Donkeys Are Different

Donkey Ownership Provides a Range of Income Benefits to the Livelihoods of Rural Households in Northern Ghana

Simple Summary

Until recently, the important contributions donkeys make to the daily lives of millions of people around the world have been overlooked. Global donkey populations are under threat from increasing demand for their skins, a key ingredient in a traditional Chinese medicine called e’jiao. The aim of this research was to study the role of donkeys in rural households in northern Ghana. We wanted to know how donkeys support families in making a living, especially their use by women and children. We found that donkeys are highly valued by their owners. Donkeys help reduce the hard physical work of many farming and domestic activities and can also be rented out to generate income. There are actually more methods available to earn money from the family donkey than previously known. Females from donkey-owning households advised us that their donkey can provide between 30–60% of their total income. Children can also play a key role accompanying their donkey when it is hired out for cash. Donkeys are certainly important to their owners, who describe them as priceless. This research adds to our understanding of the impact of the e’jiao industry, by detailing the considerable value of live donkeys to poor farming households.

Abstract

Donkeys provide important resources and benefits for millions of people worldwide. However, global donkey populations are under increasing pressure from the growing demand for a traditional Chinese medicine, e’jiao, made from donkey-skin. The objective of this reflexive, qualitative thematic analysis was to examine the role of donkeys with 262 participants in northern Ghana and how donkeys contribute to livelihood outcomes, especially their use by women and children. Data were collected from four surveys, 12 in-depth interviews and 84 daily time budgets with the same participants, plus 16 focus groups, during one wet and one dry season across 2018-19. Uniquely, boys and girls between the ages of 10–16-years old were interviewed. Donkeys are highly valued by their owners as they play a valuable role in providing a pathway out of ultra-poverty. Donkeys’ contributions to livelihoods are significant and more complex than previously understood and documented in the literature. Donkey ownership confers up to six different income benefits in comparison to non-donkey owners. Female owners of donkeys reported that donkeys can contribute between 30–60% of their income. Children of both sexes can play an important role in the efficient deployment of one of these income generating activities.

Characteristics of the Donkey's Dorsal Profile in Relation to Its Functional Body Condition Assessment

Simple Summary

Even though animal posture is known to reflect an emotional state, the presence of chronic postures associated with poor welfare has already been investigated in horses. Measuring, quantifying, and comparing postures requires an application of an objective tool, such as geometric morphometrics. This study aimed to use geometric morphometrics to characterize the dorsal profile of donkeys in relation to their individual features. Forty donkeys were photographed and characterized using the body condition score (BCS), fatty neck score (FNS), dental condition score (DCS), sex, and breed. Then, photographs were analyzed using geometric morphometrics and the differences in dorsal profile between the examined criteria were tested. Within the entire set of donkey dorsal profiles, deformation related to BCS and FNS was observed. FNS measurement seems to have the strongest influence on a donkey’s dorsal profile among the examined criteria. Concluding, the donkeys’ body condition affects their dorsal profile, and both FNS and BCS measurements should be considered when the donkeys’ dorsal profiles are investigated. However, to evaluate the link between the dorsal profile and the welfare state of donkeys, more studies are required.

Abstract

As the breeding of donkeys has increased due to different types of use, welfare evaluation importance increases. This equid’s welfare state has been described using body condition indicators and the geometric morphometrics method. However, the dorsal profile has not yet been assessed in donkeys. In this study, the body condition score (BCS), fatty neck score (FNS), dental condition score (DCS), sex, and breed were used as criteria of dorsal profile deformations. Photographs of 40 donkeys were analyzed using geometric morphometrics. Within the entire set of dorsal profiles, the variance of the first three principal components (PCs) was PC1 = 37.41%, PC2 = 23.43%, and PC3 = 13.34%. The dorsal profiles displayed deformation as an effect of FNS and BCS on size (FNS p = 0.012; BCS p = 0.024) and shape (FNS p < 0.0001; BCS p < 0.0001), rather than as an effect of DCS (p < 0.0001), sex (p = 0.0264), and breed (p < 0.0001) only on shape. The highest distances among the categories (Mahalanobis distances: MD ≥ 13.26; Procrustes distances: PD ≥ 0.044) were noted for FNS. The lowest distances were noted between jennets and males (MD = 4.58; PD = 0.012) and between BCS 1 and BCS 2 (MD = 4.70; PD = 0.018). Donkeys’ body condition affects their dorsal profile and both FNS and BCS measurements should be considered when a donkey’s dorsal profile is investigated.

Shift in Circulating Serum Protein Fraction (SPF) Levels of Pregnant Jennies and Nutritional Related Aspects at Early-, Mid- and Late Gestation

A viable tool for the monitoring of the systemic condition of the pregnant jenny may be the determination of serum protein fraction (SPF) levels, including metabolic profiling. Tissue development and composition of the growing fetus requires the mother to provide adequate nutrients to its body parts and organs. In this regard, body fluid distribution and strategic molecule transportation can be screened using SPF electropherograms and analysis of intermediate metabolites. The nutritional and health status of 12 jennies (age: 5-8 years; BW at the start: 135-138 kg; Body Condition Score, BCS [1 to 5 points] = 2.25-2.50; 4th month of gestation) were monitored throughout gestation (approximate gestation period 350-356 d). All animals were pasture-fed and were offered hay ad libitum. Individual blood samples were collected within the 4th, 7th, and 10th month following conception (ultrasound scanning). Serum biochemistry, in particular, the analysis of 6 fractions of serum proteins was carried out. The significant decrease in circulating albumin in jennies from mid- to late-gestation (p < 0.001) suggests a considerable role of dietary amino acids in the synthesis of protein for fetal tissue formation as well as body fluid distribution and blood pressure control of the jenny in those stages. Moreover, α1-globulin decreased significantly in late gestation (p < 0.047), corresponding to major organ development in the terminal fetus and supported by lipid transportation in the bloodstream of the jenny. Similarly, α2-globulin decreased in late gestation (p < 0.054) as haptoglobin, an important component for the transport of free circulating hemoglobin, is likely used for fetal synthesis. Mid-gestation, appears to be a crucial moment for adequate dietary nutrient supplementation in order to prevent homeostasis perturbation of jennies, as observed in this trial.

A novel Streptococcus species causing clinical mastitis in a pregnant donkey

An 8-y-old jenny was presented because of anorexia and mild depression. The jenny had weaned her colt 10 d before the admission. Upon arrival at the University of Illinois Veterinary Teaching Hospital, the heart rate was elevated, and the right udder was painful and swollen on palpation. Milk stripping of the affected side revealed purulent content; the contralateral udder had normal-appearing milk. Cytology of mammary gland secretions from the affected side revealed a large number of hypersegmented reactive neutrophils with phagocytized bacteria. Complete blood count, serum chemistry, and fibrinogen were within normal limits. A diagnosis of clinical mastitis was made, and the jenny was started on a 5-d course of broad-spectrum antibiotics, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory, hydrotherapy, and milk stripping. Clinical signs reduced over time, and the cure was attained by 96 h post-admission. Aerobic culture and subsequent MALDI-TOF MS analysis identified a bacterium of the Streptococcus genus but not the species. Whole-genome analysis was performed, and 16S rDNA sequencing and analysis determined that our isolate 20-37394 clustered with 2 other Streptococcus strains (27284-01 and 28462). Single-nucleotide variations and phylogenetic tree analysis revealed that Streptococcus 20-37394 had 96.8% and 94.9% identities to Streptococcus strains 27284-01 and 28462, respectively; therefore, the bacteria isolated in our case was deemed as a new Streptococcus species.

Impact of Human-Animal Interactions on Psychological and Physiological Factors Associated With Veterinary School Students and Donkeys

There has been an increased interest in evaluating human-animal interactions and assessing the mutual health and wellbeing. In this study, first-year female and male veterinary school students not paired (n = 58) or paired (n = 25) with immature (≤9 mo) donkeys (n = 13) were engaged in three different types of interactions (1st, hands-off remote learning, 2nd, hands-on passive learning, and 3rd, hands-on active learning) for 30 min each during Week 2 (Time 1), Weeks 5-8 (Time 2), and Week 12 (Time 3) over three, 15-week periods. Student psychological data involved the Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ) scores collected from the interactive (student-donkey pairs) and non-interactive (no student-donkey pairs) groups and modified Comfort from Companion Animals Scale (CCAS) scores collected from the interactive group during Times 1, 2, and 3. Donkey physiological data involved collection of saliva within 10 min pre- and post-interaction during Times 1, 2, and 3 in association with the different types of interactions for immunoanalysis of cortisol. There were no significant effects of the various times and types of interactions on CCAS scores. While there were no significant effects of group and types of interactions on PSWQ scores, there was an effect (P = 0.01) of time. Overall mean PSWQ scores were significantly lower during Week 12 versus Week 2. Correspondingly, while there were no effects pre- vs. post-interaction within or among times on saliva cortisol concentrations in donkeys, there was an effect (P = 0.02) of the type of interaction. Mean concentrations were significantly lower with the hands-on passive and hands-on active learning versus the hands-off remote learning. In conclusion, while this study provides preliminary evidence surrounding student donkey interactions, future studies are required with more comprehensive designs to clarify these benefits and better understand the advantages and challenges surrounding student-donkey interactions.

Pharmacokinetic properties of metamizole active metabolites in Northeastern Brazilian donkeys (Equus asinus)

Metamizole (MT), also known as dipyrone, is an analgesic and antipyretic drug labeled for use in humans and domestic animals in some countries. As with other drugs, the administration of MT in donkeys is based on studies carried out with horses. In the present report, we aimed to determine the pharmacokinetics of the two main metamizole active metabolites (N-methyl-4-aminoantipyrine [MAA] and 4-aminoantipyrine [AA]) following 10 (M₁₀ ) and 25 mg/kg (M₂₅ ) IV metamizole doses in Northeast Brazilian donkeys (n = 10). Blood was collected at predetermined times within over 48 h; MAA and AA plasma concentrations were determined by a validated LC-MS/MS method. The metabolites were quantifiable in the M₁₀ until 12 h and M₂₅ until 24 h after drug administration. As expected, AUC_0→t , AUC_0→∞, and C_max demonstrated significant differences increases in metamizole metabolites profiles when groups were compared. No adverse effects were observed. This study indicates the need for an extremely sensitive analytical method to adequately characterize the pharmacokinetics of active metabolites of MT, MAA, and AA. In conclusion, the method developed in this research was able to measure the active metabolites of metamizole and with that it was possible to establish their pharmacokinetic profile. Furthermore, after projection of the minimum MAA concentrations, it is possible to infer that the dose of 10 mg/kg will be used on donkeys at 6 h intervals, while the M25 group at 12 h intervals. However, clinical studies are needed to assess this hypothesis.

Validation of the Donkey Pain Scale (DOPS) for Assessing Postoperative Pain in Donkeys

This study aimed to validate a scale for assessing acute pain in donkeys. Forty-four adult donkeys underwent castration after sedation with intravenous (IV) xylazine, induction with guaifenesin and thiopental IV, local anesthetic block, and maintenance with isoflurane. The scale was constructed from a pilot study with four animals combined with algetic behaviors described for equines. After content validation, the scale was evaluated in 40 other donkeys by three blinded and one reference evaluator, by means of edited videos referring to the preoperative and postoperative periods: before anesthesia, 3-4 h after recovery from anesthesia, 5-6 h after recovery from anesthesia (2 h after analgesia with flunixin-1.1 mg/kg, dipyrone-10 mg/kg, and morphine-0.2 mg/kg) IV, and 24 h after recovery. Content validity, sensitivity, specificity, and responsiveness of behaviors were investigated to refine the scale. Intra- and inter-evaluator reliabilities were investigated by the weighted kappa coefficient, criterion validity by comparing the scale with the visual analog scale (VAS), internal consistency by Cronbach's α coefficient, item-total correlation by the Spearman coefficient, and intervention point for rescue analgesic by the receiver operating characteristics curve and Youden index. The scale showed very good intra-evaluator reliability (0.88-0.96), good to moderate (0.56-0.66) inter-evaluator reliability, responsiveness for all items, good criterion validity vs. VAS (0.75), acceptable internal consistency (0.64), adequate item-total correlation, except for head position and direction, and according to the principal component analysis, good association among items. The accuracy of the point for rescue analgesic was excellent (area under the curve = 0.91). The rescue analgesic score was ≥ 4 of 11 points. The scale can diagnose and quantify acute pain in donkeys submitted to castration, as the instrument is reliable and valid, with a defined intervention analgesic score.

Evaluation of the combined glucose-insulin and intravenous glucose tolerance tests for insulin dysregulation diagnosis in donkeys

BACKGROUND

Insulin dysregulation (ID) and donkey metabolic syndrome (DMS) are common in this species. Contrary to horses, diagnostic guidelines compiling insulin cut-offs values and dynamic testing interpretations have not been reported for this species.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate resting serum insulin concentrations, the combined glucose-insulin test (CGIT) and the glucose intravenous tolerance test (IVGTT) for the diagnosis of DMS with ID suspicion.

STUDY DESIGN

Diagnostic test comparison.

METHODS

Six of 80 mix-breed adult donkeys fulfilled the inclusion criteria for DMS based on history or clinical evidence of recurrent laminitis, body condition >6 and neck score >2 or baseline insulin and leptin concentrations >20 µIU/mL and >12 ng/mL respectively. CGIT and IVGTT were performed in all donkeys within a week and interpreted following guidelines reported for equine metabolic syndrome (EMS). Insulin and glucose curves were analysed, proxies calculated and correlations and multivariate analysis assessed.

RESULTS

Following EMS guidelines, CGIT classified 2 (using glucose-positive phase duration) or 3 (using insulin concentration) and IVGTT classified 5 donkeys as ID. ID donkeys showed a lower glucose/insulin ratio, QUICKI and RISQI, and a higher insulin/glucose ratio, MIRG and HOMA-B%.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Comparison of these tests with additional dynamic testing including a larger number of ID donkeys is necessary.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study evaluating dynamic tests to assess ID/DMS in DMS-suspected donkeys. IVGTT detected more ID donkeys than CGIT. EMS recommendations could also be used for DMS diagnosis, although a baseline insulin cut-off value is needed.

Quantifying the Impact of Mounted Load Carrying on Equids: A Review

Simple Summary

The overloading of equids has become an important issue among veterinarians, trainers, riders, and welfare advocates. Increased weight carrying may have negative effects on biomechanical, physiological, biochemical, and behavioral parameters of equids during exercise, including causing gait asymmetry or lameness. It is important to determine how to carefully quantify the load-carrying capacity of both ridden horses and working equids. There are many options to assess the effect of loading on an animal’s body, but these have been inconsistently applied, making it difficult to reach a consensus, even for horses. This review summarises current knowledge of the load-carrying ability for horses and donkeys and the different parameters used to determine the effect of loading on these equids. Further research is needed to develop evidence-based guidelines for maximum loading in equids. Quantified loading limits or indicators of overloading could be used by stakeholders working with sports and pleasure horses and working equids to limit overloading and to improve the welfare of these animals.

Abstract

There are approximately 112 million working equids in developing countries, many of which are associated with brick kilns. Brick kilns and overloading are associated with welfare problems in working equids. Understanding equids’ abilities and influencing factors are important for both effective performance and welfare. Traditionally, measurement of the amount of ‘bone’ was used, and more recently, gait symmetry has been identified as a potential marker for loading capacity. Assessment of stride parameters and gait kinematics provides insights into adaptations to loading and may help determine cut-off loads. Physiological factors such as the ability to regain normal heart rates shortly after work is an important tool for equine fitness assessment and a more accurate measure of load-carrying capacity than absolute heart rate. Oxidative stress, plasma lactate, and serum creatine kinase activity are reliable biochemical indicators of loading ability. For monitoring stress, salivary cortisol is superior to serum cortisol level for assessment of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis and is related to eye temperatures, but this has yet to be interpreted in terms of load-carrying ability in equids. Further research is needed to standardize the evidence-based load-carrying capacity of working horses and donkeys.

'Don't Put the Cart before the Mule!' Challenging Assumptions Regarding Health-Related Treatment Practices of Working Equid Owners in Northern India

Simple Summary

Donkeys and mules are still commonly worked across the world in place of mechanical vehicles. They are prone to various diseases and welfare issues, often as a result of poor working conditions. A proportion of the associated literature and a number of interventions are still driven by the assumption that the owners of working equids base their decisions on how to treat their animal upon economic factors or access to veterinary services. This paper uses a mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods to understand the reasons behind why equid owners choose to treat their animals in the way that they do. It explores the various means by which they choose to do this and the avenues available to them. It identifies four factors which influence how and why owners of working equids choose to treat their animals in a particular way and highlights in particular the frequency with which traditional methods or ‘home remedies’ play a significant role in attempts to remedy the poor health of an animal. The findings demonstrate a greater need to validate traditional methods used, in order to promote better health and to reduce risk, as well as the requirement to tailor animal welfare interventions according to these influencing factors to encourage more sustainable outcomes for both animals and owners.

Abstract

This paper challenges assumptions that the health management of working equids among some of India’s poorest communities is mainly dependent upon income, economic influence, or access to veterinary services. Using a mixed-methods approach, hierarchies of treatment practices are revealed through an examination of the ‘lived experience’ of equid owners in brick kilns and construction sites in northern India. Semi-structured interviews with 37 equid owners and corresponding livelihood surveys, combined with data from two focus groups with professional animal health practitioners and the welfare data of 63 working equids collected using the Equid Assessment, Research, and Scoping (EARS) tool, contributed to the findings of the study. Four principal influencing factors were found to affect the decision-making practices of equid owners. Infrastructural factors, community characteristics and experience, owners’ characteristics and experience, and economic factors all impact the belief structures of equid owners. However, without verifying the validity of the treatment measures being employed, some animals are at risk from hazardous treatment behaviours. By understanding decision-making using the theory of planned behaviour, the findings of this study can provide a crucial contribution to informing future interventions involved in the health management and welfare of working equids.

The Effect of Epicatechin-(4β-8)-Catechin on Some Biomarkers of Fatigue in Packed Donkeys (Equus Asinus) during the Dry Season in Northern Nigeria

Overworking and overloading of donkeys may cause fatigue. The experiment aims to determine the effects of epicatechin-(4β-8)-catechin (EEC) on some fatigue biomarkers in packed donkeys during the dry season. 10 jacks, aged between four and five years were used for the study. Five were given EEC in feed seven days before packing (test), while another five were given feed only (control). Blood samples collected for biochemical analyses were analyzed for superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), creatine kinase (CK) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). The SOD activity increased significantly (P < 0.05) in the test group during the cold-dry season after packing. The values of TAC during the packing period were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in test group during the hot-dry season. The TNF-α concentration was higher (P > 0.05) in the control group especially one-hour on route. The CK activity was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in the control donkeys during the hot-dry season. In conclusion, packing donkeys during the dry season resulted in fatigue, but EEC served as an anti-fatigue agent.

Goats show higher behavioural flexibility than sheep in a spatial detour task

The ability to adapt to changing environments is crucial for survival and has evolved based on socio-ecological factors. Goats and sheep are closely related, with similar social structures, body sizes and domestication levels, but different feeding ecologies, i.e. goats are browsers and sheep are grazers. We investigated whether goats' reliance on more patchily distributed food sources predicted an increased behavioural flexibility compared to sheep. We tested 21 goats and 28 sheep in a spatial A-not-B detour task. Subjects had to navigate around a straight barrier through a gap at its edge. After one, two, three or four of these initial A trials, the gap was moved to the opposite end and subjects performed four B trials. Behaviourally more flexible individuals should move through the new gap faster, while those less behaviourally flexible should show greater perseveration. While both species showed an accuracy reduction following the change of the gap position, goats recovered from this perseveration error from the second B trial onwards, whereas sheep did so only in the fourth B trial, indicating differences in behavioural flexibility between the species. This higher degree of flexibility in goats compared to sheep could be linked to differences in their foraging strategies.

Dominance and Leadership in the Equine Social Structure: A Preliminary Study About Mules and Sex Influence

Little is known about the dominance and leadership behaviors in the social structure of mules (Equus caballus × Equus asinus). Based on the frequency of threat and aggressive behaviors, we compared the social structure, dominance, and leadership of independent groups of mules and horses (n = 11 per group), and filmed the frequency of these behaviors over a period of four days. In both groups, aggressions were uncommon and, when based on threats, the social structure was linear and consistent with males ranking higher in dominance. When compared to horses, mules exhibited some agonistic social interactions without a recognized submissive individual and displayed more specific aggressive behaviors, whereas horses presented more specific threat behaviors. Comparing between groups, mares exhibited more leader behaviors than female mules, in contrast to male horses which showed fewer leader behaviors than male mules. Regarding behaviors within the mule group, males showed more leader and threat behaviors than females, while females showed more frequent aggression. While in horses, the females showed more leader behaviors than male horses and, although there were differences in specific agonistic behaviors, both sexes presented more often threat behaviors. In this preliminary study, we conclude that the social structure of mules, although similar to those of horses, showed to be less stable, since it involves more aggression and agonistic social interactions without a submissive. Moreover, although mules did not present a sex influence on leadership as horses did, they presented it on aggression: females showed more aggression than males.

Two Hours of Separation Prior to Milking: Is This Strategy Stressful for Jennies and Their Foals?

Simple Summary

The economic importance of donkeys has decreased in Brazil, which has led to their mass abandonment. Asinine milk production is a potential solution to the reintroduction of donkeys into the Brazilian social and economic scenario. The milk has nutraceutical properties that make it valuable for human consumption, and thus a donkey dairy industry is likely to help stop their abandonment. That said, in any such industry, the welfare of jennies maintained for milk production must be guaranteed. Few studies have been published measuring the impact of milking management on the welfare of jennies and foals, and the potential behavioural and physiological challenges it may cause. It is also unknown whether these animals adapt to the milking routine. The goal of this study was to assess the impact of separating Pêga jennies from their foals for 2 h on indicators of welfare. Animal welfare was analysed through behavioural and hormonal assessments, their potential adaptive responses and effects on milk yield. Few significant alterations were found in behaviour, salivary cortisol concentrations, or milk yield as a result of the 2-h separation, which could indicate that the welfare of the animals was not compromised; however, the adaptation of jennies and foals to separation stress remains to be fully verified. The 2-h separation period, based on the reported data, is possibly not a stressful experience for the assessed group of Pêga jennies and foals. The reported protocol, which included frequent positive interactions with the animals, may be useful to assure acceptable animal welfare levels for donkeys in small-scale dairy production settings.

Abstract

The goal of this study was to assess whether or not a separation period of 2 h is stressful for jennies and foals, as measured by changes in behaviour, salivary cortisol, and milk production. This study was reviewed and approved by the Committee for the Use and Care of Animals in Research (CEUA) of the School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science of the University of São Paulo. Fourteen multiparous Pêga jennies (245 kg average body weight) and their foals were assessed from day 45 to 135 of lactation. Dams and foals were separated for 2 h prior to milking. Behavioural assessments and saliva samples were collected before and after separation, every 15 days, resulting in 14 samples per individual animal. Behavioural states (affiliative and inactivity) and events (agonistic, abnormal, eliminative and vocalisations) of the jennies were observed during 6 min in both periods. Moreover, milk yield was measured. Few significant behavioural and salivary cortisol changes were observed, and milk yield was not affected by cortisol levels in response to the separation. The 2-h separation period, on the basis of the collected variables, did not appear to be stressful for the assessed group of Pêga jennies or foals; however, their ability to adapt to milking routine stress remains to be investigated.

Radiographic and Venographic Appearance of Healthy and Laminitic Feet in Amiata Donkeys

Introduction: Laminitis is a debilitating disorder resulting in irreversible anatomical changes in the feet of equids. Assessing specific anatomical features through radiography and venography provides diagnostic and prognostic information. The reference ranges are well-established in horses, but not in donkeys. It is also uncertain as to whether these ranges can be applied to every donkey breed. The present study characterizes the radiological and venographic hoof anatomy of healthy feet of Amiata donkeys and defines the changes associated with severe and mild laminitis. Materials and Methods: A total of 16 forefeet were evaluated in 8 Amiata jennies. The animals underwent musculoskeletal examination, Obel grading assessment and radiological evaluation. Based on clinical examination and radiographic findings, the forefeet were grouped as healthy, mild or severe laminitic feet, thus the digital venograms were performed according to the group definition. Results: Radiology revealed 7/16 healthy, 4/16 mild laminitic, and 5/16 severe laminitic forefeet. Statistical analysis showed differences between the healthy and laminitic forefeet for the dorsal angle (p < 0.0001) and angle of solar aspect (p < 0.0001) of the distal phalanx, for deviation between dorsal aspect of distal phalanx and the hoof wall (p < 0.0001) and phalangeal rotation angle (p = 0.0032). Venography was abnormal in mild and severe laminitic forefeet. In particular, the vascularization was reduced or absent at the lamellar-circumflex junction dorsally, at the sub-lamellar vascular bed and at the circumflex veins. Coronary plexus vascularization was absent in severe laminitic forefeet. Discussion and Conclusions: This study provides the radiological parameters for the assessment of healthy and laminitic forefeet of Amiata donkeys. The mild laminitic foot venogram showed decreased vascularization mainly on lamellar-circumflex junction and sub-lamellar vascular bed, in latero-medial views. The severe laminitic foot showed very poor or absent vascularization in multiple areas. The technique is easily applicable and provides diagnostic support in laminitis.

Pharmacokinetic properties of tramadol and M1 metabolite in Northeast Brazilian donkeys (Equus asinus)

There is currently little information available on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the analgesic opioid tramadol when used in the veterinary medicine of domestic species. In this study, we aimed to determine the pharmacokinetics of tramadol and its active metabolite M1 following intravenous administration of 2 (T2) and 4 (T4) mg/kg to Northeast Brazilian donkeys. Tramadol and M1 plasma levels were quantified using a validated liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method. We found that plasma levels of tramadol and M1 were higher than those reported as clinically meaningful in humans for at least 3 hr. However, the pharmacokinetic parameter calculation corrected by dose analysis identified no proportional increase with dose for the AUC of tramadol (T2: 2,663 ± 1,827 vs. T4: 2,964 ± 1,038 ng*h/ml) and M1 (T2: 378 ± 237 vs. T4: 345 ± 142 ng*h/ml). This finding appears to be attributable to a significant increase in clearance and a reduction in the terminal half-life of tramadol. The frequency of adverse effects observed at the higher dose indicates that 2 mg/kg administered intravenously would be suitable for donkeys. Clinical studies are required to determine the implications of these observations regarding the pharmacodynamic response to tramadol in Northeast Brazilian donkeys.

Viral Diseases that Affect Donkeys and Mules

Simple Summary

Donkeys have been neglected and threatened by abandonment, indiscriminate slaughter, and a lack of proper sanitary management. They are often treated as “small horses.” However, donkeys and horses have significant genetic, physiological, and behavioral differences. Specific knowledge about viral infectious diseases that affect donkeys and mules is important to mitigate disease outbreaks. Thus, the purpose of this review is to provide a brief update on viral diseases of donkeys and mules and ways to prevent their spread.

Abstract

Donkeys (Equus asinus) and mules represent approximately 50% of the entire domestic equine herd in the world and play an essential role in the lives of thousands of people, primarily in developing countries. Despite their importance, donkeys are currently a neglected and threatened species due to abandonment, indiscriminate slaughter, and a lack of proper sanitary management. Specific knowledge about infectious viral diseases that affect this group of Equidae is still limited. In many cases, donkeys and mules are treated like horses, with the physiological differences between these species usually not taken into account. Most infectious diseases that affect the Equidae family are exclusive to the family, and they have a tremendous economic impact on the equine industry. However, some viruses may cross the species barrier and affect humans, representing an imminent risk to public health. Nevertheless, even with such importance, most studies are conducted on horses (Equus caballus), and there is little comparative information on infection in donkeys and mules. Therefore, the objective of this article is to provide a brief update on viruses that affect donkeys and mules, thereby compromising their performance and well-being. These diseases may put them at risk of extinction in some parts of the world due to neglect and the precarious conditions they live in and may ultimately endanger other species’ health and humans.

Management of Thermal Injuries in Donkeys: A Case Report

Simple Summary

Reports or descriptions of medical management of thermal injuries in donkeys is lacking. Four donkeys sustained burn injuries during the wildland–urban interface fire in Valparaiso, Chile, in 2014. The donkeys received first aid care at the scene of the fire, and then were hospitalized and treated for three months for thermal injuries, of various degrees of severity, in several body parts. The clinical findings and treatment of four of the donkeys are described in this paper. All donkeys recovered and were retired to an animal shelter.

Abstract

Burn injuries are uncommon in large animals and there are no reports of these injuries in donkeys. Burns cause local and systemic effects. Extensive thermal injuries can be challenging to manage and the extent of the burn surface affected will directly impact the severity of the illness and the prognosis. Burns are classified according to the depth of injury into four categories, from first-degree burns, and the least affect to fourth-degree burns, which are the more severely affected patients. This case report describes the medical management of four donkeys that sustained various degrees of external burn injuries during the wildland–urban interface fire in Valparaiso, Chile. The donkeys were treated topically for several weeks and closely monitor for inadequate nutritional intake. Water based topical medications are preferred in burn cases because they can be easily applied and removed without interfering with wound healing. Of note, the caloric demands of these cases can be achieved by increasing the amount of grain, adding fat (i.e., vegetable oil), and free-choice alfalfa hay. All donkeys recovered and were retired to an animal shelter.

Donkey assisted interventions: A pilot survey on service providers in North-Eastern Italy

CONTEXT

Animal Assisted Interventions (AAI), which are generally defined as 'pet therapy', focus on the improvement of human health and wellbeing through a multidisciplinary approach and the involvement of domestic animals. An Italian survey conducted in 2017 revealed that donkeys were the third most involved species in AAI. Nevertheless, data on the main features of the providers of Donkey Assisted Interventions (DAI), especially in Italy, and their organisational models are scarce.

OBJECTIVE

This questionnaire-based pilot study aimed to collect information about the features of DAI providers in the Veneto Region to have a general framework about the field.

STUDY METHOD

In this descriptive mixed-method pilot study, we interviewed DAI providers through a computer assisted telephone interview. Respondents were selected by integrating data from the Veneto Region Livestock Database and from the Italian official register of AAI professionals. The questionnaire was designed following the advice from Equator Network.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Our outcome measures included the prevalent organisational system adopted by our respondents, main type of AAI programs, and users. Furthermore, we collected qualitative data about economic and income and respondents' personal opinions about DAI (strengths and weaknesses).

MAIN RESULTS

Data analysis revealed a heterogeneous picture of the DAI field with a prevalence of non-profit organisations providing mainly Donkey Assisted Activities to a large range of user categories. Despite the poor economic framework and low income from DAI, DAI providers were strongly motivated and spent more time and efforts in delivering this service.

Comparison of In Vivo and In Vitro Digestibility in Donkeys

We compared in vivo and in vitro dry matter (DM) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) digestibility in donkeys using feces as microbial inoculum. Four donkeys were used in a 4 × 4 Latin square design with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments. The animals were fed two types of hay, with or without flaked barley. For the in vivo procedure, total feces were collected for 6 days from each donkey; digestibility was calculated as the difference between ingested and excreted DM and NDF. For the in vitro procedure, donkey feces were buffered and used as microbial inoculum in an Ankom DaisyII Incubator; digestibility was estimated after 60 h of incubation. In vivo results showed that the addition of barley to hays did not change the digestibility values. In vivo estimates were higher than in vitro ones. The equations used to predict in vivo estimates from in vitro data were not reliable (R2 = 0.47 and 0.21; P = 0.003 and 0.078 for NDF and DM digestibility, respectively). Further studies need to evaluate different sample size and digestion times.

Blood Storage Conditions Affect Hematological Analysis in Samples From Healthy Donkeys and Donkeys With Experimentally-Induced Endotoxemia

Preanalytical factors such as storage time and temperature are proved to induce marked artifactual changes in hematological parameters in horses, small animals and humans. These errors can mirror findings typical of endotoxemia, leading to dangerous misdiagnosis. Since donkeys are common in warm climates and remote regions, blood samples from this species can be subjected to long lasting travels from the farm to the nearest laboratory, frequently under suboptimal conditions. Moreover, as other equids, donkeys are prone to suffer endotoxemia. Nonetheless, stability has not been evaluated in samples for hematology in this species. The aim of this study was to characterize the effect of temperature and storage time in hematological parameters from healthy donkeys and donkeys with induced endotoxemia. Blood samples were collected from six healthy female Andalusian donkeys and stored for 6, 12, 24, and 48 h at several temperatures (4, 24, and 35°C). Endotoxemia was induced in the same animals by an intravenous LPS infusion and samples obtained 30 min post-infusion were handled similarly. Hematological analysis was performed using a laser-based analyzer and blood smear examination. Storage at 24°C caused significant neutropenia after 48 h as well as morphological changes typical of endotoxemia in blood from healthy donkeys as soon as 24 h post-storage. Samples kept at 35°C displayed more profound and earlier artifactual variations. Conservation at 4°C did not cause any significant change in blood parameters. Prolonged (48 h) storage of samples from animals with induced endotoxemia at 24 and 35°C accentuated pre-existing leukopenia and neutropenia. These findings highlight that donkey samples should be stored at 4°C, instead of 24°C as recommended for horses. Moreover, blood smear interpretation should be cautious in samples stored for longer than 24 h and could be misleading when blood is kept at 35°C.

Development of a Donkey Grimace Scale to Recognize Pain in Donkeys (Equus asinus) Post Castration

The objectives of this study were to establish a donkey ethogram, followed by a donkey grimace scale to be applied to donkeys pre- and post-castration and to test if there was a notable difference in scores based on observer knowledge, gender, and experience, which could reveal possible discomfort/pain. Nine healthy male adult donkeys were surgically castrated. Fifty-four photos were selected from frontal, lateral, and body views taken pre- and post-castration. Observers ranging from minimal to extensive knowledge and levels of experience based on education and hours/month spent with donkeys scored six photos/donkey on a scale of 0-2 (0 = not present, 1 = moderately present, 2 = obviously present). Scores were based on body language and facial parameters: Ears down, ears back, eye white showing, glazed look, orbital tightening, eyes round shape, nostril tension, eyes narrow shape, muzzle tension, and abnormal stance and overall perception of the animal being in pain. Level of experience and knowledge, as well as gender significantly (p < 0.001), affected observers' ability to accurately score images. The study suggests that the most significant indicators of pain in donkeys are overall appearance and abnormal body stance provided their sensitivity, specificity and accuracy values of 63.18%, 62.07%, and 62.60%, respectively.

Post-operative pain behaviour associated with surgical castration in donkeys (Equus asinus)

Background

Recognising pain in donkeys is challenging because they are stoic.

Objectives

To identify the responses of donkeys before and after surgical pain.

Study design

Prospective, short‐term longitudinal pre‐ and post‐intervention observations.

Methods

Forty adult donkeys underwent surgical castration after sedation with intravenous (IV) xylazine, induction with guaiphenesin/thiopental IV and maintenance of anaesthesia with isoflurane and local anaesthetic blockade. Four hours after recovery from anaesthesia, flunixin meglumine 1.1 mg/kg, dipyrone 10 mg/kg and morphine 0.2 mg/kg IV were administered. Behavioural responses exhibited by the animals housed in individual stalls were recorded in four 30‐min videos: before castration (M0), and 3.5‐4.0 hours (M1), 5.5‐6.0 hours (M2) and 23.5‐24.0 hours after recovery from anaesthesia (M3). To exclude the influence of insects, the behaviour of six apparently pain‐free donkeys was compared with and without the presence of faeces and urine in the stall.

Results

When compared with presurgical baseline behaviours (M0), after surgery (M1) donkeys raised their pelvic limbs more (P = .003). When compared with M1, after analgesia (M2), the median frequencies of ear movements (44 vs 16; P < .001), head shaking (7 vs 1; P < .001), head turning (5 vs 0; P < .001) and lifting of the both limbs (7 vs 0; P = .008) decreased; feeding (0 vs 29; P < .001) and water intake (0 vs 0, range 0‐1 vs 0‐7; P = .05) increased. The dirty stall increased tail (53 vs 80; P = .03), head (16 vs 30; P = .03) and ear movements (50 vs 78; P = .04).

Main limitations

The dirty stall and presence of insects possibly contributed to the expression of behaviours unrelated to pain.

Conclusion

Lifting the pelvic limbs was the only specific pain behaviour after castration in donkeys. Analgesia restored appetite and water intake and reduced the frequency of head shaking and turning, ear movement and lifting the limbs. Tail, head and ear movements are unspecific responses related both to pain and a dirty stall, and are confounding factors when pain is assessed in donkeys in the presence of insects.

Effect of Dietary Forage/Concentrate Ratio on Nutrient Digestion and Energy and Protein Metabolism in Adult Donkeys

Simple Summary

In recent decades, the donkey husbandry industry has developed rapidly, catering for their use in pharmaceutical, meat and milk production. However, compared with horses and other livestock, animal feeding studies have not been addressed to understand how nutrient digestion and metabolism are limited in donkeys. In this paper, the effect of the forage/concentrate ratio (F/C) in three experimental diets (low-fiber ration, medium-fiber ration and high-fiber ration) was investigated on N and energy balance using the total feces and urine collected method in a 3 × 3 Latin square experimental design. Decreasing the F/C significantly promoted protein digestibility and decreased fiber digestibility; increasing the F/C remarkably decreased N retention through the greater increase in N excretion in urine; decreasing the F/C linearly increased the conversion efficiency of digestible energy to metabolizable energy.

Abstract

The domestic donkey is a unique equid species with specific nutritional requirements; however, limited feeding studies have been addressed so far to understand nutrient digestion and metabolism in donkeys. In the present study, six adult female Xinjiang donkeys (180 ± 10 kg live weight) were applied in a 3 × 3 Latin square design to investigate the effect of the forage/concentrate ratio (F/C) in three experimental diets on N and energy balance within 12 weeks. Rice straw and alfalfa hay were chosen as forage ingredients, and the diets included the following: (1) a high-fiber (HF) ration (F/C = 80:20), (2) a medium-fiber (MF) ration (F/C = 55:45), and (3) a low-fiber (LF) ration (35:45). After the fixed amount of diets were daily allowed to the animals, total feces and urine were collected to determine total tract digestibility, N and energy balance. As a result, dry matter intake did not differ among the three diet groups. Decreasing the dietary F/C significantly promoted protein digestibility and decreased fiber digestibility. The N and energy balance analysis showed that increasing the F/C remarkably (p < 0.01) decreased N retention through the increase in N excretion in urine, and the highest N loss relative to N intake was observed in MF. Meanwhile, decreasing the F/C linearly increased the conversion efficiency of digestible energy to metabolizable energy. Taken together, the results obtained in the present study implicated that the dietary forage level should not be less than 55% to maintain greater N and energy utilization in feeding practice, otherwise, a donkey’s N utilization might be highly discounted.

Morphometric Characteristics of the Skull in Horses and Donkeys-A Pilot Study

Horses and donkeys belong to the genus Equus, but important differences exist between the species, many of which affect their management and welfare. This study compared skull morphology between horses and donkeys. Horse (n = 14) and donkey (n = 16) heads were obtained post-mortem, sectioned sagittally close to the midline, and photographed for subsequent measurement of various skull structures. Skull, cranial, nasal, and profile indices were calculated for topographical comparisons between the species. The olfactory bulb area (OBA), OB pitch (the angle between the hard palate and the OB axis), and whorl location (WL) were also measured. A General Linear Model determined the main effect of species with Sidak's multiple comparisons of species' differences among the various measurements. There was no species difference in cranial or nasal indices (p > 0.13), but donkeys had a larger cranial profile than horses (p < 0.04). Donkeys had a smaller OBA (p < 0.05) and a steeper OB pitch (p < 0.02) than horses. The WL corresponded to the level of the OB in horses but was extremely rostral in donkeys (p < 0.0001). These results show clear differentiation in skull morphology between horses and donkeys. This may be useful in validating other physiological and behavioural differences between horses and donkeys.

Meloxicam ameliorates the systemic inflammatory response syndrome associated with experimentally induced endotoxemia in adult donkeys

Background

Little information is available about endotoxemia in donkeys. Characterizing the systemic inflammatory response (SIRS) to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in donkeys would provide valuable clinical and therapeutic information. The effects of meloxicam on endotoxemia have not been studied in this species.

Objectives

To study the pathophysiology and gene expression associated with experimentally induced endotoxemia, and evaluate the effects of meloxicam on experimentally induced endotoxemia in donkeys and in equine monocyte cultures.

Animals

Six healthy adult female donkeys.

Methods

Endotoxemia was induced by an IV infusion of LPS for 30 minutes. Animals either received 20 mL of saline or 0.6 mg/kg of meloxicam IV after LPS infusion. The experiments lasted 6 hours. Blood samples were collected serially for hematology, serum biochemistry, interleukin measurement, and leukocyte gene expression analysis. Vital signs were recorded throughout the study. Monocyte cultures were used to test the effects of meloxicam on LPS‐activated monocytes.

Results

Lipopolysaccharide induced fever, leukopenia, and neutropenia of similar magnitude in both groups, but meloxicam attenuated increases in plasma lactate, tumor necrosis factor‐alpha (TNFα), and interleukin 1β concentrations compared to controls. No differences were detected between groups for cytokine mRNA expression. Furthermore, meloxicam decreased TNFα release in LPS‐activated monocyte cultures.

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

Meloxicam could be a feasible option for the treatment of endotoxemia and SIRS in donkeys. Additional studies are necessary to investigate possible meloxicam‐related posttranscriptional regulation and to compare this drug with other nonsteroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in animals with endotoxemia.

Donkey Feeding During Maintenance, Pregnancy, and Lactation: Effects on Body Weight, Milk Production, and Foal Growth

We evaluated the daily intake in donkeys during maintenance, late pregnancy, and early lactation. The growth curves of the foals in the first eight weeks of life and the milk production in lactating jennies were also investigated. Donkeys were separated into two groups: seven pregnant jennies (group 1: pregnant/lactating) and seven nonpregnant, nonlactating jennies (group 2). The groups were fed two different diets each. The feeding period for group 1 covered eight weeks before parturition and eight weeks postpartum. Group 2 was managed during the same time period (16 weeks). Diet 1 consisted of ad libitum hay, which was fed to group 1 during late pregnancy and to group 2 from weeks 1-8. Diet 2 consisted of the same ad libitum hay supplemented with 2 kg/head/day of concentrate, which was fed to group 1 during lactation and to group 2 from weeks 9-16. The daily dry matter intake (diet 1) was 2.56 kg/100 kg of body weight (BW) for nonpregnant jennies and 31% lower in the pregnant donkeys. In the lactating jennies, the total dry matter intake was similar to the nonpregnant group fed diet 2. The nonpregnant jennies lost 1.9% of their initial BW when fed diet 1, whereas they gained 8.4% of their initial BW when fed with diet 2. A weight loss was also found in the lactating donkeys. The foals more than doubled in their birth weight within two months.

Documenting the Welfare and Role of Working Equids in Rural Communities of Portugal and Spain

Simple Summary

Understanding the social and cultural context of the role that working animals fulfil is crucial to improving their welfare. This study aimed to provide insight into the welfare status and traditional use of working equids in rural Western European communities using a new protocol for assessing working equid welfare, designed to provide a broad, holistic view of the welfare of working equids and the context in which they are found. Other questions on the topics of equid management practices, social transmission of expertise, environmental stressors, and traditions, alongside physical and behavioural welfare assessments were also included to explore the impact of these wide-ranging factors on an understudied population of working equids. A total of 60 working equid owners from rural communities in Portugal and Spain participated. Many owners stated that the help donkeys provided was invaluable, and donkeys were considered to be important for both farming and daily life. However, participants also recognised that the traditional agricultural way of life was dying out. Questions investigating the social transfer of information within the villages were effective in finding local sources of equid knowledge. Overall, welfare was deemed fair, and the protocol enabled the identification of the most prevalent welfare problems within the communities studied. The findings suggest that the new protocol is feasible, providing insights into the traditional practices, community structure, and beliefs of equid owners. Increasing understanding of the cultural context, social structure, and attitudes within a community may, in the future, help to make equid welfare initiatives more effective.

Abstract

Recently, the need for a more holistic approach to welfare assessment has been highlighted. This is particularly pertinent in the case of working equids who provide vital support for human livelihoods, often in low- to middle-income countries, yet suffer from globally low standards of welfare. This study aimed to provide insight into the welfare status and traditional use of working equids in rural Western European communities using the new EARS welfare tool, designed to provide a broad view of the welfare of working equids and the context in which they are found. Other questions on the topics of equid management practices, social transmission of expertise, environmental stressors, and traditions, alongside physical and behavioural welfare assessments were also included to explore the impact of these wide-ranging factors on an understudied population of working equids. The protocol was trialled on 60 working equid owners from communities in Portugal and Spain where, despite the decline in traditional agricultural practices and livestock keeping, donkeys and mules remain working animals. Many owners stated that the help donkeys provided was invaluable, and donkeys were considered to be important for both farming and daily life. However, participants also recognised that the traditional agricultural way of life was dying out, providing insights into the traditional practices, community structure, and beliefs of equid owners. Questions investigating the social networks and social transfer of information within the villages were effective in finding local sources of equid knowledge. Overall, welfare was deemed fair, and the protocol enabled the identification of the most prevalent welfare problems within the communities studied, in this case obesity and the use of harmful practices. The findings suggest that the new protocol was feasible and detail how contextual factors may influence equid welfare. Increasing understanding of the cultural context, social structure, and attitudes within a community, alongside more traditional investigations of working practices and animal management, may, in the future, help to make equid welfare initiatives more effective.

Domesticated equine species and their derived hybrids differ in their fecal microbiota

BACKGROUND

Compared to horses and ponies, donkeys have increased degradation of dietary fiber. The longer total mean retention time of feed in the donkey gut has been proposed to be the basis of this, because of the increased time available for feed to be acted upon by enzymes and the gut microbiota. However, differences in terms of microbial concentrations and/or community composition in the hindgut may also underpin the increased degradation of fiber in donkeys. Therefore, a study was conducted to assess if differences existed between the fecal microbiota of pony, donkey and hybrids derived from them (i.e. pony × donkey) when fed the same forage diet.

RESULTS

Fecal community composition of prokaryotes and anaerobic fungi significantly differed between equine types. The relative abundance of two bacterial genera was significantly higher in donkey compared to both pony and pony x donkey: Lachnoclostridium 10 and 'probable genus 10' from the Lachnospiraceae family. The relative abundance of Piromyces was significantly lower in donkey compared to pony × donkey, with pony not significantly differing from either of the other equine types. In contrast, the uncultivated genus SK3 was only found in donkey (4 of the 8 animals). The number of anaerobic fungal OTUs was also significantly higher in donkey than in the other two equine types, with no significant differences found between pony and pony × donkey. Equine types did not significantly differ with respect to prokaryotic alpha diversity, fecal dry matter content or fecal concentrations of bacteria, archaea and anaerobic fungi.

CONCLUSIONS

Donkey fecal microbiota differed from that of both pony and pony × donkey. These differences related to a higher relative abundance and diversity of taxa with known, or speculated, roles in plant material degradation. These findings are consistent with the previously reported increased fiber degradation in donkeys compared to ponies, and suggest that the hindgut microbiota plays a role. This offers novel opportunities for pony and pony × donkey to extract more energy from dietary fiber via microbial mediated strategies. This could potentially decrease the need for energy dense feeds which are a risk factor for gut-mediated disease.

Monitoring Acute Pain in Donkeys with the Equine Utrecht University Scale for Donkeys Composite Pain Assessment (EQUUS-DONKEY-COMPASS) and the Equine Utrecht University Scale for Donkey Facial Assessment of Pain (EQUUS-DONKEY-FAP)

Simple Summary

Pain can be difficult to objectively assess in animals, especially in prey animals that hide their symptoms from others. Donkeys are also known to mask and hide these signs. Owners often describe donkeys as “stubborn”, but veterinarians and equine ethologists describe donkeys more as “stoic”. Among veterinarians it is known that donkeys hide their pain symptoms even more than horses. Therefore, objective and valid pain measurement tools are needed to assess pain in donkeys. In this study, two pain scales (with behavioural elements, physiological elements, responses to interactions, and facial expressions) have been developed and tested in 79 donkeys with various types of acute pain (acute lameness, colic, head-related pain, and postoperative pain) and in 185 healthy pain-free control donkeys. The authors found that the Equine Utrecht University Scale for Donkey Composite Pain Assessment (EQUUS-DONKEY-COMPASS) and the Equine Utrecht University Scale for Donkey Facial Assessment of Pain (EQUUS-DONKEY-FAP) can both be effective to objectively assess various types of acute pain in donkeys and could potentially be used to monitor pain and improve welfare in donkeys.

Abstract

Objective pain assessment in donkeys is of vital importance for improving welfare in a species that is considered stoic. This study presents the construction and testing of two pain scales, the Equine Utrecht University Scale for Donkey Composite Pain Assessment (EQUUS-DONKEY-COMPASS) and the Equine Utrecht University Scale for Donkey Facial Assessment of Pain (EQUUS-DONKEY-FAP), in donkeys with acute pain. A cohort follow-up study using 264 adult donkeys (n = 12 acute colic, n = 25 acute orthopaedic pain, n = 18 acute head-related pain, n = 24 postoperative pain, and n = 185 controls) was performed. Both pain scales showed differences between donkeys with different types of pain and their control animals (p < 0.001). The EQUUS-DONKEY-COMPASS and EQUUS-DONKEY-FAP showed high inter-observer reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.97 and 0.94, respectively, both p < 0.001). Sensitivity of the EQUUS-DONKEY-COMPASS was good for colic and orthopaedic pain (83% and 88%, respectively), but poor for head-related and postoperative pain (17% and 21%, respectively). Sensitivity of the EQUUS-DONKEY-FAP was good for colic and head-related pain (75% and 78%, respectively), but moderate for orthopaedic and postoperative pain (40% and 50%, respectively). Specificity was good for all types of pain with both scales (91%–99%). Different types of acute pain in donkeys can be validly assessed by either a composite or a facial expression-based pain scale.

Equine Milk Production and Valorization of Marginal Areas-A Review

The equine dairy chain is renewing the interest toward horse and donkey breeding for the production of milk with potential health promoting properties. The dairy equine chain for human consumption could contribute to the rural eco-sustainable development for the micro-economies of those areas threatened by marginalization. As a part of the whole equine industry, and its possible impact in the modern and future society, the main traits of the equine dairy enterprise are reviewed with a special focus on management of animals and milk. Equine milk compositional and nutritional peculiarities are described as also related to milk hygiene and health issues. Scientific and technical aspects of the feeding management are considered in the frame of the emerging dairy equine enterprise, where pasture is an essential element that allows to match production goals for horses and donkeys, biodiversity preservation, as well as landscape safeguard.

Coprological detection of equine nematodes among slaughtered donkeys (Equus asinus) in Kaltungo, Nigeria

Aim:

This study aimed to investigate the prevalence and intensity of nematode infection among slaughtered donkeys in Kaltungo, Nigeria.

Materials and Methods:

A total of 72 fecal samples were examined by salt flotation and the modified McMaster fecal egg count technique to morphologically identify nematodes eggs and determine their egg per gram (EPG) outputs.

Results:

Out of a total of 72 (100%) donkeys sampled, 36 (50%) tested positive, but the prevalence of nematodes was independent of the age, sex, and breed of donkeys (p>0.05). Among the four species of nematodes identified in single and mixed infections, Strongylus spp. (27.8%) and Dictyocaulus arnfieldi (13.9%) were the most prevalent followed by Strongyloides westeri (5.6%) and Trichonema spp. (5.6%). Infected donkeys had moderate overall mean EPG (801.39±611.3) with no statistical differences between age groups and sexes (p>0.05), but means of EPG were significantly higher (p<0.05) in Duni (1026.92±719.55) than Idabari (673.91±514.75). Light EPG count was recorded among 63.9% of infected donkeys, while 16.7% and 19.4% had moderate and severe infections, respectively.

Conclusion:

The prevalence and importance of equine nematodes were discussed in connection to their epidemiology and control. Furthermore, the preponderance of light infection may suggest that donkeys in this environment developed resistance to nematode infection and are potential reservoirs for other equines.

Seasonal abundance of the stable fly Stomoxys calcitrans in southwest England

The stable fly Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) is a cosmopolitan biting fly of both economic and welfare concern, primarily as a result of its painful bite, which can cause blood loss, discomfort and loss of productivity in livestock. Between June and November in 2016 and May and December in 2017, Alsynite sticky-traps were deployed at four Donkey Sanctuary sites in southwest England, which experience recurrent seasonal biting fly problems. The aim was to evaluate the seasonal dynamics of the stable fly populations and the risk factors associated with abundance. In total, 19 835 S. calcitrans were trapped during the study period. In both years, abundance increased gradually over summer months, peaking in late August/September. There were no relationships between seasonally detrended abundance and any climatic factors. Fly abundance was significantly different between sites and population size was consistent between years at three of the four sites. The median chronological age, as determined by pteridine analysis of flies caught live when blood-feeding, was 4.67 days (interquartile range 3.8-6.2 days) in males and 6.79 days (interquartile range 4.8-10.4 days) in females; there was no significant, consistent change in age or age structure over time, suggesting that adult flies emerge continuously over the summer, rather than in discrete age-related cohorts. The data suggest that flies are more abundant in the vicinity of active animal facilities, although the strong behavioural association between flies and their hosts means that they are less likely to be caught on traps where host availability is high. The implications of these results for fly management are discussed.

Donkey Nutrition and Malnutrition

The domestic donkey is a unique equid species with specific nutritional requirements. This article examines the importance of feeding strategies that mimic the donkey's natural environment using poor nutritional quality fibers and access to browsing materials. The relationship between nutrition and health is examined and practical approaches to the healthy and sick donkey are discussed.

Anesthesia, Sedation, and Pain Management of Donkeys and Mules

The number of donkeys in the world may not be increasing but awareness of their use and concern for welfare and pain recognition and treatment are receiving increasing veterinary interest. Therefore, accurate information about anesthesia and analgesia in donkeys and mules is important to more equine practitioners. This review highlights the current knowledge on various anesthetic and analgesic approaches in donkey and mules. The authors emphasize that there is still much information that is not available about donkeys and mules; in many circumstances, the clinician must use available equine information to treat the patient, while monitoring for differences in response.

Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders in Donkeys

The donkey evolved under harsh and arid environmental conditions, developing unique energy-efficiency traits, with an efficiency to rapidly mobilize fat in situations of increased energy demands or when food is scarce. This evolution has led to an inherent predisposition of donkeys to obesity, dyslipidemias, insulin dysregulation/metabolic syndrome, pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction, and endocrinopathic laminitis. Marked differences have been described in hormone dynamics and testing protocols for the diagnosis of these endocrine and metabolic diseases in donkeys compared with horses, underlining the necessity of a species-specific approach in order to avoid misdiagnosis, unnecessary or inadequate treatments, and additional costs.

Comparing and Contrasting Knowledge on Mules and Hinnies as a Tool to Comprehend Their Behavior and Improve Their Welfare

Simple Summary

Mules and hinnies combine traits of their equid parents—the horse and donkey—but are less studied or understood. Still, their welfare varies greatly because of several factors. These hybrids have anatomy, health, nutritional, and behavioral particularities that are distinct from those of donkeys or horses. Their behavior can pose challenges to providing routine care and treatment during times of disease. Abusive treatment can result from those who have little understanding of learning theory or body language. Hence, an overview of studies and field observations can offer solutions for welfare enhancement. According to literature, participatory surveys and behavioral assessments across several countries, mule owners and handlers find it easier to interact with their animal as compared to allowing a stranger to do so. By contrast, unfamiliar persons had more success with mules handled at an early age. Gaining trust and proceeding with slow and methodical movements tend to work best for working with mules and hinnies. Early foal handling additionally creates success in training and behavior modification. Conclusively, the key to improving mule and hinny welfare is to shape human behavior, creating a training approach which will ultimately improve the animals’ welfare.

Abstract

Mules and hinnies are the hybrids between donkeys (Equus asinus) and horses (Equus caballus). For centuries, mankind has used them for agrarian purposes, the military, or recreation. Contrasting literature with behavioral observations, we seek a better behavioral understanding andthus comprehensive solutions for their welfare enhancement. Over the past 6 years, we have assessed physical and behavioral welfare in over 900 mules by surveying owners from Egypt, Peru, Portugal, Spain, Mexico, and the U.S. These mules participated in shows, brick kiln work, cart-pulling, packing, tourism, and cattle herding. Observations are discussed alongside facts from the literature. Unfortunately, their behavior has been misunderstood by many, and harsh treatment and equipment has been used to control them. Few studies have attempted to define or use learning theory to understand how and why mules and hinnies behave as they do. Hence, understanding their health considerations, natural behavior, and training theory is crucial for those who work with them.Solutions to welfare improvement partially lie in an individual’s ability to handle mules and hinnies from birth, and to proceed slowly through training. Conclusively, this review sets forth a clearer understanding of these hybrids’ behaviors and promotes positive handling, allowing their access to more routine healthcare and ultimately, a higher welfare standard.

Comprehensive Report of the Caseload of Donkeys and Mules Presented to a Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital over a Ten-Year Period

Simple Summary

We sought to provide a comprehensive report of the caseload of donkeys and mules at the Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital at the University of California, Davis for a ten-year period. The caseload of donkeys and mules was 1.06% of the total equid caseload and was comprised of animals that received a good standard of veterinary care, including both routine wellness and medical care. Most animals tended to be older, around 10 years of age, and possessed high body condition scores. Obesity was reported, especially in donkeys. Most mules were used for riding, packing or driving, and most donkeys were in sanctuary and rescue farms. We report in detail the preventative health and veterinary medical care of these donkeys and mules. Our findings provide a greater understanding of the health and welfare of donkeys and mules residing in the western United States.

Abstract

Comprehensive reports of the caseload of donkeys and mules in veterinary hospitals in the United States are lacking. We compiled the information of the caseload of donkeys and mules at the Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital at the University of California, Davis for a ten-year period, from 2008 to 2017. The overall equid caseload was 94,147, of which 996 (1.06%) were donkeys and mules. Most of the neonates seen were mules. Most miniature donkeys were between 2 and 10 years of age, and standard donkeys and mules were 10 to 20 years old. The body condition scores were predominantly high, especially in donkeys. Most miniature and standard donkeys resided in sanctuary and rescue farms and their use was not stated. Most mules were used for riding, packing or driving. Medical complaints represented 62% of the total visits and wellness visits represented 38% of total visits. The donkeys and mules in the case population described here received a good standard of veterinary care with regular vaccinations, deworming, routine dental care, and treatment of ailments. Our study is the first report of the life expectancy, use, body condition, preventative health and veterinary medical care of a population of donkeys and mules in the western United States.

A Review of the Appropriate Nutrition Welfare Criteria of Dairy Donkeys: Nutritional Requirements, Farm Management Requirements and Animal-Based Indicators

Simple Summary

The increase in dairy donkey farms in Europe, as a consequence of the increasing scientific interest in donkey milk for paediatric nutrition, has led to the need for a better understanding of the welfare of dairy donkeys. Taking into account the Animal Welfare Indicator’s (AWIN) welfare assessment protocol for donkeys, the aim of this review has been to obtain insight into good feeding welfare principles, in order to identify and discuss the nutritional requirements, the farm management requirements and the animal-based indicators that may be used to achieve an overall assessment of the appropriate nutrition welfare criteria of dairy donkeys.

Abstract

Data are available in the scientific literature concerning the quality and usefulness of donkey milk for human consumption. However, there is a lack of studies related to the understanding of the welfare of dairy donkeys. The only attempt, at a European Union level, to assess the welfare of donkeys is that of the Animal Welfare Indicator’s (AWIN) welfare assessment protocol for donkeys, where the appropriate nutrition welfare criteria have been assessed, but only through the evaluation of the body condition score. However, several other indicators that take into account the importance of good feeding welfare principles should be considered for the correct management of dairy donkeys. Therefore, it is hoped that this review of the available scientific literature will be useful to help establish a set of appropriate welfare requirements and indicators for the management of dairy donkeys. The review is aimed at identifying and discussing other requirements and indicators, such as nutritional requirements, farm management requirements and animal-based indicators, which may be important for the correct assessment of the appropriate nutrition welfare criteria and to establish best practices for the feeding of dairy donkeys.

Insulin Resistance as a Result of Body Condition Categorized as Thin, Moderate, and Obese in Domesticated U.S. Donkeys (Equus asinus)

Donkeys are often kept, especially in industrialized countries, as companion animals. Donkeys have greater digestive efficiency and tend to expend less energy than horses or ponies, which contributes to obesity in nonworking donkeys. Obesity in all equine species increases risk of chronic health conditions such as laminitis and insulin resistance. Previous studies in horses and ponies have documented obesity's potential effects on glucose-insulin dynamics with lower insulin sensitivity and higher insulin responses to glucose. However, limited studies on obesity and its health impacts in donkeys exist, so these effects on glucose-insulin dynamics have not been fully studied. Twenty-four donkeys were selected according to initial body condition score (BCS) and divided into three categories with eight donkeys in each: thin, moderate, and obese. A frequently sampled glucose-insulin tolerance test was performed with subsequent MINMOD analysis to determine the effects of BCS on glucose-insulin dynamics. Basal insulin was highest in obese donkeys when compared with moderate and thin donkeys (P = .02 and P = .01, respectively). There was an overall trend across groups for BCS to lower insulin sensitivity (P = .06). No other effect was found. Body condition score seems to affect donkeys in a similar manner to horses and ponies as higher BCS was associated with higher basal insulin and may lower insulin sensitivity. Higher basal insulin concentrations in obese donkeys could negatively influence health and contribute to serious, chronic conditions.

In Vitro Digestibility Measurement of Feedstuffs in Donkeys Using the DaisyII Incubator

Successful studies on in vitro digestibility measurement of feedstuffs with fecal inoculum have been reported for horses, whereas data on donkeys are currently lacking. In this study, we evaluated the use of the Daisy^II Incubator for in vitro digestibility measurement of feedstuffs using donkey feces as source of microbial inoculum. The method was tested using seven feedstuffs commonly used in donkey diets (alfalfa, bromegrass, ryegrass, and timothy hays; wheat bran and wheat straw; barley grains). Feces were obtained from four female donkeys, and incubations were carried out at 1-week intervals for four consecutive weeks. Two bags of each feedstuff were incubated in digestion vessels containing a buffer/feces solution (90:10). In vitro apparent dry matter digestibility (DMD), true dry matter digestibility (IVTD), and neutral detergent fiber digestibility (NDFD) were evaluated at four incubation times: 30, 48, 60, and 72 hours. All digestibility parameters significantly increased from 30 to 72 hours of incubation. At 72 hours of incubation, the within-laboratory repeatability and reproducibility of the method were 2.7% and 5.0% for DMD and 1.6% and 3.9% for IVTD, respectively. The method was less repeatable and reproducible for NDFD (4.5% and 10.4%, respectively).

Donkey Internal Medicine—Part I: Metabolic, Endocrine, and Alimentary Tract Disturbances

Metabolic and endocrine disturbances are common in donkeys. This species has an inherent ability to thrive with limited and poor-quality roughage. Donkeys are extremely efficient in energy storage and mobilization, which predisposes to hyperlipemia, obesity, and metabolic syndrome. The prevalence of dyslipidemias is higher in donkeys than other equids, which is more evident under stressful conditions. Diagnosis of endocrine and metabolic disorders in donkeys should be based on species-specific information considering that differences in a multitude of variables compared with horses have been demonstrated. Protocols to assess endocrine disorders (e.g., pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction, metabolic syndrome, and thyroid illness) are unavailable, and extrapolation from horse data can be misleading. Treatment guidelines for these conditions in donkeys are currently not reported. On the other hand, the typical stoic and hardy behavior of donkeys can hinder prompt diagnosis of gastrointestinal problems, specifically colic, which is commonly caused by dental issues in this species. Moreover, subclinical gastric ulcer syndrome appears to be a common pathology in this species, especially in working donkeys.

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Donkeys are different to horses.

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Numerous physiological and clinic-pathologic idiosyncrasies are reported in horses.

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Data published for horses should not be extrapolated for donkeys.

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Specific reference ranges, doses, and protocols have to be used for donkeys.

Donkey Internal Medicine—Part II: Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Neurologic, Urinary, Ophthalmic, Dermatology, and Musculoskeletal Disorders

Cardiovascular diseases are scarcely reported in donkeys, probably linked to their limited athletic attitude and low frequency of poor performance-related examinations. Reports on treatments for cardiovascular pathologies are anecdotal in donkeys. Respiratory tract anatomy shows important differences between horses and donkeys. Donkeys and mules can act as reservoirs spreading many viral, bacterial, and parasitic infectious respiratory diseases. Mosquito and tick-borne encephalitis have been reported in these species in the later years, and even donkeys are being used as sentinels in some areas to detect these emerging diseases. Management and treatment of lithiases can be transferable from horses; however, the same assumption must still be demonstrated for acute and chronic renal diseases. Ocular pathologies are similar to horses, with corneal ulcers frequently observed. Lameness is a common problem in donkeys, with laminitis as the most reported cause followed by pedal abscess.

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Donkeys are different to horses.

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Numerous physiological and clinicopathologic idiosyncrasies are reported in horses.

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Data published for horses should not be extrapolated for donkeys.

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Specific reference ranges, doses, and protocols have to be used for donkeys.