Preserving Ethnoveterinary Medicine (EVM) along the Transhumance Routes in Southwestern Angola: Synergies between International Cooperation and Academic Research

This study delves into the ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) practiced by pastoralists along the transhumance routes in southwestern Angola. Within the framework of three cooperation projects, we conducted 434 interviews, collecting information on 89 taxa used for treating 16 livestock diseases. The most cited species was Ptaeroxylon obliquum (132 citations), followed by Salvadora persica (59) and Elaeodendron transvaalense (49). Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) was the disease most cited (223 citations; 44 species), followed by wounds (95; 20) and Newcastle (86; 14). We found that 30 species and 48 uses have not been previously reported in the ethnoveterinary literature. Jaccard index (mean value = 0.13) showed a greatly diversified knowledge among the ethnic groups: Kuvale and Nyaneka were the most knowledgeable and should be included in the various strategies for disseminating EVM in the area. Most informants recognized that abundance of some species decreased in the last years as a result of human activities and climatic changes. Finally, we discuss challenges in preserving the EVM in the area. Our findings suggest that preservation of the EVM in southwestern Angola is widely impacted by the access to biomedicine. Future studies should investigate the opportunity to integrate traditional medicine into mainstream development projects, which is crucial for decolonizing the veterinary sector in Angola.

Anti-Cryptosporidial Drug-Discovery Challenges and Existing Therapeutic Avenues: A "One-Health" Concern

Cryptosporidiosis is the leading cause of life-threatening diarrheal infection, especially in infants. Oocysts contaminate the environment, and also, being a zoonotic disease, cryptosporidiosis is a threat to One Health. Nitazoxanide is the only FDA-approved drug, effective only in immunocompetent adults, and is not safe for infants. The absence of mitochondria and apicoplast, the presence of an electron-dense band (ED band), hindrances in its genetic and phenotypic manipulations, and its unique position inside the host cell are some challenges to the anti-cryptosporidial drug-discovery process. However, many compounds, including herbal products, have shown efficacy against Cryptosporidium during in vitro and in vivo trials. Still, the "drug of choice" against this protozoan parasite, especially in immunocompromised individuals and infants, has not yet been explored. The One-Health approach addresses this issue, focusing on the intersection of animal, human, and environmental health. The objective of this review is to provide knowledge about novel anti-cryptosporidial drug targets, available treatment options with associated limitations, and possible future shifts toward natural products to treat cryptosporidiosis. The current review is organized to address the treatment and prevention of cryptosporidiosis. An anti-cryptosporidial drug that is effective in immunocompromised individuals and infants is a necessity of our time.

Ethnobotanical Documentation of the Uses of Wild and Cultivated Plants in the Ansanto Valley (Avellino Province, Southern Italy)

With approximately 2800 species, the Campania region has the richest vascular flora in southern Italy and the highest number of medicinal species reported in the Italian folk traditions. The study area is inserted in a wide rural landscape, still retaining a high degree of naturalness and is studied for the first time from an ethnobotanical point of view. By analyzing local traditional uses of wild plants in the Ansanto Valley area, the present study aims to contribute to the implementation of ethnobotanical knowledge concerning southern Italy. To gather ethnobotanical knowledge related to the Ansanto Valley, 69 semi-structured interviews were carried out through a snowball sampling approach, starting from locals with experience in traditional plant uses (key informants). A number of 117 plant species (96 genera and 46 families) were documented for traditional use from a total of 928 reports, of which 544 were about medicinal plants. New use reports on the utilization of plants for medicinal (5) and veterinary applications (8) in the Campania region and the whole Italian territory were outlined from our investigations. Sedum cepaea is reported as a medicinal plant for the first time in Italy and in the whole Mediterranean basin.

Advances in Diagnostic Approaches and Therapeutic Management in Bovine Mastitis

Mastitis causes huge economic losses to dairy farmers worldwide, which largely negatively affects the quality and quantity of milk. Mastitis decreases overall milk production, degrades milk quality, increases milk losses because of milk being discarded, and increases overall production costs due to higher treatment and labour costs and premature culling. This review article discusses mastitis with respect to its clinical epidemiology, the pathogens involved, economic losses, and basic and advanced diagnostic tools that have been used in recent times to diagnose mastitis effectively. There is an increasing focus on the application of novel therapeutic approaches as an alternative to conventional antibiotic therapy because of the decreasing effectiveness of antibiotics, emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, issue of antibiotic residues in the food chain, food safety issues, and environmental impacts. This article also discussed nanoparticles'/chitosan's roles in antibiotic-resistant strains and ethno-veterinary practices for mastitis treatment in dairy cattle.

Disadvantaged Economic Conditions and Stricter Border Rules Shape Afghan Refugees' Ethnobotany: Insights from Kohat District, NW Pakistan

The study of migrants' ethnobotany can help to address the diverse socio-ecological factors affecting temporal and spatial changes in local ecological knowledge (LEK). Through semi-structured and in-depth conversations with ninety interviewees among local Pathans and Afghan refugees in Kohat District, NW Pakistan, one hundred and forty-five wild plant and mushroom folk taxa were recorded. The plants quoted by Afghan refugees living inside and outside the camps tend to converge, while the Afghan data showed significant differences with those collected by local Pakistani Pathans. Interviewees mentioned two main driving factors potentially eroding folk plant knowledge: (a) recent stricter border policies have made it more difficult for refugees to visit their home regions in Afghanistan and therefore to also procure plants in their native country; (b) their disadvantaged economic conditions have forced them to engage more and more in urban activities in the host country, leaving little time for farming and foraging practices. Stakeholders should foster the exposure that refugee communities have to their plant resources, try to increase their socio-economic status, and facilitate both their settling outside the camps and their transnational movement for enhancing their use of wild plants, ultimately leading to improvements in their food security and health status.

Survey of Ethnoveterinary Medicines Used to Treat Livestock Diseases in Omusati and Kunene Regions of Namibia

The aim of this study was to find, evaluate, and document ethnoveterinary medications used to treat livestock ailments in Namibia's Omusati and Kunene regions. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to interview a total of 100 people. The results of the survey will be useful in creating the groundwork for future scientific research and validation. There were 15 veterinary medicinal plant species identified, which were divided into 10 families. The only types of growth that were utilized were trees, herbs, and bushes. Leaves (71%) were the most widely used plant parts for ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM), followed by bark (14%), stem (8%), and root (7%). Fresh components were frequently preferred in medical compositions. Oral administration was the most common (42.76%), followed by cutaneous (topical) administration (36.18%). Indigenous knowledge was largely passed down through the generations by word of mouth, indicating that it was vulnerable to fragmentation and loss. EVMs were crushed, soaked in water, and administered orally or topically. Farmers who were older had greater EVM knowledge than those who were younger. Ziziphus mucronate, Combretum collinum, and Colophospermum mopane were used in the treatment of diarrhea. Z. mucronate was also used in the treatment of mastitis. Skin infections were treated using Aloe esculenta and Salvadora persica. Ximenia americana and C. imberbe were used to treat eye infections in cattle, goats, and sheep. Retained placentas were treated using Acacia nilotica, A. erioloba, and Grewia flavescens. Roots from Fockea angustifolia were used in treating anthrax. A. esculenta Leach placed best with a fidelity level (FL) value of 90%, followed by A. littoralis Baker in second place (56%), and Combretum collinum Fresen in third place (54%). The majority of EVM recipes took 2-3 days to recover. More research is needed to determine the minimum inhibitory concentrations, biological activities, and toxicities, as well as characterize the chemical components of the plants and determine whether there is a plausible mechanism by which plant chemicals or possible physiological effects could achieve the results described by the respondents.

Emerging Anthelmintic Resistance in Poultry: Can Ethnopharmacological Approaches Offer a Solution?

Limited pharmacological studies have been conducted on plant species used against poultry helminths. The objective of this study was to provide a basis for plant based anthelmintics as possible alternatives against poultry anthelmintic resistance. The study justified the need for alternative anthelmintics. The study places emphasis on the increasing anthelmintic resistance, mechanism of resistance, and preparational protocols for plant anthelmintics and their associated mechanism of action. Pharmaceutical studies on plants as alternative therapies for the control of helminth parasites have not been fully explored especially in several developing countries. Plants from a broad range of species produce a wide variety of compounds that are potential anthelmintics candidates. Important phenolic acids have been found in Brassica rapa L. and Terminalia avicenniodes Guill. and Perri that affect the cell signaling pathways and gene expression. Benzo (c) phenanthridine and isoquinoline alkaloids are neurotoxic to helminths. Steroidal saponins (polyphyllin D and dioscin) interact with helminthic mitochondrial activity, alter cell membrane permeability, vacuolation and membrane damage. Benzyl isothiocyanate glucosinolates interfere with DNA replication and protein expression, while isoflavones from Acacia oxyphylla cause helminth flaccid paralysis, inhibit energy generation, and affect calcium utilization. Condensed tannins have been shown to cause the death of nematodes and paralysis leading to expulsion from the gastro-intestinal tract. Flavonoids from Chenopodium album L and Mangifera indica L act through the action of phosphodiesterase and Ca2+-ATPase, and flavonoids and tannins have been shown to act synergistically and are complementary to praziquantel. Artemisinins from Artemisia cina O. Berg are known to disrupt mitochondrial ATP production. Terpenoids from Cucurbita moschata L disrupt neurotransmission leading to paralysis as well as disruption of egg hatching. Yeast particle encapsulated terpenes are effective for the control of albendazole-resistant helminths.

A Review of Ethnoveterinary Knowledge, Biological Activities and Secondary Metabolites of Medicinal Woody Plants Used for Managing Animal Health in South Africa

Globally, the use of ethnoveterinary medicine as remedies for animal health among different ethnic groups justify the need for a systematic exploration to enhance their potential. In addition, the increasing popularity and utilisation of woody plants remain common in traditional medicine, which may be attributed to their inherent benefits. The current review was aimed at analysing ethnoveterinary surveys, biological activities, and secondary metabolites/phytochemical profiles of the woody plants of South Africa. Eligible literature (period: 2000 to 2020) were retrieved from different databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed, Sabinet, and Science Direct. Based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 20 ethnoveterinary surveys were eligible and were subjected to further analysis. We identified 104 woody plant species from 44 plant families that are used in the treatment of different diseases in animals, particularly cattle (70%) and goats (20%). The most mentioned (with six citations) woody plants were Terminalia sericea Burch. ex DC and Ziziphus mucronata Willd., which were followed by plants with five (Cussonia spicata Thunb., Pterocarpus angolensis DC and Vachellia karroo (Hayne) Banfi & Galasso) or four (Acokanthera oppositifolia (Lam.) Codd, Cassia abbreviata Oliv., and Strychnos henningsii Gilg) individual mentions. The most dominant families were Fabaceae (19%), Apocynaceae (5.8%), Rubiaceae (5.8%), Anacardiaceae (4.8%), Combretaceae (4.8%), Euphorbiaceae (4.8%), Malvaceae (4.8%), Rhamnaceae (4.8%), and Celastraceae (3.8%). Bark (33%), leaves (29%), and roots (19%) were the plant parts dominantly used to prepare remedies for ethnoveterinary medicine. An estimated 20% of woody plants have been screened for antimicrobial, anthelmintic, antioxidant, and cytotoxicity effects. Phytochemical profiles established a rich pool of valuable secondary metabolites (phenolic, flavonoids and condensed tannins) that may be responsible for the exerted biological activities. Overall, the significant portion of woody plants lacking empirical evidence on their biological effects indicates a major knowledge gap that requires more research efforts.

Ethnoveterinary botanical survey of medicinal plants used in Pashto, Punjabi and Saraiki communities of Southwest Pakistan

Medicinal plants are highly used in the ethnoveterinary practice as considerable livestock resources in remote areas. The aim of the present study is to explore the ethnoveterinary medicinal practices in three different communities and discuss the cross‐cultural consensus on the usage of medicinal plants for the treatment of animals. The field survey was conducted by the animal healers of the area during the different seasons of plant growth. A total of 83 informants were interviewed through Semi‐structured interview involving experts of traditional knowledge in 21 localities of the three regions (Zhob, D. I. Khan and Mianwali) were conducted. Findings of the study were quantitatively analyzed through the informant consensus factors to identify the homogeneity information provided by the informants. Furthermore, cross‐culture consensuses were analyzed and recorded data were represented in a tabulated and Venn diagrams. In particularly, 59 species of plants were documented in the comparative analysis. Among them, 32 plant species were recorded in Pashto community, while Punjabi and Sarakai communities exhibited nine and four plant species, respectively. Whereas cross‐cultural analysis showed 14 medicinal plants that were commonly utilized by three different ethnic communities, that indicated low interregional consensus in regard to ethnoveterinary practices of medicinal plants. The current study showed that different communities and ethnic groups sharing some traditional knowledge and cross‐culturally approaches have been reported from traditional uses of plants against livestock's diseases. Therefore, current findings are the opportunities to scrutinize the plants for the discovery of new drug sources for humans and animals.

Review on Ethnoveterinary Practices in Sub-Saharan Africa

Background: Livestock represents an important sector for the livelihood of sub-Saharan African countries' inhabitants. In these countries, farmers raise livestock to meet household food demands and as additional sources of incomes, but its production is hampered by rampant animal diseases. The impact of animal diseases is particularly severe for poor communities that, although relying heavily on livestock, have limited access to modern veterinary services and therefore rely on indigenous medicines for the treatment of livestock ailments. Methods: The current review focuses on the ethnoveterinary health management practices found amongst livestock producers in sub-Saharan Africa. Documents were sourced from Google databases. Results: A total of 56 documents were reviewed, most of which were published recently (after 2000). The documents revealed the wide use of ethnoveterinary medicines among livestock producers in sub-Saharan African countries because of their cost and accessibility, threats to ethnomedicinal plant species through improper harvesting methods, overexploitation, the existence of inappropriate ethnoveterinary practices, and methods of conserving ethnomedicinal species. Conclusions: Given the persistent threats posed to ethnoveterinary medicine and/or practices in developing countries of sub-Saharan Africa, the findings of this review highlight the importance of integrating and promoting the use of ethnoveterinary medicine that is likely to be lost if it is not given enough importance. It is also important to obtain an overview of recent publications on ethnoveterinary medicines to identify the gaps and scope required to be filled by future studies. It is envisaged that the review will stimulate further ethnoveterinary research among livestock disease management practices, which could lead to new pharmaceuticals in the region.

A Systematic Review on Comparative Analysis, Toxicology, and Pharmacology of Medicinal Plants Against Haemonchus contortus

Background:Haemonchus contortus is an important pathogenic nematode parasite and major economic constraint of small ruminants in tropics and subtropics regions. This review is an attempt to systematically address the; (a) efficacy of different plants against H. contortus by in vitro and in vivo proof; (b) toxicology, mechanism of action, and active phyto-compounds involve in anti-haemonchiasis activity; (c) and comparative analysis of plant species evaluated both in vitro and in vivo.

Methods: Online databases (Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, and ScienceDirect) were searched and published research articles (1980–2020) were gathered and reviewed.

Results: A total of 187 plant species were reported belonging to 59 families and 145 genera with Asteraceae and Fabaceae being frequently used. Out of the total plant species, 171 species were found to be evaluated in vitro and only 40 species in vivo. Twenty-four species were commonly evaluated for in vitro and in vivo anti-haemonchiasis activity. Among the reported assays, egg hatching test (EHT) and fecal egg count reduction (FECR) were the most widely used assays in vitro and in vivo, respectively. Moreover, sheep were the frequently used experimental model in vivo. After comparative analysis, Lachesiodendron viridiflorum, Corymbia citriodora, Calotropis procera, and Artemisia herba-alba were found highly effective both in vitro and in vivo. L. viridiflorum inhibited enzymatic activities and metabolic processes of the parasite and was found to be safe without toxic effects. C. citriodora was moderately toxic in vivo, however, the plant extract produced promising nematicidal effects by causing muscular disorganization and changes in the mitochondrial profile. Additionally, C. procera and A. herba-alba despite of their high anti-haemonchiasis activity were found to be highly toxic at the tested concentrations. C. procera caused perforation and tegumental disorganization along with adult worm paralysis. Nineteen compounds were reported, among which anethole and carvone completely inhibited egg hatching in vitro and significantly reduced fecal egg count, decreased male length, and reproductive capacity of female in vivo.

Conclusion: This review summarized different medicinal plants owing to nematicidal activities against H. contortus eggs, larvae, and adult worms. Plants like L. viridiflorum, C. citriodora, C. procera, and A. herba-alba, while compounds anethole and carvone having promising nematicidal activities and could be an alternative source for developing novel drugs after further investigation.

'Don't Put the Cart before the Mule!' Challenging Assumptions Regarding Health-Related Treatment Practices of Working Equid Owners in Northern India

Simple Summary

Donkeys and mules are still commonly worked across the world in place of mechanical vehicles. They are prone to various diseases and welfare issues, often as a result of poor working conditions. A proportion of the associated literature and a number of interventions are still driven by the assumption that the owners of working equids base their decisions on how to treat their animal upon economic factors or access to veterinary services. This paper uses a mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods to understand the reasons behind why equid owners choose to treat their animals in the way that they do. It explores the various means by which they choose to do this and the avenues available to them. It identifies four factors which influence how and why owners of working equids choose to treat their animals in a particular way and highlights in particular the frequency with which traditional methods or ‘home remedies’ play a significant role in attempts to remedy the poor health of an animal. The findings demonstrate a greater need to validate traditional methods used, in order to promote better health and to reduce risk, as well as the requirement to tailor animal welfare interventions according to these influencing factors to encourage more sustainable outcomes for both animals and owners.

Abstract

This paper challenges assumptions that the health management of working equids among some of India’s poorest communities is mainly dependent upon income, economic influence, or access to veterinary services. Using a mixed-methods approach, hierarchies of treatment practices are revealed through an examination of the ‘lived experience’ of equid owners in brick kilns and construction sites in northern India. Semi-structured interviews with 37 equid owners and corresponding livelihood surveys, combined with data from two focus groups with professional animal health practitioners and the welfare data of 63 working equids collected using the Equid Assessment, Research, and Scoping (EARS) tool, contributed to the findings of the study. Four principal influencing factors were found to affect the decision-making practices of equid owners. Infrastructural factors, community characteristics and experience, owners’ characteristics and experience, and economic factors all impact the belief structures of equid owners. However, without verifying the validity of the treatment measures being employed, some animals are at risk from hazardous treatment behaviours. By understanding decision-making using the theory of planned behaviour, the findings of this study can provide a crucial contribution to informing future interventions involved in the health management and welfare of working equids.

Ethnobotanical Study on Plant Used by Semi-Nomad Descendants' Community in Ouled Dabbeb-Southern Tunisia

Thanks to its geographic location between two bioclimatic belts (arid and Saharan) and the ancestral nomadic roots of its inhabitants, the sector of Ouled Dabbeb (Southern Tunisia) represents a rich source of plant biodiversity and wide ranging of ethnobotanical knowledge. This work aims to (1) explore and compile the unique diversity of floristic and ethnobotanical information on different folk use of plants in this sector and (2) provide a novel insight into the degree of knowledge transmission between the current population and their semi-nomadic forefathers. Ethnobotanical interviews and vegetation inventories were undertaken during 2014–2019. Thirty informants aged from 27 to 84 were interviewed. The ethnobotanical study revealed that the local community of Ouled Dabbeb perceived the use of 70 plant species belonging to 59 genera from 31 families for therapeutic (83%), food (49%), domestic (15%), ethnoveterinary (12%), cosmetic (5%), and ritual purposes (3%). Moreover, they were knowledgeable about the toxicity of eight taxa. Nearly 73% of reported ethnospecies were freely gathered from the wild. The most commonly used plant parts were leaves (41%) followed by flowers and inflorescence (16%). We reported the use and collection of non-renewable parts (underground storage organs and roots) for 20 ethnospecies. Interestingly, a comparison with the available literature in Tunisia and neighboring countries reveals 13 new useful plants as well as 17 plants with new uses and demonstrates an important reservoir of traditional ethnobotanical heritage that is still sustained by respondents stemming from the semi-nomadic lifestyle of their ancestors (74% of cited taxa). These data could set a basis for further phytochemical and pharmacological research and conservative approach of the most relevant plant species including endemic overused and endangered taxa.

Ethnoveterinary for food-producing animals and related food safety issues: A comprehensive overview about terpenes

Alternatives to the use of conventional veterinary drugs in food-producing animals have gained attention, such as the use of natural products (NPs), mainly to soften the risks to the animal, the environment, and consumer's health. Although NPs have consistent advantages over conventional drugs, they cannot be considered risk free under food safety matters. In this way, this document presents a comprehensive overview of the importance of considering both the pharmacological and toxicological properties of the constituents of a NP from plants intending the standardization and regulation of its use in food-producing animals. Terpenes are the most diverse class of natural substances present in NP of vegetal origin with a broad range of biological activities that can be explored in veterinary science; however, certain plants and terpenes also have significant toxic effects, a fact that can harm the health of animals and consequently generate economic losses and risks for humans. In this context, this review gathered scientific data of vegetal species of importance to ethnoveterinary for food-producing animals, which produce terpenes, its biological effects, and their implications on food safety issues for consumers. For this, more than 300 documents were selected from different online scientific databases. The present data and discussion may contribute to the rational commercial exploration of this class of NPs in veterinary medicine.

Assessment of Clayey Peloid Formulations Prior to Clinical Use in Equine Rehabilitation

Clays are natural ingredients used to prepare therapeutic cataplasms suitable for topical application. The knowledge about these formulations and their preparations to be applied on humans and animals has been orally transmitted since ancient times. Several empirical methods using clays have demonstrated fast and effective results in the reduction of the inflammatory response and the formation of edemas in horse limbs. The use of traditional and alternative medicine, such as pelotherapy, is now becoming more popular in veterinarian medical practice, alone or combined with other therapies in horse muscle and tendon rehabilitation. This study characterizes the use of commercial equine clays and an old therapeutic clay cataplasm formulation, using acetic acid, to treat tendon injuries in horses. This work might contribute to a major database characterization of clays used empirically on equine health, the potential of dermal absorption, the risks of exposure to some toxic elements, and safety assessment for these formulations. The present study was carried out to characterize the suitability of four commercial equine clays (Group II) and a protocoled healing mixture: “clay acetic acid cataplasm”, (Group III), to treat tendon injuries in horses. In this mixture, three conventional “green” clays (Group I) without any mineralogical specificity were used and blended with acetic acid. The mineralogical composition was determined through X-ray powder diffraction and X-ray fluorescence data. To determine the performance of the samples, cooling kinetics, oil absorption, expandability, and specific surface area were measured. According to the mineralogical composition, Group I was mainly composed of carbonates and silicates, while Group II was much richer in silicates with the main clay minerals kaolinite and illite. Group II exhibited the highest values for As, Pb, Cr, Ni, and Zn, considered potentially toxic. Both groups showed low cation exchange capacities and exchanged mainly Ca²⁺, with the exception of VET.1 and VET.7, which also highlight Na⁺, and VET.5 and VET.6, which have K⁺ as an exchangeable main cation. The addition of acetic acid (Group III) does not reveal any significant chemical changes. The results confirm that both clay groups are adequate for the therapeutic propose. They have good plastic properties (skin adherence), good oil absorptive capabilities (cleaning), and exchange an essential physiological element, calcium. Group II has prior industrial preparation, which is probably why it showed better results. Group I presented lower heat retention capacity and higher abrasiveness, which could be improved using cosmetic additives. The clinical benefit of the “clay acetic acid cataplasm” (Group III) could be the systemic anti-inflammatory effect established by the acetic acid.

Preliminary investigation of acaricidal activity of leaf extract of Nicotiana tabacum on dog tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Tick infestation of domestic animals remains a major constraint to livestock productivity across all agro-ecological zones most especially in small animal practice. The most common method of tick control is the use of synthetic acaricide. However, a widespread increase of acaricidal resistance, scarcity and high cost of acaricides especially to farmers of low-income earnings in developing countries support the need for alternative tick control methods. Among the alternative methods for tick control is herbal therapy. In this study, we investigated the acaricidal activity of methanol and N-hexane leaf extracts of Nicotiana tabacum against dog ticks - Rhipicephalus sanguineus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Larvicidal and adulticidal activity of N. tabacum leaf extract were examined on the dog tick - R. sanguineus in an in vitro experiment using larval packet test and adult immersion test respectively. Phytochemical and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of the leaf extract were also carried out using standard methods.

RESULTS

We observed a tick mortality rate that was concentration-dependent. However, N-hexane extract showed a higher significant acaricidal effect than methanol extract. Lethal dose (LD50) of N. tabacum was 0.06. High quantity of terpenoids was obtained from N. tabacum. Lower tick glutathione S-transferase observed with varying concentration of N. tabacum. GC-MS revealed Pyridine, 3-(1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinyl)-, (S) - Nicotine, Citronellyl propionate, Crotonaldehyde, Lavandulyl acetate, trans-Phytol and Amitrole (3-Amino-1, 2, 4-triazole) in N. tabacum.

CONCLUSION

Both methanol and N-hexane leaf extracts of N. tabacum exhibited observable acaricidal property against the larvae and adult R. sanguineus of dog.

Wound Healing Properties of Selected Plants Used in Ethnoveterinary Medicine

Plants have arrays of phytoconstituents that have wide ranging biological effects like antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties key in wound management. In vivo wound healing properties of ointments made of crude methanolic extracts (10% extract w/w in white soft paraffin) of three plant species, Cissus quadrangularis L. (whole aerial plant parts), Adenium multiflorum Klotzsch (whole aerial plant parts) and Erythrina abyssinica Lam. Ex DC. (leaves and bark) used in ethnoveterinary medicine were evaluated on BALB/c female mice based on wound area changes, regular observations, healing skin's percentage crude protein content and histological examinations. White soft paraffin and 3% oxytetracycline ointment were used as negative and positive controls, respectively. Wound area changes over a 15 day period for mice treated with C. quadrangularis and A. multiflorum extract ointments were comparable to those of the positive control (oxytetracycline ointment). Wounds managed with the same extract ointments exhibited high crude protein contents, similar to what was observed on animals treated with the positive control. Histological evaluations revealed that C. quadrangularis had superior wound healing properties with the wound area completely returning to normal skin structure by day 15 of the experiment. E. abyssinica leaf and bark extract ointments exhibited lower wound healing properties though the leaf extract exhibited some modest healing properties.

Ethnoveterinary of Sahrawi pastoralists of Western Sahara: camel diseases and remedies

BACKGROUND

Pastoral populations around the world hold complex and detailed ethnoveterinary knowledge, essential for the survival of their herds and securing their livelihood. In recent decades, several studies have given attention to local veterinary remedies and practices and their validation, and to the local conceptualization of livestock diseases. Despite this, relatively little has been reported on indigenous knowledge of camel diseases (e.g., aetiological factors, epidemiological patterns, symptoms, prevention and treatments). This paper focuses on the traditional knowledge of camel diseases and their treatments among Sahrawi nomads, detailing how this knowledge is powerfully reflected on pastoral adaptation strategies to the ecological system of Western Sahara.

METHODS

Between 2005 and 2010, freelisting exercise on camel diseases with 46 Sahrawi nomads and refugees, semi-structured interviews with 36 knowledgeable informants about camel diseases and associated treatments, and a voucher specimen collection of the plants and products cited were conducted in the territories administered by the Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic, Western Sahara. Analytical methods included standard ethnobiological, ethnobotanical and cultural consensus analyses.

RESULTS

In total, 42 camel diseases were freelisted by informants, with four (i.e., mange, dermatomycosis, respiratory infections, and mastitis) found to be culturally highly salient. These four represent the most common veterinary conditions experienced by Sahrawi pastoralists. In addition, 42 plant species belonging to 22 botanical families (Hammada scoparia, Acacia tortilis, Zygophyllum gaetulum, Nucularia perrinii, and Panicum turgidum among the species most used) were listed as used in the treatment of these diseases, as well as about 30 remedies of animal (e.g., from camels, donkeys, and/or spiny-tailed lizards) and mineral origin, and of cauterizations.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides an overall picture of the most important camel diseases and remedies as reported by Sahrawi informants, detailing how the vast knowledge that the Sahrawi hold on the health and disease of their camels is constructed through contrasts between their customary nomadic land (and associated climate, soils, grazing and therapeutic resources) and the surrounding areas (and associated diseases), which are traditionally used only in cases of drought.

Gallen, Thurgau, Appenzell Innerrhoden and Appenzell Ausserrhoden)

BACKGROUND

Very few ethnoveterinary surveys have been conducted in central Europe. However, traditional knowledge on the use of medicinal plants might be an option for future concepts in treatment of livestock diseases. Therefore the aim of this study was to document and analyse the traditional knowledge and use of homemade herbal remedies for livestock by farmers in four Swiss cantons.

METHODS

Research was conducted in 2012. Fifty farmers on 38 farms were interviewed with the aid of semistructured interviews. Detailed information about the plants used and their mode of preparation were documented as well as dosage, route of administration, category of use, origin of knowledge, frequency of use, and satisfaction with the treatment.

RESULTS

In total, 490 homemade remedies were collected. Out of these, 315 homemade remedies contained only one plant species (homemade single species herbal remedies, HSHR), which are presented in this paper. Seventy six species from 44 botanical families were mentioned. The most HSHR were quoted for the families of Asteraceae, Polygonaceae and Urticaceae. The plant species with the highest number of HSHRs were Matricaria recutita L., Calendula officinalis L., Rumex obtusifolius L. and Urtica dioica L. For each HSHR, one to eight different applications were enumerated. A total of 428 applications were documented, the majority of which were used to treat cattle. The main applications were in treatment of skin afflictions and sores, followed by gastrointestinal disorders and metabolic dysfunctions. Topical administration was most frequently used, followed by oral administration. In nearly half of the cases the knowledge on preparing and using herbal remedies was from forefathers and relatives. More than one third of the applications were used more than ten times during the last five years, and in about sixty percent of the cases, the last application was during the last year preceding the interviews.

CONCLUSIONS

Traditional knowledge of farmers about the use of medicinal plants to treat livestock exists in north-eastern Switzerland. Homemade herbal remedies based on this knowledge are being used. The interviewed farmers were satisfied with the outcome of the applications.

Ethnoveterinary medicines in four districts of Jimma zone, Ethiopia: cross sectional survey for plant species and mode of use

BACKGROUND

Traditional medicines have been used for nearly 90% of livestock populations in Ethiopia where complimentary remedies are required to the modern health care system. All plants with pharmacological activity complimentarily prescribed as best choice against livestock diseases. A community based cross - sectional survey was conducted to investigate ethno-veterinary knowledge and practices of study area by purposive sampling techniques. The data from respondents were collected through face-to face interview using pre-tested semi-structured questionnaires, which was further accompanied by field observations of the medicinal plants. The vast majority of the statistics were analyzed descriptively by SPSS 16 Windows version to extrapolate our findings in ethno-botanical knowledge.

RESULTS

In the study, a total of 74 species of ethnoveterinary medicinal plant species from 31 families have been identified for treating 22 different livestock ailments. The three families: Asteraceae, Cucurbitaceae and Solanaceae make up larger proportion of reported medicinal plants which accounted for 10.41%, 8.33% and 6.25%, respectively. Of reported medicinal plants, 16.7% informant consensus was recorded for the species Croton macrostachyus Del., 10.7% for Nicotiana tabacum L. and 9.5% for Olea capensis L.Subsp. macrocarpa (C.H. Wright) I.Verd. in treatment of one or more veterinary ailments. The greater varieties of medicinal plant species that accounted for 28.2% were used against management of blackleg which was common livestock diseases in the study area. The findings showed, trees accounted for 43.24%, followed by shrubs (33.78%) and herbs (14.86%). Eighty one percent of medicinal plants reported by respondents were collected from wild habitats, and leaves reported to be used by 68% of the informants for ethnoveterinary medicines preparations. The preparations were applied through different routes of administration; oral administration accounted for (76.2%), followed by application of topical (9.53%) and nasal (5.19%).

CONCLUSIONS

Ethnoveterinary practices significantly suggested to play greater roles in livestock health care as an alternative or integral part of modern veterinary practices. The traditional knowledge in treatment of livestock diseases of the study districts needs further scientific evaluations by phytochemical and antimicrobial experimentation to determine safety, efficacy, mode of delivery, drug development and dosage in pharmacological laboratory.

Botanical ethnoveterinary therapies in three districts of the Lesser Himalayas of Pakistan

BACKGROUND

Ethnoveterinary knowledge is highly significant for persistence of traditional community-based approaches to veterinary care. This is of particular importance in the context of developing and emerging countries, where animal health (that of livestock, especially) is crucial to local economies and food security. The current survey documents the traditional veterinary uses of medicinal plants in the Lesser Himalayas-Pakistan.

METHODS

Data were collected through interviews, focus groups, participant observation, and by administering questionnaires. A total of 105 informants aged between 20-75 years old who were familiar with livestock health issues (i.e. farmers, shepherds, housewives and herbalists) participated in the study.

RESULTS

A total of 89 botanical taxa, belonging to 46 families, were reported to have ethnoveterinary applications. The most quoted families were Poaceae (6 taxa), Fabaceae (6), Asteraceae (5), and Polygonaceae (5). Adhatoda vasica was the most cited species (43%), followed by Trachyspermum ammi (37%), and Zanthoxylum armatum var. armatum (36%). About 126 medications were recorded against more than 50 veterinary conditions grouped into seven categories. The highest cultural index values were recorded for Trachyspermum ammi, Curcuma longa, Melia azedarach, Zanthoxylum armatum var. armatum and Adhatoda vasica. The highest informant consensus factor was found for pathologies related to respiratory and reproductive disorders. Comparison with the local plant-based remedies used in human folk medicine revealed that many of remedies were used in similar ways in local human phytotherapy. Comparison with other field surveys conducted in surrounding areas demonstrated that approximately one-half of the recorded plants uses are novel to the ethnoveterinary literature of the Himalayas.

CONCLUSION

The current survey shows a remarkable resilience of ethnoveterinary botanical knowledge in the study area. Most of the species reported for ethnoveterinary applications are wild and under threat. Thus, not only is it imperative to conserve traditional local knowledge of folk veterinary therapies for bio-cultural conservation motives, but also to assist with in-situ and ex-situ environmental conservation initiatives, which are urgently needed. Future studies that focus on the validation of efficacy of these ethnoveterinary remedies can help to substantiate emic concepts regarding the management of animal health care and for rural development programs.

The current status of ethnobiological research in Latin America: gaps and perspectives

BACKGROUND

Recent reviews have demonstrated an increase in the number of papers on ethnobiology in Latin America. Among factors that have influenced this increase are the biological and cultural diversity of these countries and the general scientific situation in some countries. This study aims to assess the panorama of ethnobiological research in Latin America by analyzing its evolution, trends, and future prospects.

METHODS

To conduct this study, we searched for papers in the Scopus (http://www.scopus.com) and Web of Science (http://www.isiknowledge.com) databases. The search was performed using combinations of keywords and the name of each Latin American country. The following countries were included in this study: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Venezuela, and Uruguay.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

According to our inclusion criteria, 679 ethnobiological studies conducted in Latin America were found for the period between 1963 and 2012. Of these studies, 289 (41%) were conducted in Brazil, 153 in Mexico (22%), 61 in Peru (9%), 58 in Argentina (8%), 45 in Bolivia (6%), and 97 (14%) in other Latin American countries. The increased number of publications related to this area of knowledge in recent years demonstrates the remarkable growth of ethnobiology as a science. Ethnobiological research may be stimulated by an increase in the number of scientific events and journals for study dissemination and by the creation of undergraduate courses and graduate programs to train ethnoscientists who will produce high-quality studies, especially in certain countries.

Medicinal plants used for traditional veterinary in the Sierras de Córdoba (Argentina): an ethnobotanical comparison with human medicinal uses

BACKGROUND

This is a first description of the main ethnoveterinary features of the peasants in the Sierras de Córdoba. The aim of this study was to analyze the use of medicinal plants and other traditional therapeutic practices for healing domestic animals and cattle. Our particular goals were to: characterize veterinary ethnobotanical knowledge considering age, gender and role of the specialists; interpret the cultural features of the traditional local veterinary medicine and plant uses associated to it; compare the plants used in traditional veterinary medicine, with those used in human medicine in the same region.

METHODS

Fieldwork was carried out as part of an ethnobotanic regional study where 64 informants were interviewed regarding medicinal plants used in veterinary medicine throughout 2001-2010. Based participant observation and open and semi-structured interviews we obtained information on the traditional practices of diagnosis and healing, focusing on the veterinary uses given to plants (part of the plant used, method of preparation and administration). Plants speciemens were collected with the informants and their vernacular and scientific names were registered in a database. Non-parametric statistic was used to evaluate differences in medicinal plant knowledge, use, and valorization by local people. A comparison between traditional veterinary medicine and previous human medicine studies developed in the region was performed by analyzing the percentages of common species and uses, and by considering Sorensen's Similarity Index.

RESULTS

A total of 127 medicinal uses were registered, corresponding to 70 species of plants belonging to 39 botanic families. Veterinary ethnobotanical knowledge was specialized, restricted, in general, to cattle breeders (mainly men) and to a less degree to healers, and was independent of the age of the interviewees. Native plants were mostly used as skin cicatrizants, disinfectants or for treating digestive disorders. Together with a vast repertoire of plant pharmacopoeia, the therapies also involve religious or ritualistic practices and other popular remedies that evidence the influence of traditional Hispanic-European knowledge. Although the traditional veterinary knowledge seems to be similar or else is inlcuded in the local human ethnomedicine, sharing a common group of plants, it has distinct traits originated by a constant assessment of new applications specifically destined to the treatment of animals.

CONCLUSIONS

Veterinary medicine is a fountain of relevant vernacular knowledge, a permanent source for testing new applications with valuable ethnobotanical interest. Knowledge on medicinal applications of native plants will allow future validations and tests for new homeopathic or phytotherapeutic preparations.