Effect of the carthamins yellow from Carthamus tinctorius L. on hemorheological disorders of blood stasis in rats

Effects of Tao-Hong-Si-Wu decoction on acute blood stasis in rats based on a LC-Q/TOF-MS metabolomics and network approach

A novel approach using metabolomics coupled with a metabolic network was used to investigate the effects of Tao-Hong-Si-Wu decoction (THSWD) on the rat model of acute blood stasis syndrome. Acute blood stasis syndrome was induced by placing the rats in ice-cold water following two injections with epinephrine. The hemorheological indicators [whole blood viscosity (WBV) and plasma viscosity (PV)] and the blood coagulation indicators [thrombin time (TT), prothrombin time (PT), activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) and fibrinogen (FIB)] were detected. The nonparametric univariate method and multivariate statistical analysis were performed for determining the potential biomarkers. A correlation map was structured between biochemical indicators and hub metabolites to explain the effects mechanism of THSWD. After the administration of THSWD, the levels of WBV, PV, TT, APTT and FIB returned to levels observed in the control group. According to metabolomics coupled with metabolic network analysis, the intervention of THSWD in rats with acute blood stasis syndrome induced substantial and characteristic changes in their metabolic profiles. Fifteen metabolites were screened, which mainly involved 10 pathways and five hub metabolites, namely, l-glutamate, l-phenylalanine, N-acylsphingosine, arachidonic acid and phosphatidate. The biochemical indicators and hub metabolites could be adjusted to close to normal levels by THSWD. Therefore, combining metabolomics and metabolic network helped to evaluate the effects of THSWD on acute blood stasis.

Protective Effects of Total Flavones of Elaeagnus rhamnoides (L.) A. Nelson against Vascular Endothelial Injury in Blood Stasis Model Rats

The aim was to evaluate the protective effects of total flavones of Elaeagnus rhamnoides (L.) A. Nelson (TFE) against vascular endothelial injury in blood stasis model rats and explore the potential mechanisms preliminarily. The model of blood stasis rat model with vascular endothelial injury was induced by subcutaneous injection of adrenaline combined with ice-water bath. Whole blood viscosity (WBV), histological examination, and prothrombin time (PT), activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), and fibrinogen (FIB) were measured. Meanwhile, the levels of Thromboxane B2 (TXB2), 6-keto-PGF1α , von Willebrand factor (vWF), and thrombomodulin (TM) were detected. In addition, Quantitative Real-Time PCR (qPCR) was performed to identify PI3K, Erk2, Bcl-2, and caspase-3 gene expression. The results showed that TFE can relieve WBV, increase PT and APTT, and decrease FIB content obviously. Moreover, TFE might significantly downregulate the levels of TXB2, vWF, and TM in plasma and upregulate the level of 6-keto-PGF1α in plasma. Expressions of PI3K and Bcl-2 were increased and the expression of caspase-3 was decreased by TFE pretreatment in the rat model. Consequently, the study suggested that TFE may have the potential against vascular endothelial injury in blood stasis model rats induced by a high dose of adrenaline with ice-water bath.

Antithrombotic effect and mechanism of Rubus spp. Blackberry

The compounds of Rubus spp. Blackberry (RSB) were isolated and identified by a bioassay-guided method, and their antithrombotic effects and mechanism were investigated with the acute blood stasis rat model. The RSB extract was evaluated by activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), thrombin time (TT), prothrombin time (PT), and fibrinogen (FIB) assays in vitro. Results indicated that RSB extract exhibited anticoagulant activity. In addition to compounds 1 and 6, the other compounds also exhibited anticoagulant activity in vitro. Therefore, the in vivo antithrombosis effects of RSB extract were investigated by measuring whole blood viscosity (WBV), plasma viscosity (PV), APTT, PT, TT, and FIB. Meanwhile, the levels of thromboxane B2 (TXB₂), 6-keto prostaglandin F1α (6-keto-PGF1α), endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and ET-1 (endothelin-1) were measured. Results suggested that RSB extract had inhibitory effects on thrombus formation, and its antithrombotic effects were associated with the regulation of vascular endothelium active substance, activation of blood flow and an anticoagulation effect.

Cyclodextrins increase phytosterol and tocopherol levels in suspension cultured cells obtained from mung beans and safflower

In this work, suspension-cultured cells of mung beans and safflower were used in order to analyze the effect of methyl jasmonate and/or cyclodextrins, on bioactive compound production such as phytosterols and tocopherols. The results indicated that mung bean suspension-cultured cells produced higher amount of total phytosterols and tocopherols. In particular, mung bean suspension-cultured cells produced almost 220-fold higher levels of tocopherols than safflower suspension-cultured cells in the best conditions. However, while cyclodextrins were able to enhance extracellular production of phytosterols, in the case of tocopherols, they only increased their intracellular accumulation. Our results showed that mung bean cells could be used as a highly efficient system for the production of phytosterols and tocopherols which have a wide range of biological activities. © 2017 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 33:1662-1665, 2017.

Carthamin yellow inhibits matrix degradation and inflammation induced by LPS in the intervertebral disc via suppression of MAPK pathway activation

Carthamin yellow (CY), which is a flavonoid compound isolated from safflower, has various pharmacological effects including promoting blood circulation to remove blood stasis and alleviating pain. CY is a herb used in Chinese traditional medicines. Intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) is a common spinal disorder and degeneration of nucleus pulposus (NP) cells and inflammation are significant parts of the pathological cascade. The curative effect of CY on NP cells in association with degeneration and inflammation remains to be elucidated. In the present study, rat NP cells were isolated, cultured and used to detect the suppressive effects of CY on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced genetic expression variation and the expression of matrix degradation enzymes, including matrix metallopeptidase-3, ADAM metallopeptidase with thrombospondin type 1 motif (ADAMTS)-4 and ADAMTS-5. A protective effect of CY on NP cells was observed against LPS-induced matrix degradation and inflammation. Western blotting results demonstrated that pretreatment with CY significantly suppressed the LPS-induced activation of the mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. The results of the present study suggested that CY exerted anti-degenerative and anti-inflammatory effects on NP cells via inhibition of MAPK pathway activation. Therefore, CY may be a potential therapeutic drug for the treatment of IDD in the future.

Hydroxysafflor Yellow A Suppresses MRC-5 Cell Activation Induced by TGF-β1 by Blocking TGF-β1 Binding to TβRII

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) is an active ingredient of Carthamus tinctorius L.. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of HSYA on transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1)-induced changes in proliferation, migration, differentiation, and extracellular matrix accumulation and degradation in human fetal lung fibroblasts (MRC-5), to explore the mechanisms whereby HSYA may alleviate pulmonary fibrosis. MRC-5 cells were incubated with various doses of HSYA and/or the TGF-β receptor type I kinase inhibitor SB431542 and then stimulated with TGF-β1. Cell proliferation was measured by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfo-phenyl)-2H-tetrazolium inner salt assay. Cell migration was detected by wound-healing assay. Protein levels of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), collagen I α 1 (COL1A1), and fibronectin (FN) were measured by immunofluorescence. Protein levels of matrix metalloproteinase-2, tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase-1, tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase-2, TGF-β type II receptor (TβRII), and TGF-β type I receptor were detected by western blotting. TβRII knockdown with siRNA interfered with the inhibitory effect of HSYA on α-SMA, COL1A1, and FN expression, and TGF-β1-induced Sma and Mad protein (Smad), and extracellular signal-regulated kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway activation. The antagonistic effect of HSYA on the binding of fluorescein isothiocyanate-TGF-β1 to MRC-5 cell cytoplasmic receptors was measured by flow cytometry. HSYA significantly suppressed TGF-β1-induced cell proliferation and migration. HSYA could antagonize the binding of FITC-TGF-β1 to MRC-5 cell cytoplasmic receptors. Also HSYA inhibited TGF-β1-activated cell expression of α-SMA, COL1A1, and FN and phosphorylation level of Smad2, Smad3, and ERK by targeting TβRII in MRC-5 cells. These findings suggest that TβRII might be the target responsible for the inhibitory effects of HSYA on TGF-β1-induced pathological changes in pulmonary fibrosis.

Application of a strategy based on metabolomics guided promoting blood circulation bioactivity compounds screening of vinegar

Background

Rice vinegar (RV) and white vinegar (WV) as daily flavoring, have also used as accessory in traditional Chinese medicine processing. As we know, the promoting blood circulation efficiency could be enhanced when herbs processed by vinegar. Number of reports focused on health benefits derived by consumption of vinegar. However, few concerned the blood circulation bioactivity.

Methods

In this paper, a metabolomics guided strategy was proposed to elaborate on the chemical constituents’ variation of two kinds of vinegar. GC–MS coupled with multivariate statistical analysis were conducted to analyze the chemical components in RV and WV and discriminate these two kinds of vinegar. The anti-platelet activities in vitro were investigated by whole blood aggregometry platelet test. And the anticoagulant activities were monitored by the whole blood viscosity, plasma viscosity, packed cell volume, prothrombin time, and four coagulation tests (PT, TT, APTT, FIB) in vivo.

Results

Constituents of RV and WV were globally characterized and 33 potential biomarkers were identified. The contents of four potential alkaloid biomarkers increased with aging time prolonged in RV. RV and its alkaloids metabolites exhibited some anti-platelet effects in vitro and anticoagulant activities in vivo. WV failed to exhibit promoting effects.

Conclusions

Alkaloid metabolites were demonstrated to be the principal compounds contributing to discrimination and it increased with aging time prolonged in RV. RV exhibited the blood circulation bioactivity. The alkaloids of RV contributed to the blood circulation bioactivity.Graphical abstract

Pharmacokinetic herb-drug interaction of Xuesaitong dispersible tablet and aspirin after oral administration in blood stasis model rats

BACKGROUND

Xuesaitong dispersible tablet (XST) product has been clinically proven to be effective for treating cardio-cerebrovascular disease. Furthermore, herb-drug interactions between the XST product and drugs that are commonly co-administered, such as aspirin (ASA), must be explored to ensure safe clinical use.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

The current study aims to investigate whether the XST product interacts with ASA when they are administered concomitantly to ensure safety and efficacy. A ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) method was developed for the simultaneous determination of ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1), ginsenoside Rd (Rd), notoginsenoside R1 (R1) and salicylic acid (SA) in rat plasma to investigate the pharmacokinetic interaction of XST and ASA in blood stasis model rats.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

The ASA and XST combination noticeably altered R1 and Rg1 absorption, distribution and disposition. This study indicates that co-administration of XST and ASA can cause an apparent herb-drug pharmacokinetic interaction in blood stasis model rats.

Antithrombotic Effect and Mechanism of Radix Paeoniae Rubra

The compounds of Radix Paeoniae Rubra (RPR) were isolated and identified by bioassay-guided method, and antithrombotic effects and mechanism were investigated by the acute blood stasis rat model. The RPR extract was evaluated by APTT, TT, PT, and FIB assays in vitro. Results indicated that RPR extract exhibited the anticoagulant activity. In order to find active compounds, six compounds were isolated and identified, and four compounds, paeoniflorin (Pae), pentagalloylglucose (Pen), albiflorin (Ali), and protocatechuic acid (Pro), exhibited the anticoagulant activity in vitro. Therefore, the antithrombosis effects of RPR extract and four active compounds were investigated in vivo by measuring whole blood viscosity (WBV), plasma viscosity (PV), APTT, PT, TT, and FIB. Meanwhile, the levels of TXB₂, 6-Keto-PGF_1α, eNOS, and ET-1 were detected. Results suggested that RPR extract and four active compounds had the inhibition effect on thrombus formation, and the antithrombotic effects were associated with the regulation of vascular endothelium active substance, activating blood flow and anticoagulation effect.

Cardiovascular aspects of geriatric medicines in traditional Persian medicine; a review of phytochemistry and pharmacology

BACKGROUND

Geriatrics are a group of patients over 65 years and with multiple comorbidities and different functional impairments. Apart from decline in body mass, presence of exhaustion and general fatigue, an aged person may also suffer from various disorders. Approximately, around 30% of geriatric subjects have significant cardiovascular ailments. Apart from the intensive management of cardiovascular aspects in elderly, monitoring of the complementary cardiac medicine in those people should be received more attention.

PURPOSE

There are many management lines for a cardio-geriatric condition in Traditional Persian Medicine (TPM). Accordingly, this paper aimed to deal with those medicaments as well as evidence-based clinical aspects and phytochemistry.

METHODS

By searching through main pharmaceutical manuscripts of Persian medicine during 10th-18th centuries (A.D.), concurrently, natural medicines for geriatrics and remedies for cardiovascular ailments were derived. On the other side, related phytochemical and pharmacological aspects of those remedies were highlighted.

RESULTS

In all, 38 cardiovascular and 34 geriatric medicaments were found in those manuscripts. Antihyperlipidemic and cholesterol lowering activities of those medicines were the most reported activities in current medicine. However, other pharmacological reports were related to hypotensive, coagulant, cardio-protective and cardiotonic activities. In regard of the chemical composition, medicaments were mainly of polyphenols and flavonoids and also most of the employed extracts and fractions were yielded from polar or semi-polar solvents.

CONCLUSION

With reference to these findings, flavonoid-rich medicaments from Persian medicine may be selected as considerable herbs for geriatrics with cardiovascular ailments.

Safflower yellow ameliorates cognition deficits and reduces tau phosphorylation in APP/PS1 transgenic mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common cause of dementia worldwide, is mainly characterized by the aggregated β-amyloid (Aβ) and hyperphosphorylated tau. Safflower yellow (SY) is a novel water extract of natural safflower and has been suggested to ameliorate memory deficits in several animal models of dementia. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effect and mechanism of SY on deficits of learning and memory and hyperphosphorylation of tau in APP/PS1 double transgenic mice. APP/PS1 mice were administered with SY (10, 30, 100 mg/kg) by oral gavage for three months at the age of six months. The ability of learning and memory was investigated using the step-down test and Morris water maze test, and protein level in the brain was evaluated using western blot. Here, we found that SY treatment can improve spatial learning and memory ability, and reduce tau hyperphosphorylation at Ser199, Thr205, Ser396, Ser404 sites in APP/PS1 mice. In addition, the activity the of cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK-5) and glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β), major kinases involved in tau phosphorylation, was siginificantly decreased in APP/PS1 mice by SY treatment. These results support SY can serve as a promising multitarget neuronal therapeutic agent for the treatment of AD.

Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Carthamus tinctorius L

Carthamus tinctorius L. is a multifunctional cash crop. Its flowers and seeds are extensively used in traditional herbal medicine in China, Korea, Japan, and other Asian countries, for treating various ailments such as gynecological, cardiovascular, and cerebrovascular diseases as well as blood stasis and osteoporosis. More than 100 compounds have been isolated and identified from C. tinctorius. Flavonoids and alkaloids, especially the quinochalcone c-glycoside hydroxysafflor yellow A, N-(p-Coumaroyl)serotonin, and N-feruloylserotonin, are responsible for most of the pharmacological activities of C. tinctorius. In this paper, comprehensive and up-to-date information on the phytochemistry and pharmacology of C. tinctorius is presented. This information will be helpful for further explorations of the therapeutic potential of C. tinctorius and may provide future research opportunities.

Synergistic Antihypertensive Effect of Carthamus tinctorius L. Extract and Captopril in L-NAME-Induced Hypertensive Rats via Restoration of eNOS and AT₁R Expression

This study examined the effect of Carthamus tinctorius (CT) extract plus captopril treatment on blood pressure, vascular function, nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability, oxidative stress and renin-angiotensin system (RAS) in N(ω)-Nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME)-induced hypertension. Rats were treated with l-NAME (40 mg/kg/day) for five weeks and given CT extract (75 or 150 or 300 or 500 mg/kg/day): captopril (5 mg/kg/day) or CT extract (300 mg/kg/day) plus captopril (5 mg/kg/day) for two consecutive weeks. CT extract reduced blood pressure dose-dependently, and the most effective dose was 300 mg/kg/day. l-NAME-induced hypertensive rats showed abnormalities including high blood pressure, high vascular resistance, impairment of acetylcholine-induced vasorelaxation in isolated aortic rings and mesenteric vascular beds, increased vascular superoxide production and plasma malondialdehyde levels, downregulation of eNOS, low level of plasma nitric oxide metabolites, upregulation of angiotensin II type 1 receptor and increased plasma angiotensin II. These abnormalities were alleviated by treatment with either CT extract or captopril. Combination treatment of CT extract and captopril normalized all the abnormalities found in hypertensive rats except endothelial dysfunction. These data indicate that there are synergistic antihypertensive effects of CT extract and captopril. These effects are likely mediated by their anti-oxidative properties and their inhibition of RAS.

Comparative studies of pharmacokinetics and anticoagulatory effect in rats after oral administration of Frankincense and its processed products

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Frankincense (FRA), Ruxiang, is the resin of Boswellia carterii Birdw and Boswellia bhaw-dajiana Birdw which has been used for centuries as formulas to improve the circulation and to relieve pain against carbuncles. Stir-fried Frankincense (SFF) and vinegar processed Frankincense (VPF) are two major processed Frankincense, and the processing procedures reportedly enhance the curative efficacy or reduce the side effects of FRA. This paper describes the comparisons in plasma pharmacokinetic behaviors of 11-keto-β-boswellic acid (KBA) and 3-acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid (AKBA) in FRA and its processed products, and their effects on coagulation factors and blood clotting tetrachoric, using an acute cold blood-stasis animal model after oral administration of FRA, SFF, and VPF.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For pharmacokinetic study, Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were randomly divided into three groups, including group FRA, group SFF and group VPF. And the plasma samples were analyzed by HPLC. For study of anticoagulatory effect, SD rats were randomly divided into six groups, including control, acute cold blood-stasis model, Fu-fang-dan-shen tablet- (0.75g/kg), FRA-, SFF-, and VPF-treated (2.7g/kg) groups, respectively. The serum contents of thrombin-antithrombin complex (TAT), D-dimer (D-D), and prostacyclin (PGI2) of each group were measured by ELISA. The values of prothrombin time (PT), thrombin time (TT), activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) and fibrinogen (FIB) were also assessed by hematology analyzer.

RESULTS

Significantly increased levels of Cmax, AUC, T1/2, and MRT were found in rats treated with the processed products. In addition, decreased levels of D-D and TAT and increased contents of PGI2 were observed in rats given FRA and its processed products, compared with that of the model group. Moreover, VPF improved anticoagulation more than SFF in the animals.

CONCLUSIONS

The observed improvement of anticoagulation by processed FRA may result from the increased absorption and bioavailability of triterpenoids.

Development of Orally Active Thrombin Inhibitors for the Treatment of Thrombotic Disorder Diseases

Thrombotic disorders represent the major share of the various cardiovascular diseases, and significant progress has been made in the development of synthetic thrombin inhibitors as new anticoagulants. In addition to the development of highly potent and selective inhibitors with improved safety and suitable half-life, several allosteric inhibitors have been designed and synthesized, that did not fully nullify the procoagulant signal and thus could result in reduced bleeding complications. Furthermore, natural products with thrombin inhibitory activity have been isolated, and some natural products have been modified in order to improve their inhibitory activity and metabolic stability. This review summarizes the development of orally active thrombin inhibitors for the treatment of thrombotic disorder diseases, which could serve as a reference for the interested researchers.

Administration of Danhong Injection to diabetic db/db mice inhibits the development of diabetic retinopathy and nephropathy

Danhong Injection (DHI), a Chinese medicine for treatment of patients with coronary heart disease, inhibits primary abdominal aortic aneurysms in apoE deficient (apoE^−/−) mice. Formation of microaneurysms plays an important role in the development of diabetic retinopathy and nephropathy. It remains unknown if DHI can reduce these diabetic complications. In this study, diabetic db/db mice in two groups were injected with saline and DHI, respectively, for 14 weeks. Blood and tissue samples were collected to determine serum glucose, lipids and tissue structure. DHI reduced diabetes-induced body weight gain, serum cholesterol and glucose levels. In retinas, DHI blocked the shrink of whole retina and retinal sub-layers by inhibiting expression of caspase 3, matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2) and MMP-9, accumulation of carbohydrate macromolecules and formation of acellular capillaries. DHI improved renal functions by inhibiting mesangial matrix expansion, expression of vascular endothelial growth factor A, fibronectin and advanced glycation end products in kidneys. Mechanistically, DHI induced expression of glucokinase, AMPKα/phosphorylated AMPKα, insulin receptor substrate 1, fibroblast growth factor 21 and peroxisome proliferator-activated γ. Expression of genes responsible for energy expenditure was also activated by DHI. Therefore, DHI inhibits diabetic retinopathy and nephropathy by ameliorating glucose metabolism and demonstrates a potential application in clinics.

Intervention effects of puerarin on blood stasis in rats revealed by a (1)H NMR-based metabonomic approach

Puerarin possesses a wide spectrum of biological activities including ameliorating effects on blood stasis, but the definite mechanism of this effect is still not known. In this study, a (1)H NMR-based plasma and urinary metabonomic approach was applied to comprehensively and holistically investigate the therapeutic effects of puerarin on blood stasis and its underlying mechanisms. Puerarin was injected intraperitoneally once daily for consecutive 7 days. The blood stasis rat model was established by placing the rats in ice-cold water during the time interval between two injections of adrenaline. With pattern recognition analysis, a clear separation of blood stasis model group and healthy control group was achieved and puerarin pretreatment group was located much closer to the control group than the model group, which was consistent with results of hemorheology studies. 15 and 10 potential biomarkers associated with blood stasis in plasma and urine, respectively, which were mainly involved in energy metabolism, lipid and membrane metabolisms, amino acid metabolism and gut microbiota metabolism, were identified. Puerarin could prevent blood stasis through partially regulating the disturbed metabolic pathways. This work highlights that metabonomics is a valuable tool for studying the essence of blood stasis as well as evaluating the efficacy of the corresponding drug treatment.

Xueshuan Xinmaining Tablet Treats Blood Stasis through Regulating the Expression of F13a1, Car1, and Tbxa2r

Xueshuan Xinmaining Tablet (XXT), the Chinese formula, has long been administered in clinical practice for the treatment of cerebral thrombosis and coronary heart disease. In this study, we aimed to study the effect and the molecular mechanism of activating blood circulation and removing blood stasis. Rat models of cold coagulation blood stasis were induced with ice-water bath and epinephrine to assess the amelioration of blood stasis by XXT. Microarray technique was used to identify gene expression from the model and XXT-treated rats. In addition, Quantitative Real-Time PCR (qPCR) was performed to verify the microarray results. The results showed that XXT had a good therapeutic effect on blood stasis by reducing the whole blood viscosity (WBV), plasma viscosity (PV), increasing PT, APTT and TT, and by inhibiting platelet aggregation. Genes were differentially expressed in rats among the model group and the XXT-pretreated groups. XXT ameliorated blood stasis by regulating the expressions of F13a1, Car1, and Tbxa2r.

Protective effects of hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) on alcohol-induced liver injury in rats

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), the main active natural constituent extracted from Carthamus tinctorius L., has been widely used for the treatment of cerebrovascular and cardiovascular diseases. The aim of this study is to explore the effect of HSYA on alcohol-induced liver injury and the underlying mechanism. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were used to establish the liver injury model induced by alcohol. HSYA treatment ameliorated serum biochemical indicators by reducing the levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), hyaluronan (HA), laminin (LN), and type III precollagen (III-C) in rats. HSYA efficiently increased the activity and messenger RNA (mRNA) of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) in rat liver tissue compared with those of model group, which was obviously reduced by alcohol. HSYA also apparently decreased the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in rat liver tissue compared with those of model group, which was obviously enhanced by alcohol. Histological studies demonstrated that HSYA substantially reduced the number of macro- and micro-vesicular steatosis, suppressed hepatic fibrogenesis and shrunk ballooning degeneration areas, ameliorated the severity of liver damage induced by long-term drinking, and finally improved the liver architecture. In addition, immunohistochemistry study indicated that the activation of transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) stimulated by alcohol in rat liver tissue was significantly blocked by HSYA. Collectively, these data demonstrated that HSYA can effectively protect the liver of rats from long-term alcohol injury, which relates with the enhanced antioxidant capacity of liver tissues and inhibition of TGF-β1 expression.

Improvement and Application of Acute Blood Stasis Rat Model Aligned with the 3Rs (Reduction, Refinement and Replacement) of Humane Animal Experimentation

OBJECTIVE

To establish a novel cardiocentesis method for withdrawing venous blood from the right atrium, and to improve an acute blood stasis rat model using an ice bath and epinephrine hydrochloride (Epi) while considering the 3Rs (reduction, refinement, and replacement) of humane animal experimentation.

METHODS

An acute blood stasis model was established in male Sprague-Dawley rats by subcutaneous injection (s.c.) Epi (1.2 mg/kg) administration at 0 h, followed by a 5-min exposure to an ice-bath at 2 h and s.c. Epi administration at 4 h. Control rats received physiological saline. Rats were fasted overnight and treated with Angelicae Sinensis Lateralis Radix (ASLR) and Pheretima the following day. Venous blood was collected using our novel cardiocentesis method and used to test whole blood viscosity (WBV), prothrombin time (PT), activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), and fibrinogen (FIB) content.

RESULTS

The rats survived the novel cardiocentesis technique; WBV value returned to normal while hematological parameters such as hemoglobin level and red blood cell count were restored to >94% of the corresponding values in normal rats following a 14-day recovery. Epi (1.2 mg/kg, s.c.) combined with a 5-min exposure to the ice bath replicated the acute blood stasis rat model and was associated with the highest WBV value. In rats showing acute blood stasis, ASLR treatment [4 g/(kg·d) for 8 days] decreased WBV by 9.98%, 11.09%, 9.34%, 9.00%, 7.66%, and 7.03% (P<0.05), while Pheretima treatment [2.6 g/(kg·d), for 8 days] decreased WBV by 25.49%, 25.94%, 16.28%, 17.76%, 11.07%, and 7.89% (P<0.01) at shear rates of 1, 3, 10, 30, 100, and 180 s^-1, respectively. Furthermore, Pheretima treatment increased APTT significantly (P<0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

We presented a stable, reproducible, and improved acute blood stasis rat model, which could be applied to screen drugs for promoting blood circulation and eliminating blood stasis.

Danhong injection inhibits the development of atherosclerosis in both Apoe⁻/⁻ and Ldlr⁻/⁻ mice

Danhong injection (DHI), a certificated Chinese medical product made from radix salviae miltiorrhizae and flos carthami, is prescribed to patients with coronary heart disease in China. To investigate if DHI can inhibit atherosclerosis, apolipoprotein E-deficient (Apoe⁻/⁻) or low-density lipoprotein receptor-deficient (Ldlr⁻/⁻) mice on high-fat diet were divided into 2 groups and received daily intraperitoneal injection of saline and DHI, respectively, for 16 or 20 weeks. After the treatment, mouse aortas were collected to determine lesions, expression of adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette transporter A1 and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and macrophage accumulation. Additionally, serum lipid profiles and expression of hepatic HMG-CoA reductase messenger RNA and low-density lipoprotein receptor protein were determined. We observed that DHI inhibited lesions in both Apoe⁻/⁻ and Ldlr⁻/⁻ mice. Associated with the decreased lesions, the aortic adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette transporter A1 expression was increased, whereas the macrophage accumulation was decreased in male Apoe⁻/⁻ mice and both male and female Ldlr⁻/⁻ mice. Although DHI reduced HMG-CoA reductase messenger RNA expression in both female Apoe⁻/⁻ and Ldlr⁻/⁻ mice, it decreased low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels only in female Apoe⁻/⁻ mice. In addition to attenuation of lipopolysaccharide-induced expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 in macrophages, and human C-reactive protein in hepatocytes, respectively, at the transcriptional level in vitro, DHI also reduced TNF-α protein expression in aortic root of both Apoe⁻/⁻ and Ldlr⁻/⁻ mice, suggesting the importance of the anti-inflammatory properties of DHI in the inhibition of lesion development. Taken together, our study demonstrates that DHI inhibits atherosclerosis in both Apoe⁻/⁻ and Ldlr⁻/⁻ mice with various mechanisms, including anti-inflammation. The inhibition of atherosclerosis can be attributed to the cardioprotective properties of DHI.

Huangqi-Honghua combination and its main components ameliorate cerebral infarction with Qi deficiency and blood stasis syndrome by antioxidant action in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Combination of Radix Astragali (Huangqi) and Carthamus tinctorius L. (Honghua) has been extensively used as traditional herb medicine in China for the treatment of stroke and myocardial ischemia diseases with Qi deficiency and blood stasis (QDBS) syndrome.

AIM

To investigate the effect of Huangqi-Honghua combination (HH) and its main components astragaloside IV (AS-IV) and Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) on cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (IR) with QDBS in rat model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male rats were randomly divided into the following six groups: sham group, QDBS+I/R model group and treatment group including AS-IV, HSYA, AS-IV+HSYA and HH. The whole blood viscosity (WBV), plasma viscosity (PV), neurological examination, infarct volume, histopathology changes and some oxidative stress markers were assessed after 24h of reperfusion.

RESULTS

HH and its main components AS-IV+HSYA could significantly decrease WBV, PV, and also significantly ameliorate neurological examination and infarct volume after 24h of reperfusion. They also significantly increased expression of Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), activities of antioxidants, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), led to decrease levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and reactive oxygen species (ROS).

CONCLUSION

AS-IV and HSYA are responsible for the main curative effects of HH. The study may provide scientific information to further understanding the mechanism(s) of HH and its main components in removing blood stasis and ameliorating cerebral infarction. Additionally, AS-IV and HSYA appear to have synergistic effects on neuroprotection.

Antioxidant effects of Genkwa flos flavonoids on Freund׳s adjuvant-induced rheumatoid arthritis in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Genkwa flos (Daphne genkwa Sieb. et Zucc.), a Chinese herbal medicine, has been traditionally used for over two thousand years in China for inflammation related symptoms, including joint pain. To evaluate the antioxidative effects of flavonoid aglycones (FA) isolated from Genkwa flos on adjuvant arthritis in rats and to identify the relationship between antioxidant potential and whole blood viscosity (WBV).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

FA compounds were identified using LC-MS and the content was assayed by HPLC. Arthritis was induced by an intradermal injection of Freund׳s complete adjuvant in the footpad. The effects of FA on paw volumes, secondary arthritis scores, histopathology of joints, and body and organ weights were measured. The antioxidant effects of FA and WBV were determined.

RESULTS

LC-MS analysis showed that the FA contained four major compounds: luteolin, apigenin, hydroxygenkwanin and genkwanin. FA significantly decreased paw edema, arthritis scores, and weight loss. These observations were consistent with the reduction of oxidative stress and the improvement of the WBV.

CONCLUSION

FA significantly decreased arthritis in a rat model through antioxidant and hemorheological modulatory mechanisms. The Genkwa flos flavonoids may have clinical potential for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.

Comparative pharmacokinetics of rhein and chrysophanol after oral administration of Quyu Qingre granules in normal and acute blood stasis rabbits

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Quyu Qingre granules (QYQRGs) are useful traditional Chinese composite prescription in the treatment of blood stasis syndrome. Comparing differences of pharmacokinetic properties of compounds in QYQRG between normal and blood stasis syndrome rabbits can provide much helpful information. The primary objective of this study was to compare the pharmacokinetics of rhein and chrysophanol after orally administering 2.0 g/kg b.w. QYQRG in normal and acute blood stasis model rabbits.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The blood samples were collected subsequently at 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 120, 240, 360 and 480 min after orally administrating QYQRG. The concentrations of rhein and chrysophanol in rabbit plasma were determined by HPLC and main pharmacokinetic parameters were obtained.

RESULTS

The pharmacokinetic parameters AUC(0-∞), T(lag), Cmax and K21 of both rhein and chrysophanol were markedly different in the acute blood stasis model rabbits. It was also found that parameters A, β, MRT and T(1/2β) of rhein and the parameters α and T1/2α of chrysophanol all exhibited significant difference between the normal and acute blood stasis model rabbits.

CONCLUSIONS

The absorption time of rhein and chrysophanol was accelerated and the absorption amount of these two compounds was increased in rabbits with acute blood stasis, suggesting that rhein and chrysophanol would possibly be the two effective compounds in QYQRG.

Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of extract and two isolated flavonoids of Carthamus tinctorius L

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) has been long used both in the traditional system and folk medicine as an analgesic anti-inflammatory agent in China. The aim of the study was to evaluate the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of hydroalcoholic extract (HE) and two isolated kaempferol glycosides of Carthamus tinctorius L. to provide experimental evidence for its traditional use.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Antinociceptive effects of HE, kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside (K-3-R) and kaempferol 3-O-glucoside (K-3-G) were assessed in mice using the acetic acid-induced writhing test, formalin test and cinnamaldehyde test. The anti-inflammatory effects of HE, K-3-R and K-3-G were determined in two animal models: carrageenan-induced paw edema and xylene-induced ear edema.

RESULTS

The HPLC analysis showed the presence of K-3-R and K-3-G in Carthamus tinctorius L. HE (500 and 1000mg/kg) as well as K-3-R and K-3-G (150, 300 and 600mg/kg) produced significant inhibition on nociception induced by acetic acid and formalin. Oral treatment of HE, K-3-R and K-3-G at all doses significantly reduced both the nociceptive response and cinnamaldehyde-induced paw edema, effect that was superior to aspirin. In anti-inflammatory tests, HE and K-3-G significantly inhibited the paw edema during the both phases of carrageenan-induced inflammation while K-3-G suppressed the late phase inflammation only. HE (400 and 800mg/kg) and K-3-G (200, 400, 800mg/kg) produced significant dose-dependent inhibition of xylene-induced ear edema development. K-3-R only suppressed ear edema formation at a high dose (800mg/kg).

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that Carthamus tinctorius L. extract possess remarkable antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities which may be due to K-3-R and K-3-G at least in part, supporting the folkloric usage of the plant to treat various inflammatory and pain diseases.

Characterization of the herb-derived components in rats following oral administration of Carthamus tinctorius extract by extracting diagnostic fragment ions (DFIs) in the MSn chromatograms

An E(DFI)MSⁿCs-based strategy was proposed to rapidly detect and identify the in vivo components derived from the extract of Carthamus tinctorius using LC-IT-TOF-MSⁿ.

Towards a better understanding of medicinal uses of Carthamus tinctorius L. in traditional Chinese medicine: a phytochemical and pharmacological review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Carthamus tinctorius L. (Compositae), a widely used traditional Chinese medicine, was known as Hong hua (Chinese: ), safflower. Safflower with a wide spectrum of pharmacological effects has been used to treat dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, postpartum abdominal pain and mass, trauma and pain of joints, etc. The present paper reviews the advancements in investigation of botany and ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of safflower. Finally, the possible tendency and perspective for future investigation of this plant are discussed, too.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The information on safflower was collected via piles of resources including classic books about Chinese herbal medicine, and scientific databases including Pubmed, Google Scholar, ACS, Web of science, CNKI and others.

RESULTS

Over 104 compounds from this plant have been isolated and identified, and quinochalcones and flavonoids are considered as the characteristic and active constituents of safflower. Safflower with its active compounds possesses wide-reaching biological activities, including dilating coronary artery, improving myocardial ischemia, modulating immune system, anticoagulation and antithrombosis, antioxidation, antiaging, antihypoxia, antifatigue, antiinflammation, anti-hepatic fibrosis, antitumor, analgesia, etc.

CONCLUSIONS

As an important traditional Chinese medicine, it is important to investigate the pharmacological effects and molecular mechanisms of this plant based on modern realization of diseases' pathophysiology. More bioactive components should be identified using bioactivity-guided isolation strategies, and the possible mechanism of action as well as potential synergistic or antagonistic effects of multi-component mixtures derived from safflower need to be evaluated integrating pharmacological, pharmacokinetic, bioavailability-centered and physiological approaches. Further studies on safflower can lead to the development of new drugs and therapeutics for various diseases, and how to utilize it better should be paid more attention to.

Network-based biomarkers for cold coagulation blood stasis syndrome and the therapeutic effects of shaofu zhuyu decoction in rats

In this study, the reverse docking methodology was applied to predict the action targets and pathways of Shaofu Zhuyu decoction (SFZYD) bioactive ingredients. Furthermore, Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) cold coagulation blood stasis (CCBS) syndrome was induced in female Sprague-Dawley rats with an ice-water bath and epinephrine, and SFZYD was used to treat CCBS syndrome. A metabolomic approach was used to evaluate changes in the metabolic profiles and to analyze the pharmacological mechanism of SFZYD actions. Twenty-three potential protein targets and 15 pathways were discovered, respectively; among these, pathways are associated with inflammation and immunological stress, hormone metabolism, coagulation function, and glycometabolism. There were also changes in the levels of endogenous metabolites of LysoPCs and glucuronides. Twenty endogenous metabolites were identified. Furthermore, the relative quantities of 6 endogenous metabolites in the plasma and 5 in the urine were significantly affected by SFZYD (P < 0.05). The pharmacological mechanism of SFZYD was partially associated with glycerophospholipid metabolism and pentose and glucuronate interconversions. In conclusion, our findings demonstrated that TCM CCBS pattern induced by ice water and epinephrine was complex and related to multiple metabolic pathways. SFZYD did regulate the TCM CCBS by multitargets, and biomarkers and SFZYD should be used for the clinical treatment of CCBS syndrome.

Carthamus red from Carthamus tinctorius L. exerts antioxidant and hepatoprotective effect against CCl(4)-induced liver damage in rats via the Nrf2 pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Carthamus red isolated from safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L., a Chinese traditional medicine) is evaluated for antioxidant and hepatoprotective activity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Carthamus red was isolated from a Na2CO3 extract of safflower and its analysis was carried out by HPLC/MS. Acute toxicity study was determined and the antioxidant activity was investigated using various established in vitro systems. An in vivo study against CCl4-induced liver injury was also conducted and compared with that of silymarin, a known hepatoprotective drug.

RESULTS

Carthamus red did not show any toxicity and mortality up to 2000mg/kg dose, and it showed strong antioxidant ability in vitro. In the in vivo study, carthamus red treatment lowered the serum levels of ALT, AST, ALP and total protein in liver damage rat models. Meanwhile, Nrf2, GSTα and NQO1 expressions were up-regulated at the protein level by carthamus red intervention. Additionally, the activities of antioxidant enzymes and level of GSH were elevated by carthamus red intervention, while the content of TBARS, which is an oxidative stress marker, was lessened. HE stain analysis showed that the condition of liver damage was mitigated.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates that carthamus red may serve as a candidate with strong a hepatoprotective effect and antioxidant activity in liver damage.

Anti-arthritic activity of ethanol extract of Fagopyrum cymosum with adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats

CONTEXT

Fagopyrum cymosum (Trey.) Meisn (Polygonaceae) (EFC) has long been used as a folk medicine to treat various ailments of the lung, dysentery and rheumatism in China.

OBJECTIVE

The present study evaluated the anti-arthritic effect of 95% ethanol extract of EFC (extract of Fagopyrum cymosum).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The anti-arthritic activity was investigated by adjuvant arthritic (AA) rat model induced by Freund's complete adjuvant (FCA). The AA rats were randomly separated into different groups and then treated with EFC (40, 80 and 160 mg/kg) from day 7 to day 28 after immunization. Arthritis was evaluated by hind paw swelling, polyarthritis index, body weight and index of immune organs. In addition, the severity of arthritis in the knee joints was evaluated by histopathological and hemorheological examination. The levels of interleukin 1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) in the serum were assessed by ELISA.

RESULTS

The high dose level of EFC (160 mg/kg) significantly suppressed the swelling of hind paw of AA rats (p < 0.01) and inhibited their body weight loss (p < 0.01). Based on histopathological examination, all EFC groups showed great amelioration compared with the model group. EFC (80 and 160 mg/kg) also decreased the plasma viscosity in different shear rates (p < 0.01). Moreover, EFC significantly reduced the production of IL-1 and TNF-α in the serum of AA (p < 0.01).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

This study provides a scientific basis for the claims that F. cymosum is effective in preventing and suppressing the development and progression of experimental arthritis, with reductions in inflammatory response.

Phytochemistry, pharmacology and medicinal properties of Carthamus tinctorius L

Carthamus tinctorius L. is commonly known as Safflower. C. tinctorius extracts and oil are important in drug development with numerous pharmacological activities in the world. This plant is cultivated mainly for its seed, which is used as edible oil. For a long time C. tinctorius has been used in traditional medicines as a purgative, analgesic, antipyretic and an antidote to poisoning. It is a useful plant in painful menstrual problems, post-partum hemorrhage and osteoporosis. C. tinctorius has recently been shown to have antioxidant, analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antidiabetic activities. Carthamin, safflower yellow are the main constituents in the flower of C. tinctorius. Carthamidin, isocarthamidin, hydroxysafflor yellow A, safflor yellow A, safflamin C and luteolin are the main constituents which are reported from this plant. Caryophyllene, p-allyltoluene, 1-acetoxytetralin and heneicosane were identified as the major components for C. tinctorius flowers essential oil. Due to the easy collection of the plant and being widespread and also remarkable biological activities, this plant has become both food and medicine in many parts of the world. This review presents comprehensive analyzed information on the botanical, chemical and pharmacological aspects of C. tinctorius.

Kinetic study on the tyrosinase and melanin formation inhibitory activities of carthamus yellow isolated from Carthamus tinctorius L

Carthamus yellow (CY) is the major component of the yellow pigments of Carthamus tinctorius L. CY has been extensively used as a natural color additive for food and cosmetics. Here, our results demonstrate that carthamus yellow reduced the activity of mushroom tyrosinase in a dose-dependent manner with a half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC(50)) value of approximately 1.01 ± 0.03 mg/mL. A kinetic study of carthamus yellow on tyrosinase exhibited a mode of competitive inhibition with a Ki of 0.607 mg/mL. Moreover, cell viability analysis indicated that carthamus yellow used at concentrations of 1.0-4.0 mg/mL had no cytotoxicity in B16F10 melanoma cells. Melanin content analysis showed that melanin production in B16F10 melanoma cells treated with 4 mg/mL carthamus yellow can decrease to 82.3 ± 0.4% of the levels of melanin production of untreated cells. Thus, carthamus yellow has the potential to become a useful skin-whitening agent in the future.

Effects of Hyul-Bu-Chuke-Tang on Erythrocyte Deformability and Cerebrovascular CO(2) Reactivity in Normal Subjects

Aim. Hyul-bu-chuke-tang (HCEt) is a well-known traditional herbal medicine that is used for the treatment of ischemic cerebrovascular disorders. We investigated the acute effects of HCEt on erythrocyte deformability and cerebrovascular CO₂ reactivity (CVR) in healthy male subjects. Materials and Methods. We examined erythrocyte deformability in an HCEt group (n = 14) and a control group (n = 10). CVR was measured using hyperventilation-induced CO₂ reactivity of the middle cerebral artery and transcranial Doppler (TCD) in the HCEt group (n = 11). A historical control group (n = 10) of CVR measurements was also created from our previous study. All measurements were performed prior to and 1, 2, and 3 hours after HCEt administration. Results. HCEt significantly improved erythrocyte deformability 1 hour after administration compared to the control group (2.9 ± 1.1% versus −0.6 ± 1.0%, P = 0.034). HCEt significantly improved the CVR 2 hours after administration compared to the historical control group (9.1 ± 4.0% versus −8.1 ± 4.1%, P = 0.007). The mean blood pressure and pulse rate did not vary from baseline values in either group. Conclusions. We demonstrated that HCEt improved erythrocyte deformability and CVR. Our findings suggest that an improvement in erythrocyte deformability contributes to HCEt's effect on cerebral microcirculation.

Metabolism-based synthesis, biologic evaluation and SARs analysis of O-methylated analogs of quercetin as thrombin inhibitors

In blood, quercetin is mainly found in metabolized forms. In order to study the activities of these quercetin metabolites in cardiovascular disease, 17 methylquercetin derivatives were synthesized based on metabolism in vivo, their thrombin inhibition activity were evaluated through the analyzation of prothrombin time (PT), activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), thrombin time (TT) and fibrinogen (FIB). The results showed that 6 methylquercetin derivatives had stronger inhibitory activities than that of quercetin. Preliminary SARs analysis showed that hydroxyl groups at C-3' and C-4' position in the B-ring and hydroxyl group at C-3 position in the C-ring played key roles in the thrombin inhibitory activity. The findings of this study would provide information for the exploitation and utilization of quercetin as thrombin inhibitor for thrombotic disease treatment.

Taoren-Honghua herb pair and its main components promoting blood circulation through influencing on hemorheology, plasma coagulation and platelet aggregation

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Persicae Semen (Taoren) and Carthami Flos (Honghua) used in pair which is named as Taoren-Honghua (TH) herb pair has been used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for promoting blood circulation to dissipate blood stasis for many years in China.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This paper investigated the effects of TH and its main components amygdalin and hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) on hemorheological disorders of blood stasis in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Rats were randomly divided into seven groups (control group, model group, TH group, amygdalin group, HSYA group, amygdalin+HSYA group, and aspirin group) with eight animals in each, whose gender was equally distributed throughout groups. All treatments were performed by gavage and administered seven times with an interval of 12h. After the fifth administration, the model rats except those in control group with blood stasis were established by being placed in ice-cold water during the interval between two injections of adrenaline hydrochloride (Adr); and blood samples were collected 30min after the last administration on the following day.

RESULTS

TH could significantly decrease whole blood viscosity (WBV), plasma viscosity (PV) and packed cell volume (PCV). It also significantly prolonged thrombin time (TT) and thromboplastin time (APTT), increased prothrombin time (PT) and lowered fibrinogen content (FIB). HSYA which significantly decreased WBV and PV had no effect on plasma coagulation parameters. Amygdalin could significantly decrease PV, prolong APTT and decrease FIB, showing few effects on WBV. TH and its main components amygdalin and HSYA could significantly reduce platelet aggregation and protect vascular endothelial cells. Based on the above results, amygdalin and HSYA were responsible for the main curative effects of TH and usually had synergetic effects, such as decreasing PV and platelet aggregation percentage.

CONCLUSIONS

The study may provide scientific information to further understanding of the mechanism(s) of TH and its main components in activating blood circulation to dissipate blood. It may also create valuable insight into the possible effects and utilization of TH and its components as a feasible alternative therapeutic agent for patients with hemorheological disorders.