E-cadherin is required for intestinal morphogenesis in the mouse

A Dynamic WNT/β-CATENIN Signaling Environment Leads to WNT-Independent and WNT-Dependent Proliferation of Embryonic Intestinal Progenitor Cells

Much of our understanding about how intestinal stem and progenitor cells are regulated comes from studying the late fetal stages of development and the adult intestine. In this light, little is known about intestine development prior to the formation of stereotypical villus structures with columnar epithelium, a stage when the epithelium is pseudostratified and appears to be a relatively uniform population of progenitor cells with high proliferative capacity. Here, we investigated a role for WNT/β-CATENIN signaling during the pseudostratified stages of development (E13.5, E14.5) and following villus formation (E15.5) in mice. In contrast to the well-described role for WNT/β-CATENIN signaling as a regulator of stem/progenitor cells in the late fetal and adult gut, conditional epithelial deletion of β-catenin or the Frizzled co-receptors Lrp5 and Lrp6 had no effect on epithelial progenitor cell proliferation in the pseudostratified epithelium. Mutant embryos displayed obvious developmental defects, including loss of proliferation and disruptions in villus formation starting only at E15.5. Mechanistically, our data suggest that WNT signaling-mediated proliferation at the time of villus formation is driven by mesenchymal, but not epithelial, WNT ligand secretion.

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WNT/β-CATENIN signaling is not required for proliferation during pseudostratified growth

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Deleting epithelial β-catenin causes loss of proliferation during villus morphogenesis

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Loss of WNT/β-CATENIN signaling leads to perturbations in villus formation

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Mesenchymal, not epithelial, WNT ligands are required for epithelial proliferation

PDK1 Is a Regulator of Epidermal Differentiation that Activates and Organizes Asymmetric Cell Division

Asymmetric cell division (ACD) in a perpendicular orientation promotes cell differentiation and organizes the stratified epithelium. However, the upstream cues regulating ACD have not been identified. Here, we report that phosphoinositide-dependent kinase 1 (PDK1) plays a critical role in establishing ACD in the epithelium. Production of phosphatidyl inositol triphosphate (PIP3) is localized to the apical side of basal cells. Asymmetric recruitment of atypical protein kinase C (aPKC) and partitioning defective (PAR) 3 is impaired in PDK1 conditional knockout (CKO) epidermis. PDK1(CKO) keratinocytes do not undergo calcium-induced activation of aPKC or IGF1-induced activation of AKT and fail to differentiate. PDK1(CKO) epidermis shows decreased expression of Notch, a downstream effector of ACD, and restoration of Notch rescues defective expression of differentiation-induced Notch targets in vitro. We therefore propose that PDK1 signaling regulates the basal-to-suprabasal switch in developing epidermis by acting as both an activator and organizer of ACD and the Notch-dependent differentiation program.

GATA4 regulates epithelial cell proliferation to control intestinal growth and development in mice

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The embryonic small intestinal epithelium is highly proliferative, and although much is known about mechanisms regulating proliferation in the adult intestine, the mechanisms controlling epithelial cell proliferation in the developing intestine are less clear. GATA4, a transcription factor that regulates proliferation in other developing tissues, is first expressed early in the developing gut in midgut endoderm. GATA4 function within midgut endoderm and the early intestinal epithelium has not been investigated.

METHODS

Using Sonic Hedgehog Cre to eliminate GATA4 in the midgut endoderm of mouse embryos, we determined the impact of loss of GATA4 on intestinal development, including epithelial cell proliferation, between E9.5-E18.5.

RESULTS

We found that intestinal length and width were decreased in GATA4 mutants compared with controls. GATA4-deficient intestinal epithelium contained fewer cells, and epithelial girth was decreased. We further observed a decreased proportion of proliferating cells at E10.5 and E11.5 in GATA4 mutants. We demonstrated that GATA4 binds to chromatin containing GATA4 consensus binding sites within Cyclin D2 (Ccnd2), Cyclin dependent kinase 6 (Cdk6), and Frizzled 5 (Fzd5). Moreover, Ccnd2, Cdk6, and Fzd5 transcripts were reduced at E11.5 in GATA4 mutant tissue. Villus morphogenesis was delayed, and villus structure was abnormal in GATA4 mutant intestine.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data identify GATA4 as an essential regulator of early intestinal epithelial cell proliferation. We propose that GATA4 controls proliferation in part by directly regulating transcription of cell cycle mediators. Our data further suggest that GATA4 affects proliferation through transcriptional regulation of Fzd5, perhaps by influencing the response of the epithelium to WNT signaling.

Immunohistochemical study of the membrane skeletal protein, membrane protein palmitoylated 6 (MPP6), in the mouse small intestine

The membrane protein palmitoylated (MPP) family belongs to the membrane-associated guanylate kinase (MAGUK) family. MPP1 interacts with the protein 4.1 family member, 4.1R, as a membrane skeletal protein complex in erythrocytes. We previously described the interaction of another MPP family, MPP6, with 4.1G in the mouse peripheral nervous system. In the present study, the immunolocalization of MPP6 in the mouse small intestine was examined and compared with that of E-cadherin, zonula occludens (ZO)-1, and 4.1B, which we previously investigated in intestinal epithelial cells. The immunolocalization of MPP6 was also assessed in the small intestines of 4.1B-deficient (-/-) mice. In the small intestine, Western blotting revealed that the molecular weight of MPP6 was approximately 55-kDa, and MPP6 was immunostained under the cell membranes in the basolateral portions of almost all epithelial cells from the crypts to the villi. The immunostaining pattern of MPP6 in epithelial cells was similar to that of E-cadherin, but differed from that of ZO-1. In intestinal epithelial cells, the immunostained area of MPP6 was slightly different from that of 4.1B, which was restricted to the intestinal villi. The immunolocalization of MPP6 in small intestinal epithelial cells was similar between 4.1B(-/-) mice and 4.1B(+/+) mice. In the immunoprecipitation study, another MAGUK family protein, calcium/calmodulin-dependent serine protein kinase (CASK), was shown to molecularly interact with MPP6. Thus, we herein showed the immunolocalization and interaction proteins of MPP6 in the mouse small intestine, and also that 4.1B in epithelial cells was not essential for the sorting of MPP6.

CUGBP1 and HuR regulate E-cadherin translation by altering recruitment of E-cadherin mRNA to processing bodies and modulate epithelial barrier function

The effectiveness and stability of epithelial barrier depend on apical junctional complexes, which consist of tight junctions (TJs) and adherens junctions (AJs). E-cadherin is the primary component of AJs, and it is essential for maintenance of cell-to-cell interactions and regulates the epithelial barrier. However, the exact mechanism underlying E-cadherin expression, particularly at the posttranscriptional level, remains largely unknown. RNA-binding proteins CUG-binding protein 1 (CUGBP1) and HU antigen R (HuR) are highly expressed in the intestinal epithelial tissues and modulate the stability and translation of target mRNAs. Here, we present evidence that CUGBP1 and HuR interact directly with the 3'-untranslated region of E-cadherin mRNA and regulate E-cadherin translation. CUGBP1 overexpression in Caco-2 cells inhibited E-cadherin translation by increasing the recruitment of E-cadherin mRNA to processing bodies (PBs), thus resulting in an increase in paracellular permeability. Overexpression of HuR exhibited an opposite effect on E-cadherin expression by preventing the translocation of E-cadherin mRNA to PBs and therefore prevented CUGBP1-induced repression of E-cadherin expression. Elevation of HuR also abolished the CUGBP1-induced epithelial barrier dysfunction. These findings indicate that CUGBP1 and HuR negate each other's effects in regulating E-cadherin translation by altering the recruitment of E-cadherin mRNA to PBs and play an important role in the regulation of intestinal barrier integrity under various pathophysiological conditions.

Intestinal stem cell growth and differentiation on a tubular scaffold with evaluation in small and large animals

AIMS

To investigate the growth and differentiation of intestinal stem cells on a novel tubular scaffold in vitro and in vivo.

MATERIALS & METHODS

Intestinal progenitor cells from mice or humans were cultured with myofibroblasts, macrophages and/or bacteria, and evaluated in mice via omental implantation. Mucosal regeneration was evaluated in dogs after rectal mucosectomy followed by scaffold implantation.

RESULTS

Intestinal progenitor cells differentiated into crypt-villi structures on the scaffold. Differentiation and scaffold coverage was enhanced by coculture with myofibroblasts, macrophages and probiotic bacteria, while the implanted scaffolds enhanced mucosal regeneration in the dog rectum.

CONCLUSION

Intestinal stem cell growth and differentiation on a novel tubular scaffold is enhanced through addition of cellular and microbial components, as validated in mice and dogs.

Intestinal E-cadherin Deficiency Aggravates Dextran Sodium Sulfate-Induced Colitis

BACKGROUND

E-cadherin is a cell adhesion protein with crucial roles in development, tissue homeostasis, and disease. Loss of E-cadherin in the adult intestinal epithelium disrupts tissue architecture and is associated with impaired localization and function of goblet and Paneth cells, reduced expression of antibacterial factors, and deficiency in clearing enteropathogenic bacteria. Several studies have suggested a role of E-cadherin in human inflammatory bowel disease.

AIM

To investigate the role of E-cadherin deficiency in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease in a mouse model of experimentally induced colitis.

METHODS

To induce E-cadherin deficiency, Villin-Cre-ER (T2) ;Cdh1 (fl/fl) mice received intraperitoneal injections of tamoxifen at days 1, 2, 5, and 8. Experimental colitis was induced by oral administration of dextran sodium sulfate (DSS, 3.5 % in the drinking water) for 3 days, starting at the third day after the first tamoxifen injection.

RESULTS

E-cadherin deficiency in the adult mouse intestinal epithelium aggravates the clinical and histological features of DSS-induced colitis. Upon DSS treatment, mice deficient in E-cadherin lost more weight, were more severely dehydrated, and showed more frequently blood in the feces. Histologically, intestinal E-cadherin deficiency was associated with exacerbated acute and chronic inflammation and increased regenerative epithelial changes. Finally, the changes in the epithelium were distributed more diffusely in E-cadherin-deficient mice, while the mucosal damage was more focally localized in control animals.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that E-cadherin may play an important role in the pathogenesis of ulcerative colitis, one of the major clinical forms of inflammatory bowel disease.

Characterization of the developing small intestine in the absence of either GATA4 or GATA6

Background

Studies of adult mice lacking either GATA4 or GATA6 in the small intestine demonstrate roles for these factors in small intestinal biology. Deletion of Gata4 in the adult mouse intestine revealed an essential role for GATA4 in jejunal function. Deletion of Gata6 in the adult mouse ileum alters epithelial cell types and ileal enterocyte gene expression. The effect of deletion of Gata4 or Gata6 alone during embryonic small intestinal development, however, has not been examined. We recently demonstrated that loss of both factors in double conditional knockout embryos causes severe defects in jejunal development. Therefore, the goal of this study is to provide phenotypic analysis of the small intestine of single Gata4 and Gata6 conditional knockout embryos.

Results

Villin-Cre was used to delete Gata4 or Gata6 in the developing intestinal epithelium. Elimination of either GATA4 or GATA6 in the jejunum, where these factors are co-expressed, caused changes in enterocyte and enteroendocrine cell gene expression. Ectopic expression of markers of the ileal-specific bile acid metabolism pathway was induced in GATA4-deficient jejunum but not in GATA6-deficient jejunum. A subtle increase in goblet cells was also identified in jejunum of both mutants. In GATA6-deficient embryonic ileum, villus length was altered, and enterocyte gene expression was perturbed including ectopic expression of the colon marker Car1. Goblet cells were increased, and enteroendocrine cells were decreased.

Conclusions

Overall, we show that aspects of the phenotypes observed in the small intestine of adult Gata4 and Gata6 conditional knockout mice emerge during development. The effect of eliminating GATA6 from the developing ileum was greater than that of eliminating either GATA4 or GATA6 from the developing jejunum likely reflecting functional redundancy between these factors in the jejunum. Although GATA4 and GATA6 functions overlap, our data also suggest unique functions for GATA4 and GATA6 within the developing intestine. GATA4 likely operates independently of GATA6 within the jejunum to regulate jejunal versus ileal enterocyte identity and consequently jejunal physiology. GATA6 likely regulates enteroendocrine cell differentiation cell autonomously whereas GATA4 affects this population indirectly.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1756-0500-7-902) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

E-cadherin's role in development, tissue homeostasis and disease: Insights from mouse models: Tissue-specific inactivation of the adhesion protein E-cadherin in mice reveals its functions in health and disease

Recent studies uncovered critical roles of the adhesion protein E-cadherin in health and disease. Global inactivation of Cdh1, the gene encoding E-cadherin in mice, results in early embryonic lethality due to an inability to form the trophectodermal epithelium. To unravel E-cadherin's functions beyond development, numerous mouse lines with tissue-specific disruption of Cdh1 have been generated. The consequences of E-cadherin loss showed great variability depending on the tissue in question, ranging from nearly undetectable changes to a complete loss of tissue structure and function. This review focuses on these studies and discusses how they provided important insights into E-cadherin's role in cell adhesion, proliferation and differentiation, and its consequences for biological processes as epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, vascularization, and carcinogenesis. Lastly, we present some perspectives and possible approaches for future research.

GATA4 and GATA6 regulate intestinal epithelial cytodifferentiation during development

The intestinal epithelium performs vital roles in organ function by absorbing nutrients and providing a protective barrier. The zinc-finger containing transcription factors GATA4 and GATA6 regulate enterocyte gene expression and control regional epithelial cell identity in the adult intestinal epithelium. Although GATA4 and GATA6 are expressed in the developing intestine, loss of either factor alone during the period of epithelial morphogenesis and cytodifferentiation fails to disrupt these processes. Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that GATA4 and GATA6 function redundantly to control these aspects of intestinal development. We used Villin-Cre, which deletes specifically in the intestinal epithelium during the period of villus development and epithelial cytodifferentiation, to generate Gata4Gata6 double conditional knockout embryos. Mice lacking GATA4 and GATA6 in the intestinal epithelium died within 24h of birth. At E18.5, intestinal villus architecture and epithelial cell populations were altered. Enterocytes were lost, and goblet cells were increased. Proliferation was also increased in GATA4-GATA6 deficient intestinal epithelium. Although villus morphology appeared normal at E16.5, the first time at which both Gata4 and Gata6 were efficiently reduced, changes in expression of markers of enterocytes, goblet cells, and proliferative cells were detected. Moreover, goblet cell number was increased at E16.5. Expression of the Notch ligand Dll1 and the Notch target Olfm4 were reduced in mutant tissue indicating decreased Notch signaling. Finally, we found that GATA4 occupies chromatin near the Dll1 transcription start site suggesting direct regulation of Dll1 by GATA4. We demonstrate that GATA4 and GATA6 play an essential role in maintaining proper intestinal epithelial structure and in regulating intestinal epithelial cytodifferentiation. Our data highlight a novel role for GATA factors in fine tuning Notch signaling during intestinal epithelial development to repress goblet cell differentiation.

Monoclonal antibody against the ectodomain of E-cadherin (DECMA-1) suppresses breast carcinogenesis: involvement of the HER/PI3K/Akt/mTOR and IAP pathways

PURPOSE

Although targeted therapies against HER2 have been one of the most successful therapeutic strategies for breast cancer, patients eventually developed acquired resistance from compensatory upregulation of alternate HERs and mitogen-activated protein kinase-phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt/mTOR signaling. As we and others have shown that the soluble ectodomain fragment of E-cadherin exerts prooncogenic effects via HER1/2-mediated binding and activation of downstream prosurvival pathways, we explored whether targeting this ectodomain [DECMA-1 monoclonal antibody (mAb)] was effective in the treatment of HER2-positive (HER2(+)) breast cancers.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

MMTV-PyMT transgenic mice and HER2(+)/E-cadherin-positive MCF-7 and BT474 trastuzumab-resistant (TtzmR) cells were treated with the DECMA-1 mAb. Antitumor responses were assessed by bromodeoxyuridine incorporation, apoptosis, and necrosis. The underlying intracellular prooncogenic pathways were explored using subcellular fractionation, immunoprecipitation, fluorescence microscopy, and immunoblotting.

RESULTS

Treatment with DECMA-1 mAb significantly delayed tumor onset and attenuated tumor burden in MMTV-PyMT mice by reducing tumor cell proliferation and inducing apoptosis without any detectable cytotoxicity to mice or end-organs. In vitro treatment of MCF-7 and BT474 TtzmR cells reduced proliferation and induced cancer cell apoptosis. Importantly, this inhibition of breast tumorigenesis was due to concomitant downregulation, via ubiquitin-mediated degradation through the lysosome and proteasome pathways, of all HER family members, components of downstream PI3K/Akt/mTOR prosurvival signaling and suppression of inhibitor of apoptosis proteins.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results establish that the E-cadherin ectodomain-specific mAb DECMA-1 inhibits Ecad(+)/HER2(+) breast cancers by hindering tumor growth and inducing apoptosis via downregulation of key oncogenic pathways involved in trastuzumab resistance, thereby establishing a novel therapeutic platform for the treatment of HER2(+) breast cancers.

A gutsy task: generating intestinal tissue from human pluripotent stem cells

Many significant advances in our understanding of intestine development, intestinal stem cell homeostasis and differentiation have been made in recent years. These advances include novel techniques to culture primary human and mouse intestinal epithelium in three-dimensional matrices, and de novo generation of human intestinal tissue from embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cells. This short review will focus on the directed differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells into intestinal tissue, highlight novel uses of this tissue, and compare and contrast this system to primary intestinal epithelial cultures.

Kruppel-like factor 5 controls villus formation and initiation of cytodifferentiation in the embryonic intestinal epithelium

Kruppel-like factor 5 (Klf5) is a transcription factor expressed by embryonic endodermal progenitors that form the lining of the gastrointestinal tract. A Klf5 floxed allele was efficiently deleted from the intestinal epithelium by a Cre transgene under control of the Shh promoter resulting in the inhibition of villus morphogenesis and epithelial differentiation. Although proliferation of the intestinal epithelium was maintained, the expression of Elf3, Pparγ, Atoh1, Ascl2, Neurog3, Hnf4α, Cdx1, and other genes associated with epithelial cell differentiation was inhibited in the Klf5-deficient intestines. At E18.5, Klf5(Δ/Δ) fetuses lacked the apical brush border characteristic of enterocytes, and a loss of goblet and enteroendocrine cells was observed. The failure to form villi was not attributable to the absence of HH or PDGF signaling, known mediators of this developmental process. Klf5-deletion blocked the decrease in FoxA1 and Sox9 expression that accompanies normal villus morphogenesis. KLF5 directly inhibited activity of the FoxA1 promoter, and in turn FOXA1 inhibited Elf3 gene expression in vitro, linking the observed loss of Elf3 with the persistent expression of FoxA1 observed in Klf5-deficient mice. Genetic network analysis identified KLF5 as a key transcription factor regulating intestinal cell differentiation and cell adhesion. These studies indicate a novel requirement for KLF5 to initiate morphogenesis of the early endoderm into a compartmentalized intestinal epithelium comprised of villi and terminally differentiated cells.

mTrop1/Epcam knockout mice develop congenital tufting enteropathy through dysregulation of intestinal E-cadherin/β-catenin

Congenital tufting enteropathy (CTE) is a life-threatening hereditary disease that is characterized by enteric mucosa tufting degeneration and early onset, severe diarrhea. Loss-of-function mutations of the human EPCAM gene (TROP1, TACSTD1) have been indicated as the cause of CTE. However, loss of mTrop1/Epcam in mice appeared to lead to death in utero, due to placental malformation. This and indications of residual Trop-1/EpCAM expression in cases of CTE cast doubt on the role of mTrop1/Epcam in this disease. The aim of this study was to determine the role of TROP1/EPCAM in CTE and to generate an animal model of this disease for molecular investigation and therapy development. Using a rigorous gene-trapping approach, we obtained mTrop1/Epcam -null (knockout) mice. These were born alive, but failed to thrive, and died soon after birth because of hemorrhagic diarrhea. The intestine from the mTrop1/Epcam knockout mice showed intestinal tufts, villous atrophy and colon crypt hyperplasia, as in human CTE. No structural defects were detected in other organs. These results are consistent with TROP1/EPCAM loss being the cause of CTE, thus providing a viable animal model for this disease, and a benchmark for its pathogenetic course. In the affected enteric mucosa, E-cadherin and β-catenin were shown to be dysregulated, leading to disorganized transition from crypts to villi, with progressive loss of membrane localization and increasing intracellular accumulation, thus unraveling an essential role for Trop-1/EpCAM in the maintenance of intestinal architecture and functionality.

Supporting information is available for this article.