Physiological demands of competitive basketball

Associations Between Two Athlete Monitoring Systems Used to Quantify External Training Loads in Basketball Players

Monitoring external training load (eTL) has become popular for team sport for managing fatigue, optimizing performance, and guiding return-to-play protocols. During indoor sports, eTL can be measured via inertial measurement units (IMU) or indoor positioning systems (IPS). Though each device provides unique information, the relationships between devices has not been examined. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the association of eTL between an IMU and IPS used to monitor eTL in team sport. Retrospective analyses were performed on 13 elite male National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I basketball players (age: 20.2 ± 1.2 years, height: 201.1 ± 7.6 cm, mass: 96.8 ± 8.8 kg) from three practices during the off-season training phase. A one-way analysis of variance was used to test differences in eTL across practices. Pearson’s correlation examined the association between the Distance traveled during practice captured by IPS compared to PlayerLoad (PL), PlayerLoad per Minute (PL/Min), 2-Dimensional PlayerLoad (PL^2D), 1-Dimensional PlayerLoad Forward (PL^1D-FWD), Side (PL^1D-SIDE), and Up (PL^1D-UP) captured from the IMU. Regression analyses were performed to predict PL from Distance traveled. The eTL characteristics during Practice 1: PL = 420.4 ± 102.9, PL/min = 5.8 ± 1.4, Distance = 1645.9 ± 377.0 m; Practice 2: PL = 472.8 ± 109.5, PL/min = 5.1 ± 1.2, Distance = 1940.0 ± 436.3 m; Practice 3: PL = 295.1 ± 57.8, PL/min = 5.3 ± 1.0, Distance = 1198.2 ± 219.2 m. Significant (p ≤ 0.05) differences were observed in PL, PL^2D, PL^1D-FWD, PL^1D-SIDE, PL^1D-UP, and Distance across practices. Significant correlations (p ≤ 0.001) existed between Distance and PL parameters (Practice 1: r = 0.799–0.891; Practice 2: r = 0.819–0.972; and Practice 3: 0.761–0.891). Predictive models using Distance traveled accounted for 73.5–89.7% of the variance in PL. Significant relationships and predictive capacities exists between systems. Nonetheless, each system also appears to capture unique information that may still be useful to performance practitioners regarding the understanding of eTL.

Training load and match-play demands in basketball based on competition level: A systematic review

Basketball is a court-based team-sport that requires a broad array of demands (physiological, mechanical, technical, tactical) in training and competition which makes it important for practitioners to understand the stress imposed on the basketball player during practice and match-play. Therefore, the main aim of the present systematic review is to investigate the training and match-play demands of basketball in elite, sub-elite, and youth competition. A search of five electronic databases (PubMed, SportDiscus, Web of Science, SCOPUS, and Cochrane) was conducted until December 20^th, 2019. Articles were included if the study: (i) was published in English; (ii) contained internal or external load variables from basketball training and/or competition; and (iii) reported physiological or metabolic demands of competition or practice. Additionally, studies were classified according to the type of study participants into elite (20), sub-elite (9), and youth (6). A total of 35 articles were included in the systematic review. Results indicate that higher-level players seem to be more efficient while moving on-court. When compared to sub-elite and youth, elite players cover less distance at lower average velocities and with lower maximal and average heart rate during competition. However, elite-level players have a greater bandwidth to express higher velocity movements. From the present systematic review, it seems that additional investigation on this topic is warranted before a “clear picture” can be drawn concerning the acceleration and deceleration demands of training and competition. It is necessary to accurately and systematically assess competition demands to provide appropriate training strategies that resemble match-play.

Physical and Physiological Profiles of Aerobic and Anaerobic Capacities in Young Basketball Players

Current trends in the analysis of the physical fitness of athletes are based on subjecting the athlete to requirements similar to those found in competition. Regarding physical fitness, a thorough study of the capacities that affect the development of team sports in different ages and gender is required since the demands are not equivalent. The objective of this paper was to characterize the physical-physiological demands of athletes in an aerobic and anaerobic test specific to basketball players, as well as the evolution of the variables according to age and gender. The research was carried out in 149 players from different training categories (n = 103 male; n = 46 female). The athletes performed two field tests that evaluated both aerobic capacity and lactic anaerobic capacity. Each athlete was equipped with an inertial device during the tests. Sixteen variables (equal in both tests) were analyzed. Three of them evaluated technical-tactical aspects, four variables of objective internal load, six kinematic variables of objective external load (two related to distance and four related to accelerometry) and three neuromuscular variables of objective external load. The obtained results show significant differences in the variables analyzed according to the age and gender of the athletes. They are mainly due to factors related to the anthropometric maturation and development inherent in age and have an impact on the efficiency and technical and tactical requirements of the tests carried out and, therefore, on the obtained results in the tests.

Physical playing pattern and ecological validity of the YoYo-IR1 Test in U-19 female basketball

BACKGROUND

Understanding the physical activity, the physiological profile and the repeated sprint bouts (RS) nature of U-19 female basketball during official games could help coaches to plan their training. However, they are not extensively researched, as well as, the ecological validity of the Yo-Yo Intermittent-Recovery Test level-1 (YoYo-IRT1). The aims of this study were to determine: 1) the physical and physiological demands of U-19 elite-female basketball; 2) the relationship between the YoYo-IRT1 and game physical-activity; 3) and the RS nature in U-19 basketball.

METHODS

Computerized motion-analysis, heart-rate (HR) and blood lactate concentration [La] were measured in 30 players during eight U-19 games (the play-off stage of Tunisian league). They performed YoYo-IRT1. A RS was defined as a minimum of 3-sprints, with recovery of less than 21-sec in-between any of sprints' set.

RESULTS

Players spent ~13%, ~29.2% and ~25.2% of total live-time in high, moderate to low-intensity activities, whereas in-between efforts' recovery corresponded to ~32.6%. They spent ~57% of playing-time in high HR-zone (85-95%HRmax). Players performed an average of 6.4 RS per-player per-game, each bout including 3 to 5-sprints. The mean of sprint duration was 2.1±0.4 sec, with a mean recovery time equal to ~8.8-sec. A significant correlation was also observed between [La] and the time spent in high-intensity activity for the 5-min of play prior to blood sampling (r=0.52, P<0.05). A significant correlation was found between YoYo-IRT1 performance and the %time spent in sprint and total high-intensity activities (r=0.67, P=0.001 and r=-0.72, P<0.001, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed that U-19 elite-female basketball is a moderate to high-intensity activity, with the Yo-Yo-IR1 test being a good-predictor of physical game-performance.

Physical fitness in basketball players: a systematic review

INTRODUCTION

Physical fitness is a performance factor that is characterized by its ability to be assessed using closed tests. Among the existing tests today, there are no data on which are the most optimal ones for the sport for which they are applied. Tests of a generic nature are widely used regardless of the sample of players or the sport to which is being referred as they allow to compare the performance among athletes. In spite of this, it is necessary to identify and develop specific tests of physical fitness for each sport. Thus, the main purpose of this review on physical fitness in basketball players was to identify and group the different tests described in the literature up until November 2018.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

A literature search was conducted in the different data base to systematically ascertain the most commonly used tests for assessing physical fitness in basketball players. A total of 40 articles were selected, after passing the selection and exclusion criteria.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

Finally, they were classified according to the tests assessed in each document. The capacities more frequently studied in literature are jump (N.=21) aerobic capacity (N.=17) and anaerobic capacity (N.=16). On the contrary, the least common evaluated capacities are speed and agility (N.=14).

CONCLUSIONS

The results and discussion showed that few specific tests are used to assess this quality in athletes. The analyzed bibliography reveals the lack of design and use of specific tests to highlight the qualities involved in the targeted sport.

The Yo-Yo Intermittent Endurance Level 2 Test: Reliability of Performance Scores, Physiological Responses and Overload Characteristics in Competitive Soccer, Basketball and Volleyball Players

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the reliability and reproducibility of the physiological and overload features of the Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test level 2 (Yo-Yo IE2) in competitive male soccer (n = 20), basketball (n = 11), and volleyball players (n = 10). The participants completed Yo-Yo IE2 tests on three separate occasions with assessment of performance, heart rate, running speed, accelerations, decelerations and body load using GPS instrumentation. The intra-class correlation coefficient index, confidence intervals and coefficients of variation were calculated to assess the reliability of the test. Intra-class correlation coefficients for test-retest trials in the total sample ranged from large to nearly perfect (total distance: 0.896; mean speed: 0.535; maximum speed: 0.715; mean HR: 0.876; maximum HR: 0.866; body load: 0.865). The coefficients of variation for distance, mean speed, HR response, as well as acceleration and deceleration scores for test-retest trials ranged from 1.2 to 12.5% with no differences observed among particular sport disciplines. The CV for shuttles performed ranged from 4.4 to 5.5% in all sports. Similar results were obtained for the three different categories of players tested. These results suggest that the Yo-Yo IE2 test appears to be a reliable alternative for evaluating the ability to perform intermittent high-intensity running in different outdoor and indoor team sports. Players may need one or two familiarization tests to ensure valid assessment of intermittent endurance capacity. It appears that the Yo-Yo IE2 test incorporates accelerations and decelerations in a consistent and reproducible fashion.

The Acceleration and Deceleration Profiles of U-18 Women's Basketball Players during Competitive Matches

The ability of a player to perform high-intensity actions can be linked to common requirements of team sports, and the ability to accelerate can be an important factor in successfully facing the opponent. The aim of this study was to determine the acceleration and deceleration profiles of U-18 women's basketball players during competitive matches. This study categorized accelerations and decelerations by playing position and quarter. Forty-eight U-18 female basketball players from the same Spanish league participated in this study. Each player was equipped with a WimuPro^TM inertial device. Accelerations/decelerations were recorded. The number of accelerations and decelerations, intensity category, and type were recorded. These variables varied between quarters (first quarter, second quarter, third quarter, and fourth quarter) and playing positions (Guard, Forward and Center). The shorter but more intense accelerations took place in the last quarter, due to the tight results of the matches. Besides, players in the Guard positions performed more accelerations and their intensity was greater than that of other positions. An acceleration profile was established for the quarters of a basketball game, and was shown to depend on the playing position, being different for Guards, Forwards and Centers in U-18 women's basketball players.

Effects of basketball-specific high-intensity interval training on aerobic performance and physical capacities in youth female basketball players

OBJECTIVE

The goal of this study was to investigate the effects of a 5-week, basketball-specific high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on aerobic performance in youth female basketball players.

METHODS

Twenty-four athletes (age 15.1 ± 1.1 years; height: 170 ± 5.2 cm; body mass: 60.9 ± 6.0 kg) took part in the investigation. The training group (TG, n = 11) integrated 10 basketball-specific HIIT sessions in their normal team training, the other group (n = 13) continued their team training routine and served as controls (CG). All HIIT sessions contained different basketball-specific drills. Before (pre-) and after the training period (post-) physical fitness was tested.

RESULTS

The Yo-yo intermittent recovery test (Yo-yo IR) performance was very likely increased in the TG (26,5 %). No improvements in the Yo-Yo IR performance were found in the CG (-6,8%). Likely positive effects in the TG were evident for the sprint and agility tests with (1.2 ± 2.4%, ES: 0.25, p = 0.29) and without ball (1.5 ± 4.6%, ES: 0.34, p = 0.20). The sprint and agility performance with ball significantly decreased in the CG by -2.8 ± 4.7% (ES: 0.49, p < 0.01). No differences between the groups were found for counter movement jump with arm swing (TG: ES = 0.14, p = 0.45, CG: ES = 0.20 p = 0.18), counter movement jump (TG: ES = 0.05, p = 0.70, CG: ES = 0.19, p = 0.10), squat jump (TG: ES = 0.06, p = 0.72, CG: ES = 0.10, p = 0.54) and long jump (TG: ES = 0.00, p = 0.82, CG: ES = 0.00, p = 0.81).

CONCLUSION

A 5-week, basketball-specific HIIT improves the aerobic performance in young female basketball athletes.

Exercise intensity effects on total sweat electrolyte losses and regional vs. whole-body sweat [Na+], [Cl-], and [K+]

PURPOSE

To quantify total sweat electrolyte losses at two relative exercise intensities and determine the effect of workload on the relation between regional (REG) and whole body (WB) sweat electrolyte concentrations.

METHODS

Eleven recreational athletes (7 men, 4 women; 71.5 ± 8.4 kg) completed two randomized trials cycling (30 °C, 44% rh) for 90 min at 45% (LOW) and 65% (MOD) of VO2max in a plastic isolation chamber to determine WB sweat [Na+] and [Cl-] using the washdown technique. REG sweat [Na+] and [Cl-] were measured at 11 REG sites using absorbent patches. Total sweat electrolyte losses were the product of WB sweat loss (WBSL) and WB sweat electrolyte concentrations.

RESULTS

WBSL (0.86 ± 0.15 vs. 1.27 ± 0.24 L), WB sweat [Na+] (32.6 ± 14.3 vs. 52.7 ± 14.6 mmol/L), WB sweat [Cl-] (29.8 ± 13.6 vs. 52.5 ± 15.6 mmol/L), total sweat Na+ loss (659 ± 340 vs. 1565 ± 590 mg), and total sweat Cl- loss (931 ± 494 vs. 2378 ± 853 mg) increased significantly (p < 0.05) from LOW to MOD. REG sweat [Na+] and [Cl-] increased from LOW to MOD at all sites except thigh and calf. Intensity had a significant effect on the regression model predicting WB from REG at the ventral wrist, lower back, thigh, and calf for sweat [Na+] and [Cl-].

CONCLUSION

Total sweat Na+ and Cl- losses increased by ~ 150% with increased exercise intensity. Regression equations can be used to predict WB sweat [Na+] and [Cl-] from some REG sites (e.g., dorsal forearm) irrespective of intensity (between 45 and 65% VO2max), but other sites (especially ventral wrist, lower back, thigh, and calf) require separate prediction equations accounting for workload.

Eight-Week Battle Rope Training Improves Multiple Physical Fitness Dimensions and Shooting Accuracy in Collegiate Basketball Players

Chen, WH, Wu, HJ, Lo, SL, Chen, H, Yang, WW, Huang, CF, and Liu, C. Eight-week battle rope training improves multiple physical fitness dimensions and shooting accuracy in collegiate basketball players. J Strength Cond Res 32(10): 2715-2724, 2018-Basketball players must possess optimally developed physical fitness in multiple dimensions and shooting accuracy. This study investigated whether battle rope (BR) training enhances multiple physical fitness dimensions, including aerobic capacity (AC), upper-body anaerobic power (AnP), upper-body and lower-body power, agility, and core muscle endurance, and shooting accuracy in basketball players and compared its effects with those of regular training (shuttle run [SR]). Thirty male collegiate basketball players were randomly assigned to the BR or SR groups (n = 15 per group). Both groups received 8-week interval training for 3 sessions per week; the protocol consisted of the same number of sets, exercise time, and rest interval time. The BR group exhibited significant improvements in AC (Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run laps: 17.6%), upper-body AnP (mean power: 7.3%), upper-body power (basketball chest pass speed: 4.8%), lower-body power (jump height: 2.6%), core muscle endurance (flexion: 37.0%, extension: 22.8%, and right side bridge: 23.0%), and shooting accuracy (free throw: 14.0% and dynamic shooting: 36.2%). However, the SR group exhibited improvements in only AC (12.0%) and upper-body power (3.8%) (p < 0.05). The BR group demonstrated larger pre-post improvements in upper-body AnP (fatigue index) and dynamic shooting accuracy than the SR group did (p < 0.05). The BR group showed higher post-training performance in upper-body AnP (mean power and fatigue index) than the SR group did (p < 0.05). Thus, BR training effectively improves multiple physical fitness dimensions and shooting accuracy in collegiate basketball players.

Training and Competition Load Monitoring and Analysis of Women's Amateur Basketball by Playing Position: Approach Study

Currently, the number of women involved in sport is increasing. Although, research on their characteristics and performance is scarce. A great amount of research on men's basketball is available, but it is unknown if it can be applied to women's basketball. The objective of this research was to characterize the internal and external load performed by female basketball players during training and sports competition according to playing positions through inertial devices. The participants in the following study were 10 amateur basketball players who competed at regional level (21.7 ± 3.65 years; 59.5 ± 12.27 kg, and 168.5 ± 3.56). Data were collected in games of the final phase (n = 8) and from 5 vs. 5 training tasks (n = 47). All the analyses were run according to playing positions. Each player was equipped with a Garmin^TM Heart Rate Band and Wimu^TM inertial device that monitored physical activity and movement in real time. The results obtained showed that the load experienced during competition was significantly higher (p < 0.001) than during training (Heart Rate, Player Load, Steps, Jumps, and Impacts). There were also differences according to playing positions, mainly between the backcourt and frontcourt players (p < 0.001). The players must work in higher areas of heart rate during training, mainly in Z4 and Z5, increasing their HRmáx y HRavg. The training doesn't equal the load supported and the distance performed in competition, so it is necessary to pay more attention during training. This information allows us to develop adequate training protocols adjusted to the specific individual requirements of the sports competition.

Comparison of Body Composition Variables Across a Large Sample of National Collegiate Athletic Association Women Athletes From 6 Competitive Sports

Fields, JB, Metoyer, CJ, Casey, JC, Esco, MR, Jagim, AR, and Jones, MT. Comparison of body composition variables across a large sample of National Collegiate Athletic Association women athletes from 6 competitive sports. J Strength Cond Res 32(9): 2452-2457, 2018-Body composition (BC) plays a critical role in sport performance and athlete health. Body size and BC have been widely studied in men's sports, with reported changes observed over time. However, a paucity of current data exists in women athletes. The purpose of this descriptive study was to measure and compare BC data for collegiate women athletes from 6 competitive sports. A total of 524 athletes from 2 National Collegiate Athletic Association institutions participated: basketball (BB; n = 95), gymnastics (GYM; n = 42), lacrosse (LAX; n = 81), rowing (ROW; n = 57), soccer (SOC; n = 188), and volleyball (VB; n = 61). Body height (BH) and body mass (BM) were measured using a stadiometer and calibrated digital scale, respectively. Body fat percentage (BF%), fat mass (FM), and fat-free mass (FFM) were assessed using air displacement plethysmography. One-way analysis of variance was used to assess differences across sports. Least squares difference post hoc analyses were performed when a significant finding (p ≤ 0.05) was identified. ROW had the highest BF% (29.9 ± 6.1%) and BB the greatest FFM (57.2 ± 6.1 kg). GYM had the lowest BM (58.9 ± 5.3 kg), FM (11.6 ± 2.6 kg), and BH (158.73 ± 2.13 cm). LAX, SOC, and VB had similar BF%. Body height was greatest for BB and VB (177.92 ± 7.55 cm, 176.79 ± 7.36 cm, respectively). These data may assist in the establishment of descriptive values for use in goal setting and exercise programming. The current data demonstrate a trend toward increased body size and BC from previous research.

Impact of Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage on Performance Test Outcomes in Elite Female Basketball Players

Doma, K, Leicht, A, Sinclair, W, Schumann, M, Damas, F, Burt, D, and Woods, C. Impact of exercise-induced muscle damage on performance test outcomes in elite female basketball players. J Strength Cond Res 32(6): 1731-1738, 2018-The purpose of this study was 2-fold: first, to examine the impact of exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) on physical fitness qualities after a basketball-specific training session; second, to determine the reproducibility of the sport-specific performance measures in elite female basketball players. Ten elite female basketball players (age 25.6 ± 4.5 years; height 1.8 ± 0.7 m; and body mass 76.7 ± 8.3 kg) undertook a 90-minute training session involving repeated jumping, sprinting, and game-simulated training. Indirect muscle damage markers (i.e., countermovement jump, delayed onset of muscle soreness [DOMS], and creatine kinase [CK]) and sport-specific performances (i.e., change-of-direction [COD] test and suicide test [ST]) were measured before and 24 hours after training. These measures were also collected 1 week after training to determine the reproducibility of the basketball-specific performance measures. A significant reduction in lower-body power (-3.5 ± 3.6%; p ≤ 0.05), while a significant increase in DOMS (46.7 ± 26.3%; p ≤ 0.05) and CK (57.6 ± 23.1%; p ≤ 0.05) was observed 24 hours after exercise. The ST was also significantly increased (2.1 ± 1.8%; p ≤ 0.05), although no difference was observed for COD (0.1 ± 2.0%; p > 0.05). The intraclass correlation coefficient and coefficient of variation for the COD and ST were 0.81 and 0.90, respectively, and 1.9 and 1.5%, respectively. In conclusion, appropriate recovery should be considered the day after basketball-specific training sessions in elite basketball players. Furthermore, this study showed the usability of performance measures to detect changes during periods of EIMD, with acceptable reproducibility and minimal measurement error.

Oxygen Uptake, Heart Rate, and Lactate Responses for Continuous Forward Running and Stop-and-Go Running With and Without Directional Changes

Bekraoui, N, Boussaidi, L, Cazorla, G, and Léger, L. Oxygen uptake, heart rate, and lactate responses for continuous forward running and stop-and-go running with and without directional changes. J Strength Cond Res 34(3): 699-707, 2020-The purpose of this study is to measure and quantify the differences for the gross oxygen uptake (V[Combining Dot Above]O2), heart rate (HR), and blood lactate ([LA]) responses to various modes of in-line running. Twelve healthy participants did an indirect continuous multistage field test to determine the maximal aerobic speed (MAS) before randomly performing in separate sessions 1 of the 3 running protocols at 3 intensities (60, 70, and 80% MAS) (a) in-line continuous running (IR), (b) fractioned running (FR) with stop and go every 20 m, and (c) 20-m shuttle run (SR). V[Combining Dot Above]O2 varied between 34.2 ± 2.5 and 54.6 ± 5.4 ml·kg·min, HR between 141 ± 14 and 184 ± 9 b·min, and [LA] between 4.2 ± 0.8 and 6.6 ± 0.9 mmol·L. In-line continuous running V[Combining Dot Above]O2 was lower than those of SR and FR at all intensities (p < 0.05). However, SR V[Combining Dot Above]O2 were higher than those of FR at 80% MAS only. Heart rate was similar in SR and FR but lower in IR at all intensities (p < 0.05). No significant differences were recorded in [LA]. Because only V[Combining Dot Above]O2 was affected by the introduction of a 180° angle directional change (SR vs. FR) at 80% MAS, the use of HR to assess such activities at such intensities will result in underestimating workloads. This study offers new insights into V[Combining Dot Above]O2, HR, and [LA] associated with accelerations while running with and without directional changes at submaximal speeds.

Effects of Three-Day Serial Sodium Bicarbonate Loading on Performance and Physiological Parameters During a Simulated Basketball Test in Female University Players

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of 3-day serial sodium bicarbonate ingestion on repeated sprint and jump performance. Fifteen female university basketball players (23.3 ± 3.4 years; 173.1 ± 5.8 cm; 65.8 ± 6.3 kg; 23.6 ± 4.9% body fat) ingested 0.4 g/kg body mass of sodium bicarbonate or placebo for 3 days (split in three equal daily doses), before completing a simulated basketball exercise. Sprint and circuit times, jump heights, performance decrements, and gastrointestinal side effects were recorded during the test, and blood lactate concentration was measured pre- and posttest. Sodium bicarbonate supplementation led to significant decreases in mean sprint times (1.34 ± 0.23 vs. 1.70 ± 0.41 s, p = .008, 95% confidence intervals [−0.54, −0.10 s]) and mean circuit times (30.6 ± 2.0 vs. 31.3 ± 2.0 s, p = .044) and significantly greater mean jump height (26.8 [range 25.2–34.2] vs. 26.0 [range 25.6–33.6] cm, p = .013) compared with placebo. Performance decrement was significantly less for sprints with sodium bicarbonate compared with placebo (9.9 [range 3.4–37.0]% vs. 24.7 [range 4.1–61.3]%, p = .013), but not different for jumps (13.1 ± 4.5% vs. 12.5 ± 3.1%, p = .321) between conditions. No differences in gastrointestinal side effects were noted between conditions. Significantly greater postexercise blood lactate concentrations were measured in the sodium bicarbonate condition compared with the placebo condition (8.2 ± 2.8 vs. 6.6 ± 2.4 mmol/L, p = .010). This study is the first to show that serial loading of sodium bicarbonate is effective for basketball players to improve repeated sprint and jump performance during competition, or withstand greater training load during practice sessions without any gastrointestinal side effects.

Short-term optimal load training vs a modified complex training in semi-professional basketball players

This study investigated the effects on neuromuscular performance of a 6-week Optimal Load Training (OLT) and a novel modified Complex Training (MCT) (complex pairs: the same exercise using a moderate and an OL) in basketball players, in-season. Eighteen male athletes were randomly assigned to one of the protocols. Anthropometric measurements were taken to evaluate body composition. Lower- and upper-body maximum dynamic strength, countermovement jump (CMJ), standing long jump (SLJ), 10-m sprint and change of direction (COD) were also assessed. Moderate-to-large strength gains (presented as percentage change ± 90% confidence limits) were obtained for half-squat (OLT: 10.8 ± 5.3%; MCT: 17.2 ± 11.6%) and hip thrust (OLT: 23.5 ± 17.7%; MCT: 28.2 ± 19.0%). OLT athletes achieved likely small improvements in sprint (1.6 ± 1.6%) and COD (3.0 ± 3.2%). Players in the MCT attained likely moderate improvements in COD (3.0 ± 2.0%) and possibly small in SLJ (2.5 ± 4.6%). No protocol relevantly affected CMJ or body composition. An ANCOVA test revealed unclear between-group differences. In conclusion, both protocols increased basketball players' strength without the use of heavy loads (> 85% 1RM) and without impairing sprint, CMJ and SLJ performance. These findings suggest that basketball strength and conditioning professionals may use either method to counteract strength losses during the season.

High-Intensity Interval Training Performed by Young Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background: High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is as a time-efficient alternative to moderate- or low-intensity continuous exercise for improving variables related to endurance and anaerobic performance in young and adolescent athletes.

Objectives: To assess original research about enhancement of endurance and anaerobic exercise performance in young and adolescent athletes performing HIIT.

Method: Relevant articles published in peer-reviewed journals were retrieved from the electronic databases PubMed and SPORTDiscus in December 2017. Inclusion criteria were: (i) controlled trials (HIIT vs. alternative training protocol) with pre-post design; (ii) healthy young athletes (≤18 years); (iii) assessing variables related to endurance and exercise performance. Hedges' g effect size (ES), and associated 95% confidence intervals were calculated for comparison of any outcome between experimental (HIIT) and alternative training protocol.

Results: Twenty four studies, involving 577 athletes (mean age: 15.5 ± 2.2 years), were included in this review. HIIT exerted no or small positive mean ES on peak oxygen uptake (VO_2peak), running performance, repeated sprint ability, jumping performance and submaximal heart rate. Although the mean ES for changes in VO_2peak with HIIT is small (mean g = 0.10±0.28), the average increase in VO_2peak from pre to post HIIT-interventions were 7.2 ± 6.9% vs. 4.3 ± 6.9% with any other alternative intervention. HIIT largely and positively affected running speed and oxygen consumption at various lactate- or ventilatory-based thresholds, as well as for sprint running performance. Calculations showed negative mean ES for change-of-direction ability (large), and peak blood lactate concentrations (small). Mean duration per training session for HIIT was shorter than for control interventions (28 ± 15 min vs. 38 ± 24 min).

Conclusion: The present findings suggest that young athletes performing HIIT may improve certain important variables related to aerobic, as well as anaerobic, performance. With HIIT, most variables related to endurance improved to a higher extent, compared to alternative training protocols. However, based on ES, HIIT did not show clear superiority to the alternative training protocols. Nevertheless, young athletes may benefit from HIIT as it requires less time per training session leaving more time for training sport specific skills.

The Effect of Match Schedule on Accelerometry-Derived Exercise Dose during Training Sessions throughout a Competitive Basketball Season

Accelerometry-derived exercise dose (intensity × duration) was assessed throughout a competitive basketball season. Nine elite basketballers wore accelerometers during a Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test (Yo-Yo-IR1) and during three two-week blocks of training that represented phases of the season defined as easy, medium, and hard based on difficulty of match schedule. Exercise dose was determined using accumulated impulse (accelerometry-derived average net force × duration). Relative exercise intensity was quantified using linear relationships between average net force and oxygen consumption during the Yo-Yo-IR1. Time spent in different intensity zones was computed. Influences of match schedule difficulty and playing position were evaluated. Exercise dose reduced for recovery and pre-match tapering sessions during the medium match schedule. Exercise dose did not vary during the hard match schedule. Exercise dose was not different between playing positions. The majority of activity during training was spent performing sedentary behaviour or very light intensity activity (64.3 ± 6.1%). Front-court players performed a greater proportion of very light intensity activity (mean difference: 6.8 ± 2.8%), whereas back-court players performed more supramaximal intensity activity (mean difference: 4.5 ± 1.0%). No positional differences existed in the proportion of time in all other intensity zones. Objective evaluation of exercise dose might allow coaches to better prescribe and monitor the demands of basketball training.

Energetic Profile of the Basketball Exercise Simulation Test in Junior Elite Players

PURPOSE

To analyze the energetic profile of the Basketball Exercise Simulation Test (BEST).

METHODS

Ten male elite junior basketball players (age 15.5 [0.6] y, height 180 [9] cm, and body mass 66.1 [11.2] kg) performed a modified BEST (20 circuits consisting of jumping, sprinting, jogging, shuffling, and short breaks) simulating professional basketball game play. Circuit time, sprint time, sprint decrement, oxygen uptake (VO₂), heart rate, and blood lactate concentration (blc) were obtained. Metabolic energy and metabolic power above rest (W_tot and P_tot), as well as energy share in terms of aerobic (W_aer), glycolytic (W_blc), and high-energy phosphates (W_PCr), were calculated from VO₂ during exercise, net lactate production, and the fast component of postexercise VO₂ kinetics, respectively.

RESULTS

W_aer, W_blc, and W_PCr reflect 89% (2%), 5% (1%), and 6% (1%) of total energy needed, respectively. Assuming an aerobic replenishment of PCr energy stores during short breaks, the adjusted energy share yielded W_aer 66% (4%), W_blc 5% (1%), and W_PCr 29% (1%). W_aer and W_PCr were negatively correlated (-0.72 and -0.59) with sprint time, which was not the case for W_blc.

CONCLUSIONS

Consistent with general findings on energy system interaction during repeated high-intensity exercise bouts, the intermittent profile of the BEST relies primarily on aerobic energy combined with repetitive supplementation by anaerobic utilization of high-energy phosphates.

Temporal changes in physiological and performance responses across game-specific simulated basketball activity

PURPOSE

The aims of this study were to: (1) provide a comprehensive physiological profile of simulated basketball activity and (2) identify temporal changes in player responses in controlled settings.

METHODS

State-level male basketball players (n = 10) completed 4 × 10 min simulated quarters of basketball activity using a reliable and valid court-based test. A range of physiological (ratings of perceived exertion, blood lactate concentration ([BLa-]), blood glucose concentration ([BGlu]), heart rate (HR), and hydration) and physical (performance and fatigue indicators for sprint, circuit, and jump activity) measures were collected across testing.

RESULTS

Significantly reduced [BLa-] (6.19 ± 2.30 vs. 4.57 ± 2.33 mmol/L; p = 0.016) and [BGlu] (6.91 ± 1.57 vs. 5.25 ± 0.81 mmol/L; p = 0.009) were evident in the second half. A mean HR of 180.1 ± 5.7 beats/min (90.8% ± 4.0% HRmax) was observed, with a significant increase in vigorous activity (77%-95% HRmax) (11.31 ± 6.91 vs. 13.50 ± 6.75 min; p = 0.024) and moderate decrease in near-maximal activity (>95% HRmax) (7.24 ± 7.45 vs. 5.01 ± 7.20 min) in the second half. Small increases in performance times accompanied by a significantly lower circuit decrement (11.67% ± 5.55% vs. 7.30% ± 2.16%; p = 0.032) were apparent in the second half.

CONCLUSION

These data indicate basketball activity imposes higher physiological demands than previously thought and temporal changes in responses might be due to adapted pacing strategies as well as fatigue-mediated mechanisms.

Performance and Metabolic Demand of a New Repeated-Sprint Ability Test in Basketball Players: Does the Number of Changes of Direction Matter?

Zagatto, AM, Ardigò, LP, Barbieri, FA, Milioni, F, Dello Iacono, A, Camargo, BHF, and Padulo, J. Performance and metabolic demand of a new repeated-sprint ability test in basketball players: does the number of changes of direction matter? J Strength Cond Res 31(9): 2438-2446, 2017-This study compared 2 repeated-sprint ability (RSA) tests in basketball players. Both tests included 10 × 30-m sprints, with the difference that the previously validated test (RSA2COD) featured 2 changes of direction (COD) per sprint, whereas the experimental test (RSA5COD) featured 5 CODs per sprint. Test performances and metabolic demands were specifically assessed in 20 basketball players. First, RSA5COD test-retest reliability was investigated. Then, RSA2COD, RSA5COD sprint times, peak speeds, oxygen uptake (V[Combining Dot Above]O2) and posttest blood lactate concentration [La] were measured. The RSA5COD results showed to be reliable. RSA2COD performance resulted better than the RSA5COD version (p < 0.01), with shorter sprint times and higher peak speeds. Over sprints, the tests did not differ from each other in terms of V[Combining Dot Above]O2 (p > 0.05). Over whole bout, the RSA2COD was more demanding than the RSA5COD, considering overall metabolic power requirement (i.e., VO2-driven + [La]-driven components). Given that RSA5COD (a) mimics real game-play as sprint distance and action change frequency/direction and (b) has the same metabolic expenditure per task completion as metabolic cost, RSA5COD is a valuable option for players and coaches for training basketball-specific agility and assessing bioenergetic demands.

A Comparison of Training and Competition Demands in Semiprofessional Male Basketball Players

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to quantify and compare training and competition demands in basketball.

METHODS

Fifteen semiprofessional male basketball players wore microsensors during physical conditioning training (PCT), games-based training (GBT), and competition to measure absolute and relative (·min^-1) PlayerLoad^TM (PL) and estimated equivalent distance (EED). Internal responses were calculated using absolute and relative session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) and summated heart rate zones (SHRZ). Integrated measures were calculated as sRPE:PL and SHRZ:PL ratios.

RESULTS

PlayerLoad (arbitrary units [AU]) and EED (m) were statistically significantly (p < .05) higher during PCT (632 ± 139 AU, d = 1.36; 5,964 ± 1,312 m, d = 1.36; 6.50 ± 0.81 AU·min^-1, d = 2.44; 61.88 ± 7.22 m·min^-1, d = 2.60) and GBT (624 ± 113 AU, d = 1.54; 5,892 ± 1,080 m, d = 1.53; 6.10 ± 0.77 AU·min^-1, d = 2.14; 56.76 ± 6.49 m·min^-1, d = 2.22) than they were during competition (449 ± 118 AU; 3,722 ± 1474 m; 4.35 ± 1.09 AU·min^-1; 41.01 ± 10.29 m·min^-1). Summated heart rate zones were statistically significantly (p < .05) higher during PCT (314 ± 86 AU, d = 1.05; 3.22 ± 0.50 AU·min^-1, d = 1.94) and GBT (334 ± 79 AU, d = 1.38; 3.19 ± 0.54 AU·min^-1, d = 1.83) than they were during competition (225 ± 77 AU; 2.17 ± 0.69 AU·min^-1). The ratio of sRPE:PL was statistically significantly (p < .05) higher during competition (1.58 ± 0.85) than during PCT (0.98 ± 0.22, d = 1.44) and GBT (0.91 ± 0.24, d = 1.90).

CONCLUSION

Training demands exceeded competition demands.

EFFECTS OF HIGH- AND LOW-CUT FOOTWEAR ON THE KINETICS AND 3D KINEMATICS OF BASKETBALL SPECIFIC MOTIONS

The aim of the current investigation was to examine the effects of high- and low-cut basketball-specific footwear, in relation to minimalist and conventional athletic footwear, on the kinetics and three-dimensional (3D) kinematics of sport-specific basketball movements. Ten males performed run and 45[Formula: see text] cut movements, whilst wearing low-cut, high-cut, minimalist and conventional athletic footwear. 3D kinematics of the lower extremities were measured using an eight-camera motion analysis system, alongside the vertical rate of loading, which was obtained using an embedded force platform. Footwear differences in 3D kinematic and loading rate parameters were examined using 4 (footwear) [Formula: see text] (movement), repeated measures ANOVA. The results showed that loading rate was significantly larger in the minimalist footwear ([Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text][Formula: see text]BW/s), in relation to the low-cut ([Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text][Formula: see text]BW/s), high-cut ([Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text][Formula: see text]BW/s) and conventional ([Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text][Formula: see text]BW/s) conditions. In addition, it was also revealed during the run movement that peak angles of eversion were reduced significantly when wearing the high-cut ([Formula: see text]) footwear, compared to the low-cut [Formula: see text], minimalist [Formula: see text] and conventional [Formula: see text] conditions. The findings from the current investigation indicate that from an injury prevention context, conventional athletic footwear may be most appropriate for basketball players who are susceptible to chronic impact-related injuries, and high-cut footwear may be most suitable for players who require additional medial/lateral ankle stability.

A Review of Player Monitoring Approaches in Basketball: Current Trends and Future Directions

Fox, JL, Scanlan, AT, and Stanton, R. A review of player monitoring approaches in basketball: current trends and future directions. J Strength Cond Res 31(7): 2021-2029, 2017-Effective monitoring of players in team sports such as basketball requires an understanding of the external demands and internal responses, as they relate to training phases and competition. Monitoring of external demands and internal responses allows coaching staff to determine the dose-response associated with the imposed training load (TL), and subsequently, if players are adequately prepared for competition. This review discusses measures reported in the literature for monitoring the external demands and internal responses of basketball players during training and competition. The external demands of training and competition were primarily monitored using time-motion analysis, with limited use of microtechnology being reported. Internal responses during training were typically measured using hematological markers, heart rate, various TL models, and perceptual responses such as rating of perceived exertion (RPE). Heart rate was the most commonly reported indicator of internal responses during competition with limited reporting of hematological markers or RPE. These findings show a large discrepancy between the reporting of external and internal measures and training and competition demands. Microsensors, however, may be a practical and convenient method of player monitoring in basketball to overcome the limitations associated with current approaches while allowing for external demands and internal responses to be recorded simultaneously. The triaxial accelerometers of microsensors seem well suited for basketball and warrant validation to definitively determine their place in the monitoring of basketball players. Coaching staff should make use of this technology by tracking individual player responses across the annual plan and using real-time monitoring to minimize factors such as fatigue and injury risk.

Sodium Bicarbonate Supplementation Delays Neuromuscular Fatigue Without Changes in Performance Outcomes During a Basketball Match Simulation Protocol

Ansdell, P and Dekerle, J. Sodium bicarbonate supplementation delays neuromuscular fatigue without changes in performance outcomes during a basketball match simulation protocol. J Strength Cond Res 34(5): 1369-1375, 2020-To investigate the development of neuromuscular fatigue during a basketball game simulation and to ascertain whether sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) supplementation attenuates any neuromuscular fatigue that persists. Ten participants ingested 0.2 g·kg of NaHCO3 (or an equimolar placebo dosage of sodium chloride [NaCl]) 90 and 60 minutes before commencing a basketball game simulation (ALK-T vs. PLA-T). Maximal voluntary isometric contractions (MVICs) of the knee extensors and potentiated high- (100 Hz) and low- (10 Hz) frequency doublet twitches were recorded before and after each match quarter for both trials. In addition, 15-m sprint times and layup completion (%) were recorded during each quarter. Maximal voluntary isometric contraction, 100- and 10-Hz twitch forces declined progressively in both trials (p ≤ 0.05) with a less pronounced decrease in MVIC during ALK-T (p < 0.01). Both 100- and 10-Hz twitch forces were also significantly greater in ALK-T (p ≤ 0.05). Fifteen-meter sprint time increased over the course of both trials (∼2%, p < 0.01); however, no significant condition or time effect was found for layup completion (p > 0.05). A basketball simulation protocol induces a substantial amount of neuromuscular (reduction in knee extensor MVICs) and peripheral fatigue with a concomitant increase in 15-m sprint time over the protocol. NaHCO3 supplementation attenuated the rate of fatigue development by protecting contractile elements of the muscle fibers. This study provides coaches with information about the magnitude of fatigue induced by a simulated basketball game and provides evidence of the efficacy of NaHCO3 in attenuating fatigue.

Trapped sweat in basketball uniforms and the effect on sweat loss estimates

The aims of this study were to determine: (1) trapped sweat (TS) in basketball uniforms and the effect on sweat loss (SL) estimates during a laboratory-based basketball simulation protocol; (2) the impact of exercise intensity, body mass, age, and SL on TS; and (3) TS during on-court training to assess the ecological validity of the laboratory-based results. Twenty-four recreational/competitive male basketball players (23 ± 10 years, 77.0 ± 16.7 kg) completed three randomized laboratory-based trials (Low, Moderate, and High intensity) consisting of 150-min intermittent exercise. Eighteen elite male players (23 ± 4 years, 92.0 ± 20.6 kg) were observed during coach-led, on-court training. Nude and clothed body mass were measured pre and postexercise to determine TS. Data are mean ± SD. There was a significant effect of intensity on SL and TS (P < 0.001, Low<Moderate<High, ANOVA). During Low, subjects lost 1.10 ± 0.59 kg sweat and TS was 0.11 ± 0.15 kg (8.0 ± 5.1% SL). During Moderate, subjects lost 1.60 ± 0.56 kg sweat and TS was 0.21 ± 0.21 kg (11.6 ± 6.3% SL). During High, subjects lost 2.12 ± 0.66 kg sweat and TS was 0.38 ± 0.28 kg (16.0 ± 7.4% SL). Multiple regression and partial correlation analysis suggested TS was significantly related to SL (P < 0.0001; partial r = 0.81-0.89), whereas the contributions of body mass (P = 0.22-0.92) and age (P = 0.29-0.44) were not significant. TS during on-court training was 0.35 ± 0.36 kg, which was associated with a 14.1 ± 11.5% underestimation in SL, and was not statistically different than laboratory-based results (P = 0.59). Clothed body mass measurements should be used with caution, as TS is highly variable and can cause a significant underestimation in SL in athletes with high sweating rates.

Physical and Physiological Demands of Experienced Male Basketball Players During a Competitive Game

Puente, C, Abián-Vicén, J, Areces, F, López, R, and Del Coso, J. Physical and physiological demands of experienced male basketball players during a competitive game. J Strength Cond Res 31(4): 956-962, 2017-The aim of this investigation was to analyze the physical and physiological demands of experienced basketball players during a real and competitive game. Twenty-five well-trained basketball players (8 guards, 8 forwards, and 9 centers) played a competitive game on an outdoor court. Instantaneous running speeds, the number of body impacts above 5 g, and the number of accelerations and decelerations were assessed by means of a 15-Hz global Positioning System accelerometer unit. Individual heart rate was also recorded using heart rate monitors. As a group mean, the basketball players covered 82.6 ± 7.8 m·min during the game with a mean heart rate of 89.8 ± 4.4% of maximal heart rate. Players covered 3 ± 3% of the total distance running at above 18 km·h and performed 0.17 ± 0.13 sprints per minute. The number of body impacts was 8.2 ± 1.8 per minute of play. The running pace of forwards was higher than that of centers (86.8 ± 6.2 vs. 76.6 ± 6.0 m·min; p ≤ 0.05). The maximal speed obtained during the game was significantly higher for guards than that for centers (24.0 ± 1.6 km·h vs. 21.3 ± 1.6 km·h; p ≤ 0.05). Centers performed a lower number of accelerations/decelerations than guards and forwards (p ≤ 0.05). In conclusion, the extraordinary rates of specific movements performed by these experienced basketball players indicate the high physiological demands necessary to be able to compete in this sport. The centers were the basketball players who showed lower physiological demands during a game, whereas there were no differences between guards and forwards. These results can be used by coaches to adapt basketball training programs to the specific demands of each playing position.

Evidence-based post-exercise recovery strategies in basketball

Basketball can be described as a moderate-to-long duration exercise including repeated bouts of high-intensity activity interspersed with periods of low to moderate active recovery or passive rest. A match is characterized by repeated explosive activities, such as sprints, jumps, shuffles and rapid changes in direction. In top-level modern basketball, players are frequently required to play consecutive matches with limited time to recover. To ensure adequate recovery after any basketball activity (i.e., match or training), it is necessary to know the type of fatigue induced and, if possible, its underlying mechanisms. Despite limited scientific evidence to support their effectiveness in facilitating optimal recovery, certain recovery strategies are commonly utilized in basketball. It is particularly important to optimize recovery because players spend a much greater proportion of their time recovering than they do in training. Therefore, the main aim of this report is to facilitate useful information that may lead to practical application, based on the scientific evidence and applied knowledge specifically in basketball.

Acute Effects of Two Different Resistance Circuit Training Protocols on Performance and Perceived Exertion in Semiprofessional Basketball Players

This study aimed to investigate the acute effects of two different resistance circuit training protocols on basketball players' physical and technical performance and rating of perceived exertion (RPE). In a repeated-measures, crossover experimental design, 9 semiprofessional basketball players performed a Power Circuit Training (PCT; 45% 1RM) and a High-Resistance Circuit Training (HRC; 6RM), on consecutive weeks. Vertical and horizontal jump performance, 3-points shooting accuracy, repeated-sprint ability (RSA), agility, and upper body power output were measured before and after training. The RPE was assessed 20 minutes after resistance training. One-way repeated-measures analysis of variance showed performance decrements in vertical jump height and peak power, horizontal jump distance, 3-points percentage, bench-press power output, RSA total and ideal time, and agility T-Test at total time following HRC, but not PCT (p ≤ 0.05). The RPE was higher in HRC compared with PCT. The results of this study indicated that HRC was perceived as being harder and produced higher fatigue levels, which in turn lowered acute performance. However, low-to-moderate intensity loads did not negatively affect performance. Thus, completing a PCT session may be the most appropriate option before a practice or game as it avoids acute-resistance-training-induced performance decrements. However, if the objective of the basketball session is to develop or perfect technical skills during fatiguing conditions, HRC may be the more suitable option.

Physiological and Fatigue Responses Associated With Male and Mixed-Gender Ultimate Frisbee Game Play

The aims of this study were to describe the physiological and fatigue responses associated with indoor Ultimate Frisbee game play, compare exercise intensities attained to current activity guidelines, and compare responses between male and mixed-gender game formats. A between-subjects (game format) repeated-measures (time points) observational experimental design was used. Subjects competed in male (n = 10; age: 26.3 ± 7.6 years) or mixed-gender (males: n = 4; 28.5 ± 5.7 years; females: n = 6; 28.3 ± 8.1 years) indoor Ultimate Frisbee game play. Games consisted of 10-minute halves, with heart rate (HR), blood lactate concentration ([BLa]), rating of perceived exertion, and 5-m and 20-m sprint times measured. Durations spent in HR-derived intensity zones and sprint decrements were calculated across games. Mixed-gender game play produced significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher relative HR (94.3 ± 5.1% vs. 89.6 ± 4.8% HRmax) and [BLa] (8.31 ± 2.22 mmol·L vs. 4.68 ± 1.89 mmol·L) than male game play. Significantly (p ≤ 0.05) longer durations were spent at vigorous (male: 60.2 ± 26.1%; mixed-gender: 36.8 ± 34.8%) and near-maximal (male: 31.6 ± 27.6%; mixed-gender: 58.6 ± 37.7%) exercise intensities than moderate (3.9-7.2%), light (0.7-1.0%), and very light (0-0.1%) intensities in both formats. Limited physiological and sprint fatigue was apparent across games. Subjects primarily performed at vigorous and near-maximal intensities during Ultimate Frisbee. The greater physiological demands encountered during mixed-gender game play might be attributed to underlying gender-mediated cardiovascular differences. These findings support the efficacy of Ultimate Frisbee as a prescriptive exercise tool for health benefit.

Time-motion analysis of Italian elite women's basketball games: individual and team analyses

The aim of this study was to assess elite women's basketball game performance. Five elite women's games (3 Italian first division and 2 Euroleague) were analyzed for individual and team time-motion analyses. The individual analysis evaluated the players' movement patterns with particular focus on high-intensity activity (HIA), sprint activity, and repeated sprint events (RSEs). Team analysis included live time (LT), stoppage time (ST), and their ratio, transfer (TR) phases, and half court and full court actions. The frequency of occurrence of changes of activities was n = 576 ± 110, one every 2.56 seconds of LT. Total HIA was 8.5 ± 1.8% of LT and no significant differences between quarter periods were observed. In general, players performed linear sprints (48.3 ± 2.9%) over 1-5 m distance (56.8 ± 5.6%). The occurrence of RSE was 4.4 ± 1.7, with 58.6 ± 18.5% passive recovery between sprints. Team analysis showed no significant difference between games for LT and ST phases (ratio = 1.18 ± 0.25). For game analysis, LT and ST were 43.4 ± 7.8% and 51.1 ± 8.4%, respectively. A difference between games was found for half court actions (p < 0.01) and TR phases (p ≤ 0.05). Moreover, 1 TR and 2 TR were the most performed (45.3 and 23.9%) actions. These results encourage coaches to include repeated sprint ability with mainly linear and short sprints into a comprehensive training program.

Positional Role Differences in the Aerobic and Anaerobic Power of Elite Basketball Players

The aim of the present study was to compare the aerobic and anaerobic power and capacity of elite male basketball players who played multiple positions. Fifty-five healthy players were divided into the following three different subsamples according to their positional role: guards (n = 22), forwards (n = 19) and centers (n = 14). The following three tests were applied to estimate their aerobic and anaerobic power and capacities: the countermovement jump (CMJ), a multistage shuttle run test and the Running-based Anaerobic Sprint Test (RAST). The obtained data were used to calculate the players’ aerobic and anaerobic power and capacities. To determine the possible differences between the subjects considering their different positions on the court, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with the Bonferroni post-hoc test for multiple comparisons was used. The results showed that there was a significant difference between the different groups of players in eleven out of sixteen measured variables. Guards and forwards exhibited greater aerobic and relative values of anaerobic power, allowing shorter recovery times and the ability to repeat high intensity, basketball-specific activities. Centers presented greater values of absolute anaerobic power and capacities, permitting greater force production during discrete tasks. Coaches can use these data to create more individualized strength and conditioning programs for different positional roles.

Heart Rate-Based Prediction of Fixed Blood Lactate Thresholds in Professional Team-Sport Players

The aim of this study was to investigate whether the speed associated with 90% of maximal heart rate (S90%HRmax) could predict speeds at fixed blood lactate concentrations of 3 mmol·L(-1) (S3mM) and 4 mmol·L(-1) (S4mM). Professional team-sport players of futsal (n = 10), handball (n = 16), and basketball (n = 10) performed a 4-stage discontinuous progressive running test followed, if exhaustion was not previously achieved, by an additional maximal continuous incremental running test to attain maximal heart rate (HRmax). The individual S3mM, S4mM, and S90%HRmax were determined by linear interpolation. S3mM (11.6 ± 1.5 km·h(-1)) and S4mM (12.5 ± 1.4 km·h(-1)) did not differ (p > 0.05) from S90%HRmax (12.0 ± 1.2 km·h(-1)). Very large significant (p < 0.001) relationships were found between S90%HRmax and S3mM (r = 0.82; standard error of the estimates [SEE] = 0.87 km·h(-1)), as well as between S90%HRmax and S4mM (r = 0.82; SEE = 0.87 km·h(-1)). S3mM and S4mM inversely correlated with %HRmax associated with running speeds of 10 and 12 km·h(-1) (r = 0.78-0.81; p < 0.001; SEE = 0.94-0.87 km·h(-1)). In conclusion, S3mM and S4mM can be accurately predicted by S90%HRmax in professional team-sport players.

Repeated sprint ability in young basketball players: one vs. two changes of direction (Part 1)

The present study aimed to compare the changes of direction on repeated sprint ability (RSA) vs. intensive repeated sprint ability (IRSA) protocols in basketball. Eighteen young male basketball players performed on RSA [10 × 30-m (15 + 15-m, one change of direction)] and IRSA [10 × 30-m (10 + 10 + 10-m, two changes of direction)]. A correlation matrix between RSA, IRSA, "squat jump (SJ)-countermovement jump (CMJ)", footstep analysis and total distance in Yo-Yo intermittent recovery level 1 was performed. The best time, worst time, total time and the number of footsteps were significantly smaller in the RSA test compared to IRSA test (P < 0.001), even though they were significantly correlated with each other (r > 0.80, P < 0.05). Blood lactate level and fatigue index did not show any difference between tests. The sensibility of the two tests assessed by the Bland-Altman analysis revealed a small bias (<1.5%) for almost all variables. Moreover, almost all time variables of the two tests were significantly correlated with the SJ (r > 0.478, P < 0.05), CMJ (r > 0.515, P < 0.05) and Yo-Yo (r > 0.489, P < 0.05) performances. The IRSA provided a reliable method for assessing specific sprint ability (with 10-m legs for IRSA ~2.3 s vs. 15 m for RSA ~3 s) with a closer link to basketball game's actions (~2 s). Besides, IRSA could be an appropriate choice for assessing both RSA and changes of direction capacities in basketball players.

Metabolic optimisation of the basketball free throw

The free throw (FT) is a fundamental basketball skill used frequently during a match. Most of actual play occurs at about 85% of maximum heart rate (HR). Metabolic intensity, through fatigue, may influence a technically skilled move as the FT is. Twenty-eight under 17 basketball players were studied while shooting FTs on a regular indoor basketball court. We investigated FT accuracy in young male basketball players shooting at three different HRs: at rest, at 50% and at 80% of maximum experimentally obtained HR value. We found no significant FT percentage difference between rest and 50% of the maximum HR (FT percentage about 80%; P > 0.05). Differently, at 80% of the maximum HR the FT percentage decreased significantly by more than 20% (P < 0.001) down to about 60%. No preliminary warm-up is needed before entering game for the FT accuracy. Furthermore, we speculate that time-consuming, cooling-off routines usually performed by shooters before each FT may be functional to improve its accuracy.