Runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) inhibits p53-dependent apoptosis through the collaboration with HDAC6 in response to DNA damage

Searching the conformational complexity and binding properties of HDAC6 through docking and molecular dynamic simulations

Histone deacetylases (HDACs) are a family of proteins involved in the deacetylation of histones and other non-histones substrates. HDAC6 belongs to class II and shares similar biological functions with others of its class. Nevertheless, its three-dimensional structure that involves the catalytic site remains unknown for exploring the ligand recognition properties. Therefore, in this contribution, homology modeling, 100-ns-long Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulation and docking calculations were combined to explore the conformational complexity and binding properties of the catalytic domain 2 from HDAC6 (DD2-HDAC6), for which activity and affinity toward five different ligands have been reported. Clustering analysis allowed identifying the most populated conformers present during the MD simulation, which were used as starting models to perform docking calculations with five DD2-HDAC6 inhibitors: Cay10603 (CAY), Rocilinostat (RCT), Tubastatin A (TBA), Tubacin (TBC), and Nexturastat (NXT), and then were also submitted to 100-ns-long MD simulations. Docking calculations revealed that the five inhibitors bind at the DD2-HDAC6 binding site with the lowest binding free energy, the same binding mode is maintained along the 100-ns-long MD simulations. Overall, our results provide structural information about the molecular flexibility of apo and holo DD2-HDAC6 states as well as insight of the map of interactions between DD2-HDAC6 and five well-known DD2-HDAC6 inhibitors allowing structural details to guide the drug design. Finally, we highlight the importance of combining different theoretical approaches to provide suitable structural models for structure-based drug design.

Nuclear HDAC6 inhibits invasion by suppressing NF-κB/MMP2 and is inversely correlated with metastasis of non-small cell lung cancer

Histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) is a unique member of the histone deacetylase family. Although HDAC6 is mainly localized in the cytoplasm, it can regulate the activities of the transcription factors in the nucleus. However, a correlation of intracellular distribution of HDAC6 with tumor progression is lacking. In this study, we found that a low frequency of nuclear HDAC6-positive cells in tumors was associated with distant metastasis and a worse overall survival in 134 patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Ectopic expression of wild-type HDAC6 promoted migration and invasion of A549 and H661 cells. However, the enforced expression of nuclear export signal-deleted HDAC6 inhibited the invasion but not the migration of both cell lines. The inhibitory effect of nuclear HDAC6 on invasion was mediated by the deacetylation of the p65 subunit of nuclear factor-κB, which decreased its DNA-binding activity to the MMP2 promoter, leading to the downregulation of MMP2 expression. Our findings indicated that the loss of nuclear HDAC6 may be a potential biomarker for predicting metastasis in patients with NSCLC.

Improvement of gemcitabine sensitivity of p53-mutated pancreatic cancer MiaPaCa-2 cells by RUNX2 depletion-mediated augmentation of TAp73-dependent cell death

Pancreatic cancer exhibits the worst prognostic outcome among human cancers. Recently, we have described that depletion of RUNX2 enhances gemcitabine (GEM) sensitivity of p53-deficient pancreatic cancer AsPC-1 cells through the activation of TAp63-mediated cell death pathway. These findings raised a question whether RUNX2 silencing could also improve GEM efficacy on pancreatic cancer cells bearing p53 mutation. In the present study, we have extended our study to p53-mutated pancreatic cancer MiaPaCa-2 cells. Based on our current results, MiaPaCa-2 cells were much more resistant to GEM as compared with p53-proficient pancreatic cancer SW1990 cells, and there existed a clear inverse relationship between the expression levels of TAp73 and RUNX2 in response to GEM. Forced expression of TAp73α in MiaPaCa-2 cells significantly promoted cell cycle arrest and/or cell death, indicating that a large amount of TAp73 might induce cell death even in the presence of mutant p53. Consistent with this notion, overexpression of TAp73α stimulated luciferase activity driven by p53/TAp73-target gene promoters in MiaPaCa-2 cells. Similar to AsPC-1 cells, small interfering RNA-mediated knockdown of RUNX2 remarkably enhanced GEM sensitivity of MiPaCa-2 cells. Under our experimental conditions, TAp73 further accumulated in RUNX2-depleted MiaPaCa-2 cells exposed to GEM relative to GEM-treated non-silencing control cells. As expected, silencing of p73 reduced GEM sensitivity of MiPaCa-2 cells. Moreover, GEM-mediated Tyr phosphorylation level of TAp73 was much more elevated in RUNX2-depleted MiaPaCa-2 cells. Collectively, our present findings strongly suggest that knockdown of RUNX2 contributes to a prominent enhancement of GEM sensitivity of p53-mutated pancreatic cancer cells through the activation of TAp73-mediated cell death pathway, and also provides a promising strategy for the treatment of patients with pancreatic cancer bearing p53 mutation.

TAp63gamma is required for the late stages of myogenesis

p53 family members, p63 and p73, play a role in controlling early stage of myogenic differentiation. We demonstrated that TAp63gamma, unlike the other p53 family members, is markedly up-regulated during myogenic differentiation in murine C2C7 cell line. We also found that myotubes formation was inhibited upon TAp63gamma knock-down, as also indicated by atrophyic myotubes and reduction of myoblasts fusion index. Analysis of TAp63gamma-dependend transcripts identified several target genes involved in skeletal muscle contractility energy metabolism, myogenesis and skeletal muscle autocrine signaling. These results indicate that TAp63gamma is a late marker of myogenic differentiation and, by controlling different sub-sets of target genes, it possibly contributes to muscle growth, remodeling, functional differentiation and tissue homeostasis.

Novel Implications of DNA Damage Response in Drug Resistance of Malignant Cancers Obtained from the Functional Interaction between p53 Family and RUNX2

During the lifespan of cells, their genomic DNA is continuously exposed to the endogenous and exogenous DNA insults. Thus, the appropriate cellular response to DNA damage plays a pivotal role in maintaining genomic integrity and also acts as a molecular barrier towards DNA legion-mediated carcinogenesis. The tumor suppressor p53 participates in an integral part of proper regulation of DNA damage response (DDR). p53 is frequently mutated in a variety of human cancers. Since mutant p53 displays a dominant-negative behavior against wild-type p53, cancers expressing mutant p53 sometimes acquire drug-resistant phenotype, suggesting that mutant p53 prohibits the p53-dependent cell death pathway following DNA damage, and thereby contributing to the acquisition and/or maintenance of drug resistance of malignant cancers. Intriguingly, we have recently found that silencing of pro-oncogenic RUNX2 enhances drug sensitivity of aggressive cancer cells regardless of p53 status. Meanwhile, cancer stem cells (CSCs) have stem cell properties such as drug resistance. Therefore, the precise understanding of the biology of CSCs is quite important to overcome their drug resistance. In this review, we focus on molecular mechanisms behind DDR as well as the serious drug resistance of malignant cancers and discuss some attractive approaches to improving the outcomes of patients bearing drug-resistant cancers.

Role of RUNX2 in Breast Carcinogenesis

RUNX2 is a transcription factor playing the major role in osteogenesis, but it can be involved in DNA damage response, which is crucial for cancer transformation. RUNX2 can interact with cell cycle regulators: cyclin-dependent kinases, pRB and p21Cip1 proteins, as well as the master regulator of the cell cycle, the p53 tumor suppressor. RUNX2 is involved in many signaling pathways, including those important for estrogen signaling, which, in turn, are significant for breast carcinogenesis. RUNX2 can promote breast cancer development through Wnt and Tgfβ signaling pathways, especially in estrogen receptor (ER)-negative cases. ERα interacts directly with RUNX2 and regulates its activity. Moreover, the ERα gene has a RUNX2 binding site within its promoter. RUNX2 stimulates the expression of aromatase, an estrogen producing enzyme, increasing the level of estrogens, which in turn stimulate cell proliferation and replication errors, which can be turned into carcinogenic mutations. Exploring the role of RUNX2 in the pathogenesis of breast cancer can lead to revealing new therapeutic targets.

Silencing of RUNX2 enhances gemcitabine sensitivity of p53-deficient human pancreatic cancer AsPC-1 cells through the stimulation of TAp63-mediated cell death

Runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) has been considered to be one of master regulators for osteoblast differentiation and bone formation. Recently, we have described that RUNX2 attenuates p53/TAp73-dependent cell death of human osteosarcoma U2OS cells bearing wild-type p53 in response to adriamycin. In this study, we have asked whether RUNX2 silencing could enhance gemcitabine (GEM) sensitivity of p53-deficient human pancreatic cancer AsPC-1 cells. Under our experimental conditions, GEM treatment increased the expression level of p53 family TAp63, whereas RUNX2 was reduced following GEM exposure, indicating that there exists an inverse relationship between the expression level of TAp63 and RUNX2 following GEM exposure. To assess whether TAp63 could be involved in the regulation of GEM sensitivity of AsPC-1 cells, small interfering RNA-mediated knockdown of TAp63 was performed. As expected, silencing of TAp63 significantly prohibited GEM-dependent cell death as compared with GEM-treated non-silencing cells. As TAp63 was negatively regulated by RUNX2, we sought to examine whether RUNX2 knockdown could enhance the sensitivity to GEM. Expression analysis demonstrated that depletion of RUNX2 apparently stimulates the expression of TAp63, as well as proteolytic cleavage of poly ADP ribose polymerase (PARP) after GEM exposure, and further augmented GEM-mediated induction of p53/TAp63-target genes, such as p21^WAF1, PUMA and NOXA, relative to GEM-treated control-transfected cells, implying that RUNX2 has a critical role in the regulation of GEM resistance through the downregulation of TAp63. Notably, ablation of TAp63 gave a decrease in number of γH2AX-positive cells in response to GEM relative to control-transfected cells following GEM exposure. Consistently, GEM-dependent phosphorylation of ataxia telangiectasia-mutated protein was remarkably impaired in TAp63 knockdown cells. Collectively, our present findings strongly suggest that RUNX2-mediated repression of TAp63 contributes at least in part to GEM resistance of AsPC-1 cells, and thus silencing of RUNX2 may be a novel strategy to enhance the efficacy of GEM in p53-deficient pancreatic cancer cells.

The regulatory landscape of osteogenic differentiation

Differentiation of osteoblasts from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) is an integral part of bone development and homeostasis, and may when improperly regulated cause disease such as bone cancer or osteoporosis. Using unbiased high-throughput methods we here characterize the landscape of global changes in gene expression, histone modifications, and DNA methylation upon differentiation of human MSCs to the osteogenic lineage. Furthermore, we provide a first genome-wide characterization of DNA binding sites of the bone master regulatory transcription factor Runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) in human osteoblasts, revealing target genes associated with regulation of proliferation, migration, apoptosis, and with a significant overlap with p53 regulated genes. These findings expand on emerging evidence of a role for RUNX2 in cancer, including bone metastases, and the p53 regulatory network. We further demonstrate that RUNX2 binds to distant regulatory elements, promoters, and with high frequency to gene 3' ends. Finally, we identify TEAD2 and GTF2I as novel regulators of osteogenesis.

Anoikis-resistant subpopulations of human osteosarcoma display significant chemoresistance and are sensitive to targeted epigenetic therapies predicted by expression profiling

Background

Osteosarcoma (OS) is the most common type of solid bone cancer, with latent metastasis being a typical mode of disease progression and a major contributor to poor prognosis. For this to occur, cells must resist anoikis and be able to recapitulate tumorigenesis in a foreign microenvironment. Finding novel approaches to treat osteosarcoma and target those cell subpopulations that possess the ability to resist anoikis and contribute to metastatic disease is imperative. Here we investigate anchorage-independent (AI) cell growth as a model to better characterize anoikis resistance in human osteosarcoma while using an expression profiling approach to identify and test targetable signaling pathways.

Methods

Established human OS cell lines and patient-derived human OS cell isolates were subjected to growth in either adherent or AI conditions using Ultra-Low Attachment plates in identical media conditions. Growth rate was assessed using cell doubling times and chemoresistance was assessed by determining cell viability in response to a serial dilution of either doxorubicin or cisplatin. Gene expression differences were examined using quantitative reverse-transcription PCR and microarray with principal component and pathway analysis. In-vivo OS xenografts were generated by either subcutaneous or intratibial injection of adherent or AI human OS cells into athymic nude mice. Statistical significance was determined using student’s t-tests with significance set at α = 0.05.

Results

We show that AI growth results in a global gene expression profile change accompanied by significant chemoresistance (up to 75 fold, p < 0.05). AI cells demonstrate alteration of key mediators of mesenchymal differentiation (β-catenin, Runx2), stemness (Sox2), proliferation (c-myc, Akt), and epigenetic regulation (HDAC class 1). AI cells were equally tumorigenic as their adherent counterparts, but showed a significantly decreased rate of growth in-vitro and in-vivo (p < 0.05). Treatment with the pan-histone deacetylase inhibitor vorinostat and the DNA methyltransferase inhibitor 5-azacytidine mitigated AI growth, while 5-azacytidine sensitized anoikis-resistant cells to doxorubicin (p < 0.05).

Conclusions

These data demonstrate remarkable plasticity in anoikis-resistant human osteosarcoma subpopulations accompanied by a rapid development of chemoresistance and altered growth rates mirroring the early stages of latent metastasis. Targeting epigenetic regulation of this process may be a viable therapeutic strategy.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12967-015-0466-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors Repress Tumoral Expression of the Proinvasive Factor RUNX2

Aberrant reactivation of embryonic pathways occurs commonly in cancer. The transcription factor RUNX2 plays a fundamental role during embryogenesis and is aberrantly reactivated during progression and metastasization of different types of human tumors. In this study, we attempted to dissect the molecular mechanisms governing RUNX2 expression and its aberrant reactivation. We identified a new regulatory enhancer element, located within the RUNX2 gene, which is responsible for the activation of the RUNX2 promoter and for the regulation of its expression in cancer cells. Furthermore, we have shown that treatment with the anticancer compounds histone deacetylase inhibitor (HDACi) results in a profound inhibition of RUNX2 expression, which is determined by the disruption of the transcription-activating complex on the identified enhancer. These data envisage a possible targeting strategy to counteract the oncongenic function of RUNX2 in cancer cells and provide evidence that the cytotoxic activity of HDACi in cancer is not only dependent on the reactivation of silenced oncosuppressors but also on the repression of oncogenic factors that are necessary for survival and progression.

Histone deacetylase 6 represents a novel drug target in the oncogenic Hedgehog signaling pathway

Uncontrolled Hedgehog (Hh) signaling is the cause of several malignancies, including the pediatric cancer medulloblastoma, a neuroectodermal tumor affecting the cerebellum. Despite the development of potent Hh pathway antagonists, medulloblastoma drug resistance is still an unresolved issue that requires the identification of novel drug targets. Following up on our observation that histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) expression was increased in Hh-driven medulloblastoma, we found that this enzyme is essential for full Hh pathway activation. Intriguingly, these stimulatory effects of HDAC6 are partly integrated downstream of primary cilia, a known HDAC6-regulated structure. In addition, HDAC6 is also required for the complete repression of basal Hh target gene expression. These contrasting effects are mediated by HDAC6's impact on Gli2 mRNA and GLI3 protein expression. As a result of this complex interaction with Hh signaling, global transcriptome analysis revealed that HDAC6 regulates only a subset of Smoothened- and Gli-driven genes, including all well-established Hh targets such as Ptch1 or Gli1. Importantly, medulloblastoma cell survival was severely compromised by HDAC6 inhibition in vitro and pharmacologic HDAC6 blockade strongly reduced tumor growth in an in vivo allograft model. In summary, our data describe an important role for HDAC6 in regulating the mammalian Hh pathway and encourage further studies focusing on HDAC6 as a novel drug target in medulloblastoma.

Role of runt-related transcription factor 2 in signal network of tumors as an inter-mediator

Runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) is a member of the polyomavirus enhancer-binding protein 2/core-binding factor superfamily. RUNX2 is known for its contribution to osteoblast phenotype and bone formation. In recent years, increasing attention has been focused on the relationship of Runx2 with tumorigenesis. In different types of tumor cells, RUNX2 cooperates with its co-activators or co-inhibitors, and mediates the responses of cells to various signaling pathways that are hyperactive in tumors. Thus, several downstream target genes of RUNX2 are activated when RUNX2 interacts with its co-factors, leading to a variety of effects on tumor cells (epithelial-mesenchymal transition, metastasis, proliferation, and osteolytic lesion). This review focuses on the involvement of RUNX2 in tumor cells in the crosstalk of diverse signaling pathways and its multiple functions to develop optimal and feasible approaches for clinical treatment based on the functions of RUNX2.

The RUNX family: developmental regulators in cancer

RUNX proteins belong to a family of metazoan transcription factors that serve as master regulators of development. They are frequently deregulated in human cancers, indicating a prominent and, at times, paradoxical role in cancer pathogenesis. The contextual cues that direct RUNX function represent a fast-growing field in cancer research and could provide insights that are applicable to early cancer detection and treatment. This Review describes how RUNX proteins communicate with key signalling pathways during the multistep progression to malignancy; in particular, we highlight the emerging partnership of RUNX with p53 in cancer suppression.

Runt-related transcription factor 2 attenuates the transcriptional activity as well as DNA damage-mediated induction of pro-apoptotic TAp73 to regulate chemosensitivity

Although runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) is known to be an essential key transcription factor for osteoblast differentiation and bone formation, RUNX2 also plays a pivotal role in the regulation of p53-dependent DNA damage response. In the present study, we report that, in addition to p53, RUNX2 downregulates pro-apoptotic TAp73 during DNA damage-dependent cell death. Upon adriamycin (ADR) exposure, human osteosarcoma-derived U2OS cells underwent cell death in association with an upregulation of TAp73 and various p53/TAp73-target gene products together with RUNX2. Small interfering RNA-mediated silencing of p73 resulted in a marked reduction in ADR-induced p53/TAp73-target gene expression, suggesting that TAp73 is responsible for the ADR-dependent DNA damage response. Immunoprecipitation and transient transfection experiments demonstrated that RUNX2 forms a complex with TAp73 and impairs its transcriptional activity. Notably, knockdown of RUNX2 stimulated ADR-induced cell death accompanied by a massive induction of TAp73 expression, indicating that RUNX2 downregulates TAp73 expression. Consistent with this notion, the overexpression of RUNX2 suppressed ADR-dependent cell death, which was associated with a remarkable downregulation of TAp73 and p53/TAp73-target gene expression. Collectively, our present findings strongly suggest that RUNX2 attenuates the transcriptional activity and ADR-mediated induction of TAp73, and may provide novel insights into understanding the molecular basis behind the development and/or maintenance of chemoresistance. Thus, we propose that the silencing of RUNX2 might be an attractive strategy for improving the chemosensitivity of malignant cancers.

DNA damage induced activation of Cygb stabilizes p53 and mediates G1 arrest

Cytoglobin (Cygb) is an emerging tumor suppressor gene silenced by promoter hypermethylation in many human tumors. So far, the precise molecular mechanism underlying its tumor suppressive function remains poorly understood. Here, we identified Cygb as a genotoxic stress-responsive hemoprotein upregulated upon sensing cellular DNA damage. Our studies demonstrated that Cygb physically associates with and stabilizes p53, a key cellular DNA damage signaling factor. We provide evidence that Cygb extends the half-life of p53 by blocking its ubiquitination and subsequent degradation. We show that, upon DNA damage, cells overexpressing Cygb displayed proliferation defect by rapid accumulation of p53 and its target gene p21, while Cygb knockdown cells failed to efficiently arrest in G1 phase in response to DNA insult. These results suggest a possible involvement of Cygb in mediating cellular response to DNA damage and thereby contributing in the maintenance of genomic integrity. Our study thus presents a novel insight into the mechanistic role of Cygb in tumor suppression.

Developmental pathways hijacked by osteosarcoma

Cancer of any type often can be described by an arrest, alteration or disruption in the normal development of a tissue or organ, and understanding of the normal counterpart's development can aid in understanding the malignant state. This is certainly true for osteosarcoma and the normal developmental pathways that guide osteoblast development that are changed in the genesis of osteogenic sarcoma. A carefully regulated crescendo-decrescendo expression of RUNX2 accompanies the transition from mesenchymal stem cell to immature osteoblast to mature osteoblast. This pivotal role is controlled by several pathways, including bone morphogenic protein (BMP), Wnt/β-catenin, fibroblast growth factor (FGF), and protein kinase C (PKC). The HIPPO pathway and its downstream target YAP help to regulate proliferation of immature osteoblasts and their maturation into non-proliferating mature osteoblasts. This pathway also helps regulate expression of the mature osteoblast protein osteocalcin. YAP also regulates expression of MT1-MMP, a membrane-bound matrix metalloprotease responsible for remodeling the extracellular matrix surrounding the osteoblasts. YAP, in turn, can be regulated by the ERBB family protein Her-4. Osteosarcoma may be thought of as a cell held at the immature osteoblast stage, retaining some of the characteristics of that developmental stage. Disruptions of several of these pathways have been described in osteosarcoma, including BMP, Wnt/b-catenin, RUNX2, HIPPO/YAP, and Her-4. Further, PKC can be activated by several receptor tyrosine kinases implicated in osteosarcoma, including the ERBB family (EGFR, Her-2 and Her-4 in osteosarcoma), IGF1R, FGF, and others. Understanding these functions may aid in the understanding the mechanisms underpinning clinical observations in osteosarcoma, including both the lytic and blastic phenotypes of tumors, the invasiveness of the disease, and the tendency for treated tumors to ossify rather than shrink. Through a better understanding of the relationship between normal osteoblast development and osteosarcoma, we may gain insights into novel therapeutic avenues and improved outcomes.

Dexamethasone and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 reduce oxidative stress-related DNA damage in differentiating osteoblasts

The process of osteoblast differentiation is regulated by several factors, including RUNX2. Recent reports suggest an involvement of RUNX2 in DNA damage response (DDR), which is important due to association of differentiation with oxidative stress. In the present work we explore the influence of two RUNX2 modifiers, dexamethasone (DEX) and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25-D3), in DDR in differentiating MC3T3-E1 preosteoblasts challenged by oxidative stress. The process of differentiation was associated with reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and tert-butyl hydroperoxide (TBH) reduced the rate of differentiation. The activity of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), a marker of the process of osteoblasts differentiation, increased in a time-dependent manner and TBH further increased this activity. This may indicate that additional oxidative stress, induced by TBH, may accelerate the differentiation process. The cells displayed changes in the sensitivity to TBH in the course of differentiation. DEX increased ALP activity, but 1,25-D3 had no effect on it. These results suggest that DEX might stimulate the process of preosteoblasts differentiation. Finally, we observed a protective effect of DEX and 1,25-D3 against DNA damage induced by TBH, except the day 24 of differentiation, when DEX increased the extent of TBH-induced DNA damage. We conclude that oxidative stress is associated with osteoblasts differentiation and induce DDR, which may be modulated by RUNX2-modifiers, DEX and 1,25-D3.

Targeting histone deacetylases for cancer therapy: from molecular mechanisms to clinical implications

Genetic abnormalities have been conventionally considered as hallmarks of cancer. However, studies over the past decades have demonstrated that epigenetic regulation also participates in the development of cancer. The fundamental patterns of epigenetic components, such as DNA methylation and histone modifications, are frequently altered in tumor cells. Acetylation is one of the best characterized modifications of histones, which is controlled by histone acetyltransferases (HATs) and histone deacetylases (HDACs). HDACs are a group of enzymes which catalyze the removal of the acetyl groups of both histones and non-histone proteins. HDACs are involved in modulating most key cellular processes, including transcriptional regulation, apoptosis, DNA damage repair, cell cycle control, autophagy, metabolism, senescence and chaperone function. Because HDACs have been found to function incorrectly in cancer, various HDAC inhibitors are being investigated to act as cancer chemotherapeutics. The primary purpose of this paper is to summarize recent studies of the links between HDACs and cancer, and further discuss the underlying mechanisms of anti-tumor activities of HDAC inhibitors and clinical implications.

Regulation of the life cycle of HPVs by differentiation and the DNA damage response

HPVs are the causative agents of cervical and other anogenital cancers. HPVs infect stratified epithelia and link their productive life cycles to cellular differentiation. Low levels of viral genomes are stably maintained in undifferentiated cells and productive replication or amplification is restricted to differentiated suprabasal cells. Amplification is dependent on the activation of the ATM DNA damage factors that are recruited to viral replication centers and inhibition of this pathway blocks productive replication. The STAT-5 protein appears to play a critical role in mediating activation of the ATM pathway in HPV-positive cells. While HPVs need to activate the DNA damage pathway for replication, cervical cancers contain many genomic alterations suggesting that this pathway is circumvented during progression to malignancy.

MicroRNAs in the control of metastatic bone disease

Bone metastasis is a common and devastating complication of late-stage breast and prostate cancer. Complex interactions between tumor cells, bone cells, and a milieu of components in their microenvironment contribute to the osteolytic, osteoblastic, or mixed lesions present in patients with metastasis to bone. In the past decade microRNAs (miRNAs) have emerged as key players in cancer progression, but the importance of miRNAs in regulating cancer metastasis to bone is only now being appreciated. We emphasize here important concepts of bone biology and miRNAs in the context of breast and prostate cancer, and focus on recent advances that have improved our understanding of the role of specific miRNAs with direct involvement in metastatic bone disease.

Runx2 activates PI3K/Akt signaling via mTORC2 regulation in invasive breast cancer cells

Introduction

The Runt-related transcription factor Runx2 is critical for skeletal development but is also aberrantly expressed in breast cancers, and promotes cell growth and invasion. A de-regulated serine/threonine kinase Akt signaling pathway is implicated in mammary carcinogenesis and cell survival; however, the mechanisms underlying Runx2 role in survival of invasive breast cancer cells are still unclear.

Methods

The phenotypic analysis of Runx2 function in cell survival was performed by gene silencing and flow cytometric analysis in highly invasive MDA-MB-231 and SUM-159-PT mammary epithelial cell lines. The expression analysis of Runx2 and pAkt (serine 473) proteins in metastatic breast cancer specimens was performed by immunohistochemistry. The mRNA and protein levels of kinases and phosphatases functional in Akt signaling were determined by real-time PCR and Western blotting, while DNA-protein interaction was studied by chromatin immunoprecipitation assays.

Results

The high Runx2 levels in invasive mammary epithelial cell lines promoted cell survival in Akt phosphorylation (pAkt-serine 473) dependent manner. The analysis of kinases and phosphatases associated with pAkt regulation revealed that Runx2 promotes pAkt levels via mammalian target of rapamycin complex-2 (mTORC2). The recruitment of Runx2 on mTOR promoter coupled with Runx2-dependent expression of mTORC2 component Rictor defined Runx2 function in pAkt-mediated survival of invasive breast cancer cells.

Conclusions

Our results identified a novel mechanism of Runx2 regulatory crosstalk in Akt signaling that could have important consequences in targeting invasive breast cancer-associated cell survival.

RUNX Family Participates in the Regulation of p53-Dependent DNA Damage Response

A proper DNA damage response (DDR), which monitors and maintains the genomic integrity, has been considered to be a critical barrier against genetic alterations to prevent tumor initiation and progression. The representative tumor suppressor p53 plays an important role in the regulation of DNA damage response. When cells receive DNA damage, p53 is quickly activated and induces cell cycle arrest and/or apoptotic cell death through transactivating its target genes implicated in the promotion of cell cycle arrest and/or apoptotic cell death such as p21^WAF1, BAX, and PUMA. Accumulating evidence strongly suggests that DNA damage-mediated activation as well as induction of p53 is regulated by posttranslational modifications and also by protein-protein interaction. Loss of p53 activity confers growth advantage and ensures survival in cancer cells by inhibiting apoptotic response required for tumor suppression. RUNX family, which is composed of RUNX1, RUNX2, and RUNX3, is a sequence-specific transcription factor and is closely involved in a variety of cellular processes including development, differentiation, and/or tumorigenesis. In this review, we describe a background of p53 and a functional collaboration between p53 and RUNX family in response to DNA damage.