effect of CV extract in inflammatory processes.

Molecular modifications, biological activities, and applications of chitosan and derivatives: A recent update

Polysaccharides arouse great interest due to their structure and unique properties, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and absence of toxicity. Polysaccharides from marine sources are particularly useful due to the wide variety of applications and biological activities. Chitosan, a deacetylated derivative of chitin, is an example of an interesting bioactive marine-derived polysaccharide. Moreover, a wide variety of chemical modifications and conjugation of chitosan with other bioactive molecules are responsible for improvements in physicochemical properties and biological activities, expanding the range of applications. An overview of the synthetic approaches for preparing chitosan, chitosan derivatives, and conjugates is described and discussed. A recent update of the biological activities and applications in different research fields, mainly focused on the last 5 years, is presented, highlighting current trends.

The anti-cancer properties of neem (Azadirachta indica) through its antioxidant activity in the liver: its pharmaceutics and toxic dosage forms. A literature review

OBJECTIVES

The neem (Azadirachta indica) have been used in herbal medicine for the treatment of multiple diseases, particularly cancer. The mechanism of anti-cancer properties of neem are far from clear. However, it is well accepted that anti-cancer effects of neem is mediated via its hepatic anti-oxidant activity. In the present review, we are going to classify in vitro and in vivo studies about anti-cancer activity of neem via its hepatic anti-oxidant activity. We also summarize its active ingredients and some therapeutic and toxic dosage forms.

METHODS

A systematic search in the literature was performed in PubMed, Scopus, Embase, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, as well as Google Scholar pre-print database using all available MeSH terms for neem, A. indica, anti-cancer, anti-tumor, carcinogen, liver, antioxidant activity, neem ingredients, and glutathione. Electronic database searches combined and duplicates were removed.

RESULTS

The neem plant have been used in herbal medicine for the treatment of various diseases, particularly cancer. The mechanisms of anti-cancer effects of neem are far from clear. Cancerous cells growth can induce imbalance the oxidant and anti-oxidant activity in various organs particularly in the liver. Therefore, it seems that neem have anti-cancer effects via restore of the antioxidant disturbances close to the control ones in the liver. Additionally, administration of neem extract can induce oncostatic potential via several mechanism including; suppression of the NF-κβ pathway, increased expression of tumor suppressor (such as p53 and pTEN), decreased expression of oncogenes (such as c-Myc), and increased apoptosis in cancerous cells. The median lethal dose (LD50) value for extracts of neem was higher than 2,500 mg/kg.

CONCLUSIONS

It is suggested that neem plays pivotal role in the prevention and treatment of cancer via its hepatic antioxidant activity. Indeed, application of neem extract can decreased tumor growth via restore of the antioxidant disturbances close to the control ones in the liver.

Protective potential of sulfated polysaccharides from tropical seaweeds against alkylating- and oxidizing-induced genotoxicity

Sulfated polysaccharides (SPs) from seaweeds are potential bioactive natural compounds, but their DNA protective activity is poorly explored. This article aimed to evaluate the genotoxic/antigenotoxic potentials of a sulfated heterofucan from brown seaweed Spatoglossum schröederi (Fucan A - FA) and a sulfated galactan from green seaweed Codium isthomocladum (3G4S) using in vitro Comet assay (alkaline and oxidative versions) with HepG2 cells. The antioxidant activity of these SPs was evaluated by total antioxidant capacity, radical scavenging, metal chelating, and antioxidant enzyme activity assays. Both SPs were not genotoxic. FA and 3G4S displayed strong antigenotoxic activity against oxidizing chemical (H₂O₂) but not against alkylating chemical (MMS). The DNA damage reduction after a pre-treatment of 72 h with these SPs was 81.42% to FA and 81.38% to 3G4S. In simultaneous exposure to FA or 3G4S with H₂O₂, HepG2 cells presented 48.04% and 55.41% of DNA damage reduction compared with the control, respectively. The antigenotoxicity of these SPs relates to direct antioxidant activity by blockage of the initiation step of the oxidative chain reaction. Therefore, we conclude that FA and 3G4S could be explored as functional natural compounds with antigenotoxic activity due to their great protection against oxidative DNA damage.

The Antioxidant Properties of Mushroom Polysaccharides can Potentially Mitigate Oxidative Stress, Beta-Cell Dysfunction and Insulin Resistance

Diabetes mellitus is a prevalent metabolic and endocrine illness affecting people all over the world and is of serious health and financial concern. Antidiabetic medicine delivered through pharmacotherapy, including synthetic antidiabetic drugs, are known to have several negative effects. Fortunately, several natural polysaccharides have antidiabetic properties, and the use of these polysaccharides as adjuncts to conventional therapy is becoming more common, particularly in underdeveloped nations. Oxidative stress has a critical role in the development of diabetes mellitus (DM). The review of current literature presented here focusses, therefore, on the antioxidant properties of mushroom polysaccharides used in the management of diabetic complications, and discusses whether these antioxidant properties contribute to the deactivation of the oxidative stress-related signalling pathways, and to the amelioration of β-cell dysfunction and insulin resistance. In this study, we conducted a systematic review of the relevant information concerning the antioxidant and antidiabetic effects of mushrooms from electronic databases, such as PubMed, Scopus or Google Scholar, for the period 1994 to 2021. In total, 104 different polysaccharides from mushrooms have been found to have antidiabetic effects. Most of the literature on mushroom polysaccharides has demonstrated the beneficial effects of these polysaccharides on reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) levels. This review discuss the effects of these polysaccharides on hyperglycemia and other alternative antioxidant therapies for diabetic complications through their applications and limits, in order to gain a better understanding of how they can be used to treat DM. Preclinical and phytochemical investigations have found that most of the active polysaccharides extracted from mushrooms have antioxidant activity, reducing oxidative stress and preventing the development of DM. Further research is necessary to confirm whether mushroom polysaccharides can effectively alleviate hyperglycemia, and the mechanisms by which they do this, and to investigate whether these polysaccharides might be utilized as a complementary therapy for the prevention and management of DM in the future.

Mushrooms as Potential Sources of Active Metabolites and Medicines

Background

Mushrooms exist as an integral and vital component of the ecosystem and are very precious fungi. Mushrooms have been traditionally used in herbal medicines for many centuries.

Scope and Approach

There are a variety of medicinal mushrooms mentioned in the current work such as Agaricus, Amanita, Calocybe, Cantharellus, Cordyceps, Coprinus, Cortinarius, Ganoderma, Grifola, Huitlacoche, Hydnum, Lentinus, Morchella, Pleurotus, Rigidoporus, Tremella, Trametes sp., etc., which play a vital role in various diseases because of several metabolic components and nutritional values. Medicinal mushrooms can be identified morphologically on the basis of their size, color (white, black, yellow, brown, cream, pink and purple-brown, etc.), chemical reactions, consistency of the stalk and cap, mode of attachment of the gills to the stalk, and spore color and mass, and further identified at a molecular level by Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) regions of gene sequencing. There are also other methods that have recently begun to be used for the identification of mushrooms such as high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), microscopy, thin-layer chromatography (TLC), DNA sequencing, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), chemical finger printing, ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC), fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LCMS-TOF) and high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC). Lately, the matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) technique is also used for the identification of fungi.

Key Finding and Conclusion

Medicinal mushrooms possess various biological activities like anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-aging, anti-tumor, anti-viral, anti-parasitic, anti-microbial, hepatoprotective, anti-HIV, anti-diabetic, and many others that will be mentioned in this article. This manuscript will provide future direction, action mechanisms, applications, and the recent collective information of medicinal mushrooms. In addition to many unknown metabolites and patented active metabolites are also included.

Immunomodulatory activity of Senegalia macrostachya (Reichenb. ex DC.) Kyal. & Boatwr seed polysaccharide fraction through the activation of the MAPK signaling pathway in RAW264.7 macrophages

Senegalia macrostachya (Reichenb. ex DC.) Kyal. & Boatwr seed (SMS) is a wild legume used as food and medicine in many African countries. In the current study, a novel polysaccharide (SMSP2) was extracted from SMS using hot water and purified with DEAE-52 cellulose. Its structure was characterized, and the immunomodulatory activity and possible molecular mechanism in murine macrophage RAW264.7 were explored. The results revealed that SMSP2 was a uronic acid-rich polysaccharide (51.6%, w/w) with a molecular weight of 52.07 kDa. The neutral sugars were mainly arabinose, xylose, mannose, and galactose at a molar ratio of 1.00 : 0.84 : 0.90 : 0.07. Interestingly, SMSP2 treatment markedly promoted macrophage proliferation and phagocytosis and induced the expression of inflammatory mediators, such as nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and IL-10. SMSP2-induced macrophage stimulation occurs through the activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway. Moreover, macrophage surface complement receptor 3 (CR3) might play an important role in SMSP2-induced macrophage activation. This study revealed that SMSP2 is a potent immunomodulator, which could be used as a functional food and a pharmaceutical adjuvant in treating immune-compromising diseases.

Polysaccharide-Rich Fractions from Ganoderma resinaceum (Ganodermataceae) as Chemopreventive Agents in N-Diethylnitrosamine-Induced Hepatocellular Carcinoma in Wistar Rats

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common and lethal diseases worldwide. Its treatment remains ineffective and the prognosis remains severe, thus favoring the emergence of a preventive approach. Mushroom-derived polysaccharides offer great opportunities because of their less toxicity and bioactivities. The present study aimed to investigate the chemopreventive effects of water-soluble polysaccharides from Ganoderma resinaceum on HCC. Two G. resinaceum polysaccharide-rich fractions (GRP I and GRP II) were obtained following hot water and alcohol precipitation. Their proteins, phenol compounds, and total neutral sugar content were assayed. The in vitro antiproliferative effect was assessed in MDA-MB 231, Hela, and HepG₂ using the MTT assay. Further, for the in vivo study, seven groups of nine rats each received N-diethylnitrosamine (100 mg/kg BW), vehicle (NaCl 0.9%), doxorubicin (10 mg/kg BW), or G. resinaceum polysaccharides (125 and 250 mg/kg BW). Liver cancer initiation and progression was assessed by evaluating histomorphology of liver section, hepatic injury markers, hematology, cytokines/chemokines levels, and stress oxidative markers. GRP II presented higher protein and sugar and lower phenol compound content than GRP I. GRP exhibited CC₅₀ of 340 and 261.7 in HepG₂ cells after 48 h. Moreover, GRP I and GRP II (125 and 250 mg/kg) prevented the alteration of the histoarchitecture of the liver induced by the DEN. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), proinflammatory cytokines (G-CSF, IFNγ, and TNFα), and chemokines (eotaxin and fractalkine) levels were significantly decreased in the GRP I- and GRP II-treated groups, while anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10 and IL-12p70) levels were increased. The antioxidant defense was also stimulated by reducing malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO₂) levels, increasing catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities, and reducing glutathione (GSH) levels. Our results indicate that GRP I exhibits chemopreventive effects by inhibiting cell proliferation and restoring liver architecture, antioxidant enzymes, and cytokines/chemokines balance.

Moringa (Moringa oleifera Lam.) polysaccharides: Extraction, characterization, bioactivities, and industrial application

Owing to numerous biological activities of different parts of Moringa oleifera Lam., various studies have been carried out to isolate and explore the activities of its various bioactive compounds including polysaccharides. Polysaccharides of M. oleifera have been reported to possess a variety of biofunctionalities including antihyperlipidemic, anti-diabetic, immunomodulatory, antihypertensive and gastrointestinal protection. In addition to bioactive polysaccharides, the gum exudated by stem of this plant is of commercial importance with wide range of applications in pharmaceutical industries. Various extraction and purification methods as well as combination of methods have been used to isolate and purify moringa polysaccharides. Studies suggest that extraction methods influence the structure of polysaccharides and thus their biological activity. This review summarizes all the available literature to provide updated information related to extraction, purification, modification, structural characterization, bioactivities and potential applications of moringa polysaccharides. This review will provide novel insights for future research and applications of moringa polysaccharides.

A highly branched α-D-glucan facilitates antitumor immunity by reducing cancer cell CXCL5 expression

Tumor immunotherapy has emerged as a major pillar of anticancer therapeutic strategies. Natural polysaccharides, known for their strong immunomodulatory activities with relatively low cost and toxicity, are becoming promising prospects for cancer immunotherapy. In this study, we investigated the antitumor mechanism of JNY2PW, a highly branched α-D-glucan previously purified from the traditional marine Chinese medicine Arca inflata. JNY2PW was shown to enhance the sensitivity of tumor cells to co-culture macrophage supernatants by decreasing cancer cell CXCL5 expression. Furthermore, JNY2PW exerted antitumor effects without obvious toxic side effects in tumor-bearing mice by triggering the Akt/mTOR and ERK/GSK3β/β-catenin pathways and attenuating expression of CXCL5 in cancer cells. Remarkably, JNY2PW reduced tumor proliferation and dampened CXCL5 expression in tumor cells overexpressing CXCL5 both in vitro and in vivo. Additionally, JNY2PW blocked epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in both CXCL5-overexpressing and wild type tumor cells. Our data therefore uncovered a previously unrecognized antitumor mechanism for JNY2PW, suggesting that JNY2PW is a promising adjuvant as an immunomodulator for cancer immunotherapy.

Structures and immunomodulatory activity of one galactose- and arabinose-rich polysaccharide from Sambucus adnata

One galactose- and arabinose-rich polysaccharide isolated from Sambucus adnata was named SPS-1, which had an average molecular weight 138.52 kDa, and was composed of L-rhamnose, D-glucuronic acid, D-galacturonic acid, D-galactose, and L-arabinose in a molar ratio of 0.6:0.4:0.1:4.9:4.0. The primary structure of SPS-1 was further analyzed through methylation and NMR spectroscopy. The results showed that SPS-1 had the structural characteristics of AG-II pectin. The immunoactivity test showed that SPS-1 activated the phosphorylation of MAPKs-related proteins and further elevated the expression levels of related nuclear transcription factors (IκBα and NF-κB p65) in the cells through the TLR2 and MyD88/TRAF6-dependent pathway, thereby significantly enhancing the phagocytosis of macrophages and stimulating the secretion of NO, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, which activated the RAW264.7 cells. Therefore, SPS-1, acting as an immunomodulator, is a potential drug for immunological diseases.

The Structural Characteristics of an Acidic Water-Soluble Polysaccharide from Bupleurum chinense DC and Its In Vivo Anti-Tumor Activity on H22 Tumor-Bearing Mice

This study explored the preliminary structural characteristics and in vivo anti-tumor activity of an acidic water-soluble polysaccharide (BCP) separated purified from Bupleurum chinense DC root. The preliminary structural characterization of BCP was established using UV, HPGPC, FT-IR, IC, NMR, SEM, and Congo red. The results showed BCP as an acidic polysaccharide with an average molecular weight of 2.01 × 10³ kDa. Furthermore, we showed that BCP consists of rhamnose, arabinose, galactose, glucose, and galacturonic acid (with a molar ratio of 0.063:0.788:0.841:1:0.196) in both α- and β-type configurations. Using the H22 tumor-bearing mouse model, we assessed the anti-tumor activity of BCP in vivo. The results revealed the inhibitory effects of BCP on H22 tumor growth and the protective actions against tissue damage of thymus and spleen in mice. In addition, the JC-1 FITC-AnnexinV/PI staining and cell cycle analysis have collectively shown that BCP is sufficient to induce apoptosis and of H22 hepatocarcinoma cells in a dose-dependent manner. The inhibitory effect of BCP on tumor growth was likely attributable to the S phase arrest. Overall, our study presented significant anti-liver cancer profiles of BCP and its promising therapeutic potential as a safe and effective anti-tumor natural agent.

Polysaccharides as Potential Anti-tumor Biomacromolecules —A Review

Cancer, as one of the most life-threatening diseases, has attracted the attention of researchers to develop drugs with minimal side effects. The bioactive macromolecules, such as the polysaccharides, are considered the potential candidates against cancer due to their anti-tumor activities and non-toxic characteristics. The present review provides an overview on polysaccharides' extraction, isolation, purification, mechanisms for their anti-tumor activities, structure-activity relationships, absorption and metabolism of polysaccharides, and the applications of polysaccharides in anti-tumor therapy. Numerous research showed extraction methods of polysaccharides had a significant influence on their activities. Additionally, the anti-tumor activities of the polysaccharides are closely related to their structure, while molecular modification and high bioavailability may enhance the anti-tumor activity. Moreover, most of the polysaccharides exerted an anti-tumor activity mainly through the cell cycle arrest, anti-angiogenesis, apoptosis, and immunomodulation mechanisms. Also, recommendations were made to utilize the polysaccharides against cancer.

Structure characterization, antioxidant capacity, rheological characteristics and expression of biosynthetic genes of exopolysaccharides produced by Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis IMAU11823

Exopolysaccharides (EPSs) from lactic acid bacteria have special functions and complex structures, but the function and structure of EPSs of the important dairy starter, Lactococcus (L.) lactis subsp. lactis, are less known. This study investigated the cytotoxicity, antioxidant capacities, rheological characteristics, chemical structure and expression of biosynthetic genes of EPSs of the L. lactis subsp. lactis IMAU11823. The EPSs showed strong reducing power and no cytotoxicity. EPS-1 comprised glucose and mannose (molar ratio of 7.01: 1.00) and molecular weight was 6.10 × 10⁵ Da, while EPS-2 comprised mannose, glucose and rhamnose (7.45: 1.00: 2.34) and molecular weight was 2.93 × 10⁵ Da. EPS-1 was a linear structure comprised two sugar residues, while EPS-2 was more complex, non-linear, and comprised eight sugar residues. In additions, our study proposed an EPS biosynthesis model for the IMAU11823 strain. The current findings have broadened the understanding of the formation, structure and function of complex EPSs of IMAU11823.

Alginate/κ-carrageenan oral microcapsules loaded with Agaricus bisporus polysaccharides MH751906 for natural killer cells mediated colon cancer immunotherapy

The current study explores the effect of the extracted novel Mushroom polysaccharides and its formulation onto Alginate (Alg.)/kappa carrageenan microcapsules to exert immunotherapeutic effect upon activating gut resident natural killer cells (NK) against colon cancer. The extracted polysaccharides of Agaricus bisporus MH751906 was microcapsulated in Alg/κ-carrageenan microcapsules as an oral delivery system for colon cancer. The microcapsule is characterized by SEM, FTIR, Raman and TGA; and showed a superior acidic stability, controlled release, and thermal stability at high temperature with higher hydrogel swelling rate in colon-mimicking pH. Upon activation of human NK cells with microcapsules (^ANK cells), a significant increase in CD16⁺CD56⁺ NK cell populations were recorded. These activated NK cells showed 74.09% cytotoxic effects against human colon cancer Caco-2 cells where majority of cancer cell populations arrested at G0/G1 phase leading to apoptosis. The apoptotic molecular mechanism induced by ^ANK cells on Caco-2 treated cells is through down regulations of both BCL2 and TGF surviving genes and up regulation in IkappaB-α gene expression. Therefore, this novel polysaccharides-alginate/κ-carrageenan microcapsules can be used as an oral targeted delivery system for colon cancer immunotherapy.

Agaricus bisporus β-(1 → 6)-d-glucan induces M1 phenotype on macrophages and increases sensitivity to doxorubicin of triple negative breast cancer cells

Mushroom β-d-glucans have demonstrated immunomodulatory activity, which is initiated by their recognition by specific receptors on immune system cells surfaces. Studies indicated that β-d-glucans may present a synergistic effect with chemotherapy drugs. In this study, a linear β-(1 → 6)-d-glucan (B16), isolated from A. bisporus and previously characterized (M_w: 8.26 × 10⁴ g/mol), was evaluated about its capacity to modulate THP-1 macrophages towards an M1 phenotype and induce an antitumoral activity. This was evidenced by the production of pro-inflammatory markers upon B16 treatment (30; 100 μg/mL). The breast tumor cells (MDA-MB-231) viability was not affected by treatment with B16, however, their viability markedly decreased upon treatment with the drug doxorubicin. The results showed a synergic effect of B16 and doxorubicin, which reduced the viability of MDA-MB-231 cells by 31%. Furthermore, B16 treatment provided a sustainable M1 state environment and contributed to increase the sensitivity of breast cancer cells to the doxorubicin treatment.

Structure–immunomodulatory activity relationships of dietary polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are usually composed of more than ten monosaccharide units, which are connected by linear or branched glycosidic bonds. The immunomodulatory effect of natural polysaccharides is one of the most important bioactive function. In this review, molecular weight, monosaccharide (including galactose, mannose, rhamnogalacturonan-I arabinogalactan and uronic acid), functional groups (namely sulfate, selenium, and acetyl groups), types of glycoside bond connection (including β-1,3-D-glucosyl, α-1,4-D-glucosyl, β-1,4-D-glucosyl, α-1,6-D-glucosyl, β-1,4-D-mannosyl, and β-1,4-D-Xylopyranosyl), conformation and the branching degrees are systematically identified as their contribution to the immunostimulatory activity of polysaccharides. At present, studies on the structure-activity relationships of polysaccharides are limited due to their low purity and high heterogeneity. However, it is an important step in providing useful guidance for dietary supplements with polysaccharides. The chemical structures and the process of immune responses induced are necessary to be discussed. Polysaccharides may bind with the cell surface receptors to modulate immune responses. This review mainly discusses the structure-activity relationship of dietary polysaccharides.

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Structure - activity relationships of polysaccharides with immune-enhancing effect are proposed.

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Polysaccharides with the higher molecular weight are helpful to improve immunity.

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Higer galactose, mannose, rhamnogalacturonan-I, arabinogalacta,n and uronic acid contents have immunoregulation.

Advance research in biomedical applications on marine sulfated polysaccharide

Marine ecosystem associated organisms are an affluent source of bioactive compounds. Polysaccharides with unique structural and practical entities have gained special studies interest inside the current biomedical zone. Polysaccharides are the main components of marine algae, plants, animals, insects, and microorganisms. In recent times research on seaweed is more persistent for extraction of natural bioactive "Sulfated polysaccharides" (SPs). The considerable amount of SP exists in the algae in the form of fucans, fucoidans, carrageenans, ulvan, etc. Major function of SPs is to act as a defensive lattice towards the infective organism. All SPs possess the high potential and possess a broad range of therapeutic applications as antitumor, immunomodulatory, vaccine adjuvant, anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant, antiviral, antiprotozoal, antimicrobial, antilipemic, therapy of regenerative medicine, also in drug delivery and tissue engineering application. This review aims to discuss the biomedicine applications of sulfated polysaccharides from marine seaweeds.

Marine Bioactive Compounds as Nutraceutical and Functional Food Ingredients for Potential Oral Health

Oral diseases have received considerable attention worldwide as one of the major global public health problems. The development of oral diseases is influenced by socioeconomic, physiological, traumatic, biological, dietary and hygienic practices factors. Currently, the main prevention strategy for oral diseases is to inhibit the growth of biofilm-producing plaque bacteria. Tooth brushing is the most common method of cleaning plaque, aided by mouthwash and sugar-free chewing gum in the daily routine. As the global nutraceutical market grows, marine bioactive compounds are becoming increasingly popular among consumers for their antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and antitumor properties. However, to date, few systematic summaries and studies on the application of marine bioactive compounds in oral health exist. This review provides a comprehensive overview of different marine-sourced bioactive compounds and their health benefits in dental caries, gingivitis, periodontitis, halitosis, oral cancer, and their potential use as functional food ingredients for oral health. In addition, limitations and challenges of the application of these active ingredients are discussed and some observations on current work and future trends are presented in the conclusion section.