Identification of species and sources of Cryptosporidium oocysts in storm waters with a small-subunit rRNA-based diagnostic and genotyping tool

DNA barcoding of Cryptosporidium

Cryptosporidium spp. (Apicomplexa) causing cryptosporidiosis are of medical and veterinary significance. The genus Cryptosporidium has benefited from the application of what is considered a DNA-barcoding approach, even before the term 'DNA barcoding' was formally coined. Here, the objective to define the DNA barcode diversity of Cryptosporidium infecting mammals is reviewed and considered to be accomplished. Within the Cryptosporidium literature, the distinction between DNA barcoding and DNA taxonomy is indistinct. DNA barcoding and DNA taxonomy are examined using the latest additions to the growing spectrum of named Cryptosporidium species and within-species and between-species identity is revisited. Ease and availability of whole-genome DNA sequencing of the relatively small Cryptosporidium genome offer an initial perspective on the intra-host diversity. The opportunity emerges to apply a metagenomic approach to purified field/clinical Cryptosporidum isolates. The outstanding question remains a reliable definition of Cryptosporidium phenotype. The complementary experimental infections and metagenome approach will need to be applied simultaneously to address Cryptosporidium phenotype with carefully chosen clinical evaluations enabling identification of virulence factors.

Cryptosporidium baileyi in wild captive psittacines in Brazil

Cryptosporidiosis in birds manifests as an acute or chronic disease of the respiratory or digestive tracts. The objective of our study was to perform the molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. in wild psittacines kept in captivity at the Araçatuba Municipal Zoo, São Paulo, Brazil. A total of 47 fecal samples were collected from Amazona aestiva, Psittacara leucophthalma, and Ara ararauna. All samples were collected at the time the birds defecated. DNA extraction was performed using the ZR Fecal DNA MiniPrep™ kit (Zymo Research). Screening for Cryptosporidium spp. was accomplished using nested PCR targeting the 18S RNA gene and sequencing of amplified fragments. Positivity for Cryptosporidium spp. (10.64%; 5/47) was found in A. ararauna (4) and P. leucophthalma (1) samples. The amplified fragments were sequenced and showed 100% genetic similarity with Cryptosporidium baileyi.

Molecular Epidemiology of Cryptosporidiosis in China

Molecular epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis is an active research area in China. The use of genotyping and subtyping tools in prevalence studies has led to the identification of unique characteristics of Cryptosporidium infections in humans and animals. Human cryptosporidiosis in China is exemplified by the high diversity of Cryptosporidium spp. at species and subtype levels, with dominant C. hominis and C. parvum subtypes being rarely detected in other countries. Similarly, preweaned dairy calves, lambs, and goat kids are mostly infected with non-pathogenic Cryptosporidium species (C. bovis in calves and C. xiaoi in lambs and goat kids), with C. parvum starting to appear in dairy calves as a consequence of concentrated animal feeding operations. The latter Cryptosporidium species is dominated by IId subtypes, with IIa subtypes largely absent from the country. Unlike elsewhere, rodents in China appear to be commonly infected with C. parvum IId subtypes, with identical subtypes being found in these animals, calves, other livestock, and humans. In addition to cattle, pigs and chickens appear to be significant contributors to Cryptosporidium contamination in drinking water sources, as reflected by the frequent detection of C. suis, C. baileyi, and C. meleagridis in water samples. Chinese scientists have also made significant contributions to the development of new molecular epidemiological tools for Cryptosporidium spp. and improvements in our understanding of the mechanism involved in the emergence of hyper-transmissible and virulent C. hominis and C. parvum subtypes. Despite this progress, coordinated research efforts should be made to address changes in Cryptosporidium transmission because of rapid economic development in China and to prevent the introduction and spread of virulent and zoonotic Cryptosporidium species and subtypes in farm animals.

An extremely sensitive nested PCR-RFLP mitochondrial marker for detection and identification of salmonids in eDNA from water samples

Background

Salmonids are native from the North Hemisphere but have been introduced for aquaculture and sport fishing in the South Hemisphere and inhabit most rivers and lakes in temperate and cold regions worldwide. Five species are included in the Global Invasive Species Database: rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss, Atlantic salmon Salmo salar, brown trout Salmo trutta, brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis, and lake trout Salvelinus namaycush. In contrast, other salmonids are endangered in their native settings.

Methods

Here we have developed a method to identify salmonid species directly from water samples, focusing on the Iberian Peninsula as a case study. We have designed nested Salmonidae-specific primers within the 16S rDNA region. From these primers and a PCR-RFLP procedure the target species can be unequivocally identified from DNA extracted from water samples.

Results

The method was validated in aquarium experiments and in the field with water from watersheds with known salmonid populations. Finally, the method was applied to obtain a global view of the Salmonidae community in Nalón River (north coast of Spain).

Discussion

This new powerful, very sensitive (identifying the species down to 10 pg DNA/ml water) and economical tool can be applied for monitoring the presence of salmonids in a variety of situations, from checking upstream colonization after removal of river barriers to monitoring potential escapes from fish farms.

Zoonotic Cryptosporidium Species in Animals Inhabiting Sydney Water Catchments

Cryptosporidium is one of the most common zoonotic waterborne parasitic diseases worldwide and represents a major public health concern of water utilities in developed nations. As animals in catchments can shed human-infectious Cryptosporidium oocysts, determining the potential role of animals in dissemination of zoonotic Cryptosporidium to drinking water sources is crucial. In the present study, a total of 952 animal faecal samples from four dominant species (kangaroos, rabbits, cattle and sheep) inhabiting Sydney's drinking water catchments were screened for the presence of Cryptosporidium using a quantitative PCR (qPCR) and positives sequenced at multiple loci. Cryptosporidium species were detected in 3.6% (21/576) of kangaroos, 7.0% (10/142) of cattle, 2.3% (3/128) of sheep and 13.2% (14/106) of rabbit samples screened. Sequence analysis of a region of the 18S rRNA locus identified C. macropodum and C. hominis in 4 and 17 isolates from kangaroos respectively, C. hominis and C. parvum in 6 and 4 isolates respectively each from cattle, C. ubiquitum in 3 isolates from sheep and C. cuniculus in 14 isolates from rabbits. All the Cryptosporidium species identified were zoonotic species with the exception of C. macropodum. Subtyping using the 5' half of gp60 identified C. hominis IbA10G2 (n = 12) and IdA15G1 (n = 2) in kangaroo faecal samples; C. hominis IbA10G2 (n = 4) and C. parvum IIaA18G3R1 (n = 4) in cattle faecal samples, C. ubiquitum subtype XIIa (n = 1) in sheep and C. cuniculus VbA23 (n = 9) in rabbits. Additional analysis of a subset of samples using primers targeting conserved regions of the MIC1 gene and the 3' end of gp60 suggests that the C. hominis detected in these animals represent substantial variants that failed to amplify as expected. The significance of this finding requires further investigation but might be reflective of the ability of this C. hominis variant to infect animals. The finding of zoonotic Cryptosporidium species in these animals may have important implications for the management of drinking water catchments to minimize risk to public health.

Genotyping of Cryptosporidium spp. in environmental water in Turkey

This research was undertaken to study the molecular detection and characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. in environmental water sources at Samsun and Giresun Provinces of The Black Sea in Turkey. Two-hundred forty and one-hundred eighty environmental samples were collected from a total of twenty and twenty-five sampling sites of Giresun and Samsun Provinces. One hundred twenty untreated drinking water samples were also detected for Cryptosporidium spp. in both investigated areas. 101 (%42), 92 (%38.3) of 240 and 74 (41.1%), 70 (38.8%) of 180 environmental samples have been found positive for Cryptosporidium spp. by Loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) targeting the S-adenosyl-L-methionine synthetase (SAM) gene and nested PCR targeting small subunit (SSU)rRNA gene in Samsun and Giresun Provinces, respectively. Of the tested untreated drinking water samples collected from the investigated area, one sample was positive for Cryptosporidium spp. Six and twelve samples were clearly sequenced for the Cryptosporidium (SSU)rRNA gene among the highest positive samples selected from each of the twenty and twenty-five sampling sites of Giresun and Samsun Provinces, respectively. Genetic characterization of Cryptosporidium isolates from water samples represented Cryptosporidium bovis for five samples, Cryptosporidium parvum for six samples and one sample for Cryptosporidium felis in Samsun Province, where C. parvum for five samples and C. bovis for one sample were sequenced in Giresun Province. According to accessible information sources, this is the first research about genotyping of Cryptosporidium spp. in water samples collected from Samsun and Giresun Provinces of Turkey.

Validation of a new technique to detect Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts in bovine feces

Due to its important zoonotic potential, cryptosporidiosis arouses strong interest in the scientific community, because, it was initially considered a rare and opportunistic disease. The parasitological diagnosis of the causative agent of this disease, the protozoan Cryptosporidium spp., requires the use of specific techniques of concentration and permanent staining, which are laborious and costly, and are difficult to use in routine laboratory tests. In view of the above, we conducted the feasibility, development, evaluation and intralaboratory validation of a new parasitological technique for analysis in optical microscopy of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts, called TF-Test Coccidia, using fecal samples from calves from the city of Araçatuba, São Paulo. To confirm the aforementioned parasite and prove the diagnostic efficiency of the new technique, we used two established methodologies in the scientific literature: parasite concentration by centrifugal sedimentation and negative staining with malachite green (CSN-Malachite) and Nested-PCR. We observed good effectiveness of the TF-Test Coccidia technique, being statistically equivalent to CSN-Malachite. Thus, we verified the effectiveness of the TF-Test Coccidia parasitological technique for the detection of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts and observed good concentration and morphology of the parasite, with a low amount of debris in the fecal smear.

INVESTIGATION ON CRYPTOSPORIDIUM INFECTIONS IN WILD ANIMALS IN A ZOO IN ANHUI PROVINCE

To assess Cryptosporidium infections among wild animals in a zoo located in Anhui province, we conducted an investigation on the fecal samples collected from 44 primates, 41 herbivores, 44 carnivores and omnivores, and 103 birds in the zoo with the use of Sheather's sugar flotation technique and modified acid-fast staining. Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected in the fecal samples from six primates, two herbivores, four carnivores and omnivores, and seven birds by using Sheather's sugar flotation technique; the prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in primates, herbivores, carnivores and omnivores and birds was 13.64, 4.88, 9.09, and 6.80%, respectively. Modified acid-fast staining detected the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in the fecal samples of one primate, three herbivores, 0 carnivores and omnivores, and one bird, and the prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in primates, herbivores, carnivores and omnivores and birds was 2.27, 7.32, 0.00, and 0.97%, respectively. Polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment-length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) and phylogenetic analysis with the use of the neighbor-joining (NJ) method based on the aligned partial small-subunit (SSU) rRNA gene sequences showed that the protozoan pathogen isolated from primates was Cryptosporidium hominis and the pathogen isolated from camels ( Camelus dromedarius ) was Cryptosporidium andersoni. Subtyping the Cryptosporidium hominis by 60-kDa glycoprotein (GP60) gene phylogenetic analysis showed the Cryptosporidium hominis belongs to the subtype IdA and IbA.

Caracterização molecular de Cryptosporidium spp. em criações comerciais brasileiras de coelhos

RESUMO A criptosporidiose é uma importante zoonose que pode ser transmitida por meio de alimentos, água de bebida e por contato com animais e pessoas infectadas. Além disso, trata-se de uma enfermidade clínica ou subclínica frequente em diversas espécies de animais, incluindo coelhos domésticos. O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar a ocorrência de Cryptosporidium spp., realizar sua classificação molecular e relacionar a presença do parasito às diferentes fases de criação em 21 criações comerciais de coelhos, localizadas nos estados de Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso do Sul, Pernambuco, Paraná, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Sul e São Paulo. Quinhentas e catorze amostras de fezes foram colhidas e armazenadas em solução de dicromato de potássio 5%. Os oocistos foram purificados por centrífugo-flutuação em solução de Sheather e visualizados por microscopia, utilizando-se a coloração negativa com verde malaquita. Cinquenta e cinco amostras foram submetidas à reação em cadeia pela polimerase (nested PCR) e ao sequenciamento de fragmentos amplificados, referentes aos genes da subunidade 18S do rRNA e da glicloproteína GP60, visando à caracterização molecular de Cryptosporidium spp. Oito amostras foram positivas para Cryptosporidium spp. pela microscopia (1,56%; 8/514) e sete foram positivas pela nested PCR (12,73%; 7/55). Pela análise molecular, foi possível identificar Cryptosporidium cuniculus (18S rRNA) e C. cuniculus subtipo VbA21 (gp60) em coelhos jovens e em matrizes.

A multiplex PCR test to identify four common cattle-adapted Cryptosporidium species

Cryptosporidiumis a well-known cause of neonatal enteritis in cattle worldwide. Cattle are commonly infected with four different species ofCryptosporidiumbut only one of these,Cryptosporidium parvum, is associated with clinical disease. Identification of species in cases of calf scour can give an indication ifCryptosporidiumis the causative agent or not. In addition,C. parvumis a zoonotic species and so has implications for human health, for this reason it is important to identify the species ofCryptosporidiuminfecting cattle particularly where a farm is implicated in an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in humans. Here a multiplex PCR test, which can identify the four common cattle-adaptedCryptosporidiumspecies, includingC. parvum, has been developed. This test allows quick and accurate detection ofCryptosporidiumspecies in cattle fecal samples including mixed infections, which could be missed by the more common method of sequencing the same gene.

INTESTINAL AND PULMONARY INFECTION BY Cryptosporidium parvum IN TWO PATIENTS WITH HIV/AIDS

We describe two patients with HIV/AIDS who presented pulmonary and intestinal infection caused by Cryptosporidium parvum, with a fatal outcome. The lack of available description of changes in clinical signs and radiographic characteristics of this disease when it is located in the extra-intestinal region causes low prevalence of early diagnosis and a subsequent lack of treatment.

Public health significance of zoonotic Cryptosporidium species in wildlife: Critical insights into better drinking water management

Cryptosporidium is an enteric parasite that is transmitted via the faecal-oral route, water and food. Humans, wildlife and domestic livestock all potentially contribute Cryptosporidium to surface waters. Human encroachment into natural ecosystems has led to an increase in interactions between humans, domestic animals and wildlife populations. Increasing numbers of zoonotic diseases and spill over/back of zoonotic pathogens is a consequence of this anthropogenic disturbance. Drinking water catchments and water reservoir areas have been at the front line of this conflict as they can be easily contaminated by zoonotic waterborne pathogens. Therefore, the epidemiology of zoonotic species of Cryptosporidium in free-ranging and captive wildlife is of increasing importance. This review focuses on zoonotic Cryptosporidium species reported in global wildlife populations to date, and highlights their significance for public health and the water industry.

Ocorrência de Cryptosporidium spp. em animais exóticos de companhia no Brasil

RESUMOA infecção por algumas espécies ou genótipos de Cryptosporidiumrepresenta um risco em potencial para a saúde pública, principalmente por causa de morbidade e mortalidade em crianças de zero a cinco anos de idade e em pacientes imunodeprimidos. Embora existam alguns relatos de infecção por Cryptosporidiumem animais de companhia, sua participação na epidemiologia da criptosporidiose humana é incerta, e a literatura sobre esse tema ainda é bastante escassa. O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar a ocorrência e realizar a classificação molecular deCryptosporidiumspp. em amostras fecais de animais exóticos criados como animais de estimação no Brasil. Um total de 386 amostras de seis espécies de animais foi colhido e armazenado em solução de dicromato de potássio 5% a 4°C. Os oocistos foram purificados por centrífugo-sedimentação em água/éter, seguindo-se a extração de DNA genômico e a realização da nestedPCR para amplificação de fragmento parcial do gene da subunidade 18S do rRNA. Positividade para Cryptosporidiumspp. foi observada em 11,40% (44/386) das amostras. O sequenciamento de fragmentos amplificados permitiu a identificação de Cryptosporidium tyzzeri em camundongos,Cryptosporidium murisem camundongos, hamster e chinchila, Cryptosporidium parvumem chinchila, Cryptosporidiumgenótipo hamsterem hamstere Cryptosporidiumsp. em porquinho-da-índia. Os resultados deste estudo mostram que há uma variedade de espécies de Cryptosporidiumpresentes em animais exóticos de companhia no Brasil. Os dados sugerem que esses animais podem participar da epidemiologia da criptosporidiose humana, particularmente por seu estreito convívio.

Cryptosporidium rubeyi n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) in multiple Spermophilus ground squirrel species

Previously we reported the unique Cryptosporidium sp. "c" genotype (e.g., Sbey03c, Sbey05c, Sbld05c, Sltl05c) from three species of Spermophilus ground squirrel (Spermophilus beecheyi, Spermophilus beldingi, Spermophilus lateralis) located throughout California, USA. This follow-up work characterizes the morphology and animal infectivity of this novel genotype as the final step in proposing it as a new species of Cryptosporidium. Analysis of sequences of 18S rRNA, actin, and HSP70 genes of additional Cryptosporidium isolates from recently sampled California ground squirrels (S. beecheyi) confirms the presence of the unique Sbey-c genotype in S. beecheyi. Phylogenetic and BLAST analysis indicates that the c-genotype in Spermophilus ground squirrels is distinct from Cryptosporidium species/genotypes from other host species currently available in GenBank. We propose to name this c-genotype found in Spermophilus ground squirrels as Cryptosporidium rubeyi n. sp. The mean size of C. rubeyi n. sp. oocysts is 4.67 (4.4-5.0) μm × 4.34 (4.0-5.0) μm, with a length/width index of 1.08 (n = 220). Oocysts of C. rubeyi n. sp. are not infectious to neonatal BALB/c mice and Holstein calves. GenBank accession numbers for C. rubeyi n. sp. are DQ295012, AY462233, and KM010224 for the 18S rRNA gene, KM010227 for the actin gene, and KM010229 for the HSP70 gene.

Cryptosporidium infections in suckler herd beef calves

A study was carried out to investigate how common Cryptosporidium infections are in beef calves in Swedish suckler herds and to explore which species and subtypes that occur. We further aimed at identifying factors associated with shedding of Cryptosporidium oocysts in this type of calf management. The study was conducted in two regions in Sweden and included 30 herds. Faecal samples were collected from calves younger than 3 months. A brief clinical examination was done and a questionnaire was used to collect data on management routines. Faeces were cleaned and concentrated and oocysts identified by epifuorescence microscopy. Cryptosporidium positive samples were analyzed at the 18S rRNA and GP60 genes to determine species and Cryptosporidium parvum subtype, respectively. Logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with infection. Oocysts were detected in 122 (36.7%) calves from 29 (97%) herds, at 400 to 2.4 × 107 OPG. The youngest positive calves were only 1 and 2 days old. There was no association between age and Cryptosporidium infection. Cryptosporidium bovis, Cryptosporidium ryanae, C. parvum and Cryptosporidium ubiquitum were identified, with C. bovis being the major species. Two C. parvum subtypes, IIaA16G1R1 and IIdA27G1 were identified. Routines for cleaning calf pens and number of cows in calving pens were associated with infection.

Development and Evaluation of Three Real-Time PCR Assays for Genotyping and Source Tracking Cryptosporidium spp. in Water

The occurrence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in drinking source water can present a serious public health risk. To rapidly and effectively assess the source and human-infective potential of Cryptosporidium oocysts in water, sensitive detection and correct identification of oocysts to the species level (genotyping) are essential. In this study, we developed three real-time PCR genotyping assays, two targeting the small-subunit (SSU) rRNA gene (18S-LC1 and 18S-LC2 assays) and one targeting the 90-kDa heat shock protein (hsp90) gene (hsp90 assay), and evaluated the sensitivity and Cryptosporidium species detection range of these assays. Using fluorescence resonance energy transfer probes and melt curve analysis, the 18S-LC1 and hsp90 assays could differentiate common human-pathogenic species (C. parvum, C. hominis, and C. meleagridis), while the 18S-LC2 assay was able to differentiate nonpathogenic species (such as C. andersoni) from human-pathogenic ones commonly found in source water. In sensitivity evaluations, the 18S-LC2 and hsp90 genotyping assays could detect as few as 1 Cryptosporidium oocyst per sample. Thus, the 18S-LC2 and hsp90 genotyping assays might be used in environmental monitoring, whereas the 18S-LC1 genotyping assay could be useful for genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in clinical specimens or wastewater samples.

First Molecular Characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. Infecting Buffalo Calves in Brazil

With the aim of determining the occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp., 222 fecal samples were collected from Murrah buffalo calves aged up to 6 mo. Fecal DNA was genotyped with a nested polymerase chain reaction targeting the 18S rRNA gene and sequencing of the amplified fragment. Nested 18S PCR was positive for 48.2% of the samples. Sequence analysis showed that the most frequent species in these animals was Cryptosporidium ryanae, which was present in buffalo calves as young as 5 d. The zoonotic species Cryptosporidium parvum was detected in one animal. An uncommon Cryptosporidium 18S genotype was found in buffaloes.

Molecular characterisation of Cryptosporidium spp. in lambs in the South Central region of the State of São Paulo

Considering the proximity of sheep farmers to animals that are possibly diseased or releasing fecal oocysts into the environment and the marked pathogenicity in lambs, the aim of this study was to determine the occurrence and to molecularly characterize the infection by Cryptosporidium spp. in lambs in the South Central region of the state of São Paulo, Brazil. A total of 193 fecal samples were collected from sheep of several breeds, males and females, aged up to one year. Polymerase chain reaction (nested-PCR) was used to amplify DNA fragments from the subunit 18S rRNA gene and indicated 15% positivity; sequencing of amplified fragments was possible for 19 samples. Analysis of the obtained sequences showed that the identified species were Cryptosporidium xiaoi for 15 samples, constituting thus the first molecular characterization study of this Cryptosporidium species in Brazil. Cryptosporidium ubiquitum was identified for three samples and Cryptosporidium meleagridis for one sample; the latter two are considered zoonotic species.

Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. in domestic pigeons (Columba livia domestica) in Guangdong Province, Southern China

To investigate the prevalence and assess the zoonotic transmission burden of Cryptosporidium species in domestic pigeons in Guangdong Province, Southern China, 244 fecal samples were collected from four pigeon breeding farms between June 2012 and March 2013. Cryptosporidium oocysts were purified by Sheather's sugar flotation technique and characterized by DNA sequencing of small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene. Cryptosporidium species were determined by comparison of sequences with corresponding Cryptosporidium sequences in GenBank and phylogenetic analysis using neighbor-joining (NJ) in MEGA5.2. The overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in domestic pigeons in Guangdong Province was 0.82% (2/244). Two Cryptosporidium species, namely Cryptosporidium baileyi and Cryptosporidium meleagridis, were identified in Huizhou and Chaozhou farm, respectively. These findings confirmed the existence of C. meleagridis infection in domestic pigeons in China for the first time and provided base-line information for further studies to evaluate the public health risk from pigeon to human.

Cryptosporidium and Giardia in surface water: a case study from Michigan, USA to inform management of rural water systems

Cryptosporidium and Giardia pose a threat to human health in rural environments where water supplies are commonly untreated and susceptible to contamination from agricultural animal waste/manure, animal wastewater, septic tank effluents and septage. Our goals for this paper are to: (1) explore the prevalence of these protozoan parasites, where they are found, in what quantities, and which genotypes are present; (2) examine relationships between disease and land use comparing human health risks between rural and urban environments; and (3) synthesize available information to gain a better understanding of risk and risk management for rural water supplies. Our results indicate that Cryptosporidium and Giardia were more prevalent in rural versus urban environments based on the number of positive samples. Genotyping showed that both the human and animal types of the parasites are found in rural and urban environments. Rural areas had a higher incidence of disease compared to urban areas based on the total number of disease cases. Cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis were both positively correlated (p < 0.001) with urban area, population size, and population density. Finally, a comprehensive strategy that creates knowledge pathways for data sharing among multiple levels of management may improve decision-making for protecting rural water supplies.

Molecular epidemiology of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in mussels (Mytilus californianus) and California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) from Central California

Cryptosporidium and Giardia are of public health importance, with recognized transmission through recreational waters. Therefore, both can contaminate marine waters and shellfish, with potential to infect marine mammals in nearshore ecosystems. A 2-year study was conducted to evaluate the presence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in mussels located at two distinct coastal areas in California, namely, (i) land runoff plume sites and (ii) locations near sea lion haul-out sites, as well as in feces of California sea lions (CSL) (Zalophus californianus) by the use of direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) detection methods and PCR with sequence analysis. In this study, 961 individual mussel hemolymph samples, 54 aliquots of pooled mussel tissue, and 303 CSL fecal samples were screened. Giardia duodenalis assemblages B and D were detected in hemolymph from mussels collected near two land runoff plume sites (Santa Rosa Creek and Carmel River), and assemblages C and D were detected in hemolymph from mussels collected near a sea lion haul-out site (White Rock). These results suggest that mussels are being contaminated by protozoa carried in terrestrial runoff and/or shed in the feces of CSL. Furthermore, low numbers of oocysts and cysts morphologically similar to Cryptosporidium and Giardia, respectively, were detected in CSL fecal samples, suggesting that CSL could be a source and a host of protozoan parasites in coastal environments. The results of this study showed that Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp. from the feces of terrestrial animals and CSL can contaminate mussels and coastal environments.

Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium occurrence in Australian sea lions (Neophoca cinerea) exposed to varied levels of human interaction

Giardia and Cryptosporidium are amongst the most common protozoan parasites identified as causing enteric disease in pinnipeds. A number of Giardia assemblages and Cryptosporidium species and genotypes are common in humans and terrestrial mammals and have also been identified in marine mammals. To investigate the occurrence of these parasites in an endangered marine mammal, the Australian sea lion (Neophoca cinerea), genomic DNA was extracted from faecal samples collected from wild populations (n = 271) in Southern and Western Australia and three Australian captive populations (n = 19). These were screened using PCR targeting the 18S rRNA of Giardia and Cryptosporidium. Giardia duodenalis was detected in 28 wild sea lions and in seven captive individuals. Successful sequencing of the 18S rRNA gene assigned 27 Giardia isolates to assemblage B and one to assemblage A, both assemblages commonly found in humans. Subsequent screening at the gdh and β-giardin loci resulted in amplification of only one of the 35 18S rRNA positive samples at the β-giardin locus. Sequencing at the β-giardin locus assigned the assemblage B 18S rRNA confirmed isolate to assemblage AI. The geographic distribution of sea lion populations sampled in relation to human settlements indicated that Giardia presence in sea lions was highest in populations less than 25 km from humans. Cryptosporidium was not detected by PCR screening in either wild colonies or captive sea lion populations. These data suggest that the presence of G. duodenalis in the endangered Australian sea lion is likely the result of dispersal from human sources. Multilocus molecular analyses are essential for the determination of G. duodenalis assemblages and subsequent inferences on transmission routes to endangered marine mammal populations.

Effective concentration and detection of cryptosporidium, giardia, and the microsporidia from environmental matrices

Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia spp., and members of Microsporidia are enteropathogenic parasites of humans and animals, producing asymptomatic to severe intestinal infections. To circumvent various impediments associated with current detection methods, we tested a method providing multistage purification and separation in a single, confined step. Standard real-time PCR was used as a detection method. Samples spiked with C. parvum and G. intestinalis were split for comparison to standard Method 1623. Results were equivalent to immunomagnetic procedures for Cryptosporidium, and Giardia. Overall percent recovery for Cryptosporidium with Method 1623 averaged 26.89% (std 21.44%; min = 0%; max = 73%) and was similar but less variable for qPCR method at an estimated average of 27.67 (std 17.65%; min = 5%; max = 63%). For Giardia, Method 1623 had an overall average recovery of 27.11% (std 17.98%; min = 1%; max = 58%), while multistage purification and qPCR had an estimated lower overall recovery at 18.58% (std 13.95%; min = 0%; max = 35%). Microsporidia were also readily detected with an estimated recovery of 46.81% overall (std 17.66%; min = 18%; max = 70%) for E. intestinalis and 38.90% (std 14.36%; min = 13%; max = 62%) for E. bieneusi.

Molecular and parasitological study of cryptosporidium isolates from cattle in ilam, west of iran

BACKGROUND

Cryptosporidiosis is one of the most important parasitic infections in human and animals. This study was designed for survey on the prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in farms of Ilam, west of Iran, using parasitology method and genotyping by Nested PCR-RFLP.

METHODS

Fecal samples of 217 cattle were collected fresh and directly from the rectum of cattle. All of the samples were examined by microscopic observation after staining with modified Ziehl-Neelsen (MZN). Genomic DNA extracted by using EURx DNA kit. A Nested PCR-RFLP protocol amplifying 825 bp fragment of 18s rRNA gene conducted to differentiate species and genotyping of the isolates using SspI and VspI as restriction enzymes.

RESULTS

The prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in cattle using both methods is 3.68%. Most of the positive cattle were calves under six months. Species diagnosis carried out by digesting the secondary PCR product with SspI that C. parvum generated 3 visible bands of 448, 247 and 106 bp and digested by VspI restriction enzyme generated 2 visible bands of 628 and 104bp. In this investigation all of the positive samples were Cryptosporidium parvum.

CONCLUSION

C. parvum (bovine genotype) detected in all positive cattle samples in Ilam, west of Iran. The results of the present study can help for public health care systems to prevention and management of cryptosporidiosis in cattle and the assessment of cattle cryptosporidiosis as a reservoir for the human infection.

Prevalence and molecular typing of Cryptosporidium in dairy cattle in England and Wales and examination of potential on-farm transmission routes

An average of 70 samples were collected from 80 dairy farms in England and Wales, from cattle, co-grazed sheep, wildlife and farm wastes, to investigate prevalence, potential sources and transmission routes of Cryptosporidium. At least one positive sample was detected on 74 of the farms (92.5%) by IFAT microscopy. The prevalence in cattle was 10.2% (95% CI 9.4-11.1%), with greater prevalences detected in calf samples, especially from those under 1 month (45.1%). Young calves were also more likely to be shedding Cryptosporidium parvum and larger concentrations of oocysts, whereas older calves and adult cattle were more likely to be shedding Cryptosporidium bovis and Cryptosporidium andersoni, respectively. The C. parvum subtypes detected were predominantly from types commonly identified in UK cattle (67% were either IIaA15G2R1 or IIaA17G1R1). A novel subtype, IIaA17G1R2, was identified from one cattle sample. The prevalence in co-grazed sheep was low (4%). Birds and rodents may represent significant reservoirs of Cryptosporidium due to high prevalence, large oocyst concentrations, and the detection of a C. parvum subtype known to be present in human populations, identified in samples from these wildlife. Cryptosporidium were detected in dirty water and manure, and also from pasture samples where slurry had been spread. On 64% of the farms, identical Cryptosporidium species were detected (mainly C. parvum or C. bovis) from different cattle groups on the farms, although no direct or indirect contact between the groups were recorded, apart from sharing staff. The same Cryptosporidium species were found in cattle, farm wastes and bird samples on the same farms, but rarely, or not at all, present in sheep or rodent samples. The matching of species/subtypes was also related to the proximity of the different sample sources which may indicate a potential transmission route.

Occurrence of Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and Cyclospora in influent and effluent water at wastewater treatment plants in Arizona

We investigated the occurrence of Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and Cyclospora at two wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Arizona over a 12-month period, from August 2011 to July 2012. Influent and effluent wastewater samples were collected monthly, and protozoan (oo)cysts were concentrated using an electronegative filter, followed by the detection of protozoa using fluorescent microscopy (Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts) and PCR-based methods (Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia intestinalis, and Cyclospora cayetanensis). The concentration of Giardia cysts in the influent was always higher than that of Cryptosporidium oocysts (mean concentration of 4.8-6.4×10(3) versus 7.4×10(1)-1.0×10(2)(oo)cysts/l) with no clear seasonality, and log10 reduction of Giardia cysts was significantly higher than that of Cryptosporidium oocysts for both WWTPs (P<0.05). Log10 reduction of Giardia cysts at the WWTP utilizing activated sludge was significantly higher than the other WWTP using trickling filter (P=0.014), while no statistically significant difference between the two WWTPs was observed for the log10 reduction of Cryptosporidium oocysts (P=0.207). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that G. intestinalis strains identified in wastewater belonged to two assemblages, AII and B, which are potentially infectious to humans. C. cayetanensis was also detected from both influent and effluent using a newly developed quantitative PCR, with the highest influent concentration of 1.2×10(4)copies/l. Our results demonstrated that these protozoan pathogens are prevalent in the study area and that efficacy of the conventional wastewater treatment processes at physically removing (oo)cysts is limited.

The detection of Cryptosporidium serpentis in snake fecal samples by real-time PCR

Infection by Cryptosporidium serpentis occurs in reptiles, particularly in snakes. This disease is characterized by chronic infection with the presence of hypertrophic gastritis. The objectives of this study were to use real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) gene for the detection of C. serpentis in fecal samples from snakes and to determine the analytical and epidemiological specificity and sensitivity of this approach relative to the gold standard of nested PCR for the amplification of a fragment of the 18S subunit of the ribosomal RNA (18S rRNA) gene followed by the sequencing of amplified fragments (nPCR/S). Individual fecal samples were collected on a single occasion from 503 asymptomatic adult snakes housed in the serpentarium of the Butantan Institute in São Paulo, Brazil. The nested PCR revealed that 60 samples (11.98%) were positive for Cryptosporidium sp. The sequencing of amplified fragments, which was possible for 38 samples, resulted in the identification of Cryptosporidium tyzzeri (7), Cryptosporidium muris (4), Cryptosporidium varanii (12) and C. serpentis (15) in fecal samples from several snake species. The real-time PCR approach indicated that 17 samples (3.37%) were positive for C. serpentis, whereas the nPCR/S indicated that 15 samples (2.98%) were positive for C. serpentis. The epidemiological sensitivity and specificity of real-time PCR were 93.8% and 99.5%, respectively. Thus, we conclude that real-time PCR targeting the Hsp70 gene is a sensitive and specific method for the detection of C. serpentis in snake fecal samples.

Prevalence and molecular identification of cryptosporidium spp. In pre-weaned dairy calves in mashhad area, khorasan razavi province, iran

BACKGROUND

Cryptosporidium parvum is a zoonotic pathogen transmissible from a variety of animals to humans and is a considerable public health concern. Dairy cattle have been identified in numerous reports as a major source of environmental contamination with this pathogen. The aim of study was to detect and isolate the Cryptosporidium spp. from fecal samples of naturally infected pre-wean calves in the Mashhad area.

METHODS

Overall, 300 fecal specimens from 1 to 30 days pre-weaned calves were collected from 10 farms in the Mashhad area the capital center of the Khorasan Razavi Province, Iran and microscopically examined for Cryptosporidium spp. All infected samples were also analyzed using nested -PCR. A polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of the small-subunit (SSU) rRNA gene was also used to detect and identify Cryptosporidium spp. in PCR- positive samples.

RESULTS

Eighty five (28.3%) of the specimens were positive for Cryptosporidium spp. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in 8-14 days old and diarrheic calves were significantly higher than other groups. Restriction digestion of the PCR products by SspI, VspI restriction enzymes and sequence analysis revealed the presence of C. parvum bovine genotype in all isolates.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that pre-weaned calves are likely to be an important reservoir of zoonotic C. parvum.

A new set of primers directed to 18S rRNA gene for molecular identification of Cryptosporidium spp. and their performance in the detection and differentiation of oocysts shed by synanthropic rodents

Cryptosporidium spp. are cosmopolitan protozoa that infect fishes, reptiles, amphibians, birds and mammals. More than 20 species are recognized within this genus. Rodents are a group of abundant and ubiquitous organisms that have been considered reservoirs of Cryptosporidium for humans and livestock. The aim of this study was to design specific primers for the gene encoding 18S rRNA, potentially capable of amplifying any species or genotype of Cryptosporidium spp. and evaluate the diagnostic attributes of the nested-PCR based on such probes. The primers were designed to amplify the shortest segment as possible to maximize the sensitivity of the test, but preserving the discriminatory potential of the amplified sequences for phylogenetic inferences. The nested-PCR standardized in this study (nPCR-SH) was compared in terms of sensitivity with another similar assay (nPCR-XIAO) that has been largely used for the detection and identification of Cryptosporidium spp. worldwide. We also aimed to molecularly characterize samples of Cryptosporidum spp. isolated from synanthropic rodents using these probes. Forty-five rodents were captured in urban areas of the municipality of Umuarama, Paraná State, Brazil. Fecal samples were submitted to three molecular tests (nested-PCRs), two of them targeted to the 18S rDNA gene (nPCR-SH and nPCR-XIAO) and the third targeted to the gene encoding actin (nPCR-actin). The nPCR-SH was tested positive on samples of Cryptosporidum parvum, Cryptosporidum andersoni, Cryptosporidum meleagridis, Cryptosporidum hominis, Cryptosporidum canis, and Cryptosporidum serpentis. Sixteen samples of rodents were positive by nPCR-SH, six by nPCR-XIAO and five by nPCR-actin. Sequencing of amplified fragments allowed the identification of Cryptosporidum muris in three samples of Rattus rattus, and two genotypes of Cryptosporidium, the genotypes mouse II and III. Cryptosporidium genotype mouse II was found in one sample of Mus musculus and genotype mouse III, in twelve samples, being five from R. rattus and seven from M. musculus. The results of this study demonstrated that the primers designed for detection of Cryptosporidium spp. were more efficient than those used in the nPCR-XIAO. Genotypes or species of Cryptosporidium that can be usually transmitted for human beings and livestock were not found in synanthropic rodents, suggesting that the importance of these animals in zoonotic transmission of cryptosporidiosis should be revisited.

Clinical, serological, and parasitological analysis of snakes naturally infected with Cryptosporidium serpentis

Infection by Cryptosporidium serpentis is one of the most important diseases in reptiles and is characterized by chronic clinical or subclinical infection and the presence of hypertrophic gastritis, food regurgitation, progressive weight loss, mortality, and intermittent or continuous shedding of oocysts in the feces. The objectives of this study were to standardize an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect antibodies against C. serpentis and to evaluate the clinical, parasitological, and humoral immune response in snakes naturally infected with C. serpentis. Twenty-one snakes naturally infected with C. serpentis and housed at the Butantan Institute, São Paulo, Brazil, underwent clinical and parasitological analyses for C. serpentis infection through daily records of clinical signs and a monthly survey of fecal shedding of oocysts using the Kinyoun's acid-fast staining. The serological evaluation was performed monthly by indirect ELISA using crude total antigen from oocysts of C. serpentis to detect anti-C. serpentis antibodies. Clinical symptoms consisted of food regurgitation, inappetence, and progressive weight loss. The parasitological analysis revealed intermittent fecal shedding of a variable number of oocysts in all snakes, with positivity in 85.32% (157/184) of the samples. The indirect ELISA was positive in 68.25% (86/126) of the samples. A humoral immune response was observed in most animals; however, fluctuating antibodies levels, leading to alternating positive and negative results, were observed in most snakes.

The rapid detection of Cryptosporidium and Giardia species in clinical stools using the Quik Chek immunoassay

Diagnostic testing in the United Kingdom for Cryptosporidium and Giardia species is routinely performed by microscopy. In this study, two hundred stool samples from human clinical cases were examined for the presence of these two parasites comparing microscopy with an antigen immunoassay, Quik Chek (Techlab, Inc.). The Quik Chek assay was shown to have a sensitivity and specificity for Cryptosporidium detection of 87.6% and 98.9% respectively and for Giardia detection, 93.3% and 99.4% respectively. The high correlation with microscopy data provides evidence to support implementation of this rapid test within diagnostic microbiology laboratories.

Cryptosporidiosis and Cryptosporidium species in animals and humans: a thirty colour rainbow?

Parasites of the genus Cryptosporidium (Apicomplexa) cause cryptosporidiosis in humans and animals worldwide. The species names used for Cryptosporidium spp. are confusing for parasitologists and even more so for non-specialists. Here, 30 named species of the genus Cryptosporidium are reviewed and proposed as valid. Molecular and experimental evidence suggests that humans and cattle are the hosts for 14 and 13 out of 30 named species, respectively. Two, four and eight named species are considered of major, moderate and minor public health significance, respectively. There are at least nine named species that are shared between humans and cattle. The aim of this review is to outline available species information together with the most commonly used genetic markers enabling the identification of named Cryptosporidium spp. Currently, 28 of 30 named species can be identified using the complete or partial ssrRNA, serving as a retrospective 'barcode'. Currently, the ssrRNA satisfies the implicit assumption that the reference databases used for comparison are sufficiently complete and applicable across the whole genus. However, due to unreliable annotation in public DNA repositories, the reference nucleotide entries and alignment of named Cryptosporidium spp. has been compiled. Despite its known limitations, ssrRNA remains the optimal marker for species identification.

Cryptosporidium pathogenicity and virulence

Cryptosporidium is a protozoan parasite of medical and veterinary importance that causes gastroenteritis in a variety of vertebrate hosts. Several studies have reported different degrees of pathogenicity and virulence among Cryptosporidium species and isolates of the same species as well as evidence of variation in host susceptibility to infection. The identification and validation of Cryptosporidium virulence factors have been hindered by the renowned difficulties pertaining to the in vitro culture and genetic manipulation of this parasite. Nevertheless, substantial progress has been made in identifying putative virulence factors for Cryptosporidium. This progress has been accelerated since the publication of the Cryptosporidium parvum and C. hominis genomes, with the characterization of over 25 putative virulence factors identified by using a variety of immunological and molecular techniques and which are proposed to be involved in aspects of host-pathogen interactions from adhesion and locomotion to invasion and proliferation. Progress has also been made in the contribution of host factors that are associated with variations in both the severity and risk of infection. Here we provide a review comprised of the current state of knowledge on Cryptosporidium infectivity, pathogenesis, and transmissibility in light of our contemporary understanding of microbial virulence.

Detection of Cryptosporidium and Giardia (oo)cysts by IFA, PCR and LAMP in surface water from Rasht, Iran

BACKGROUND

Cryptosporidium and Giardia in water supplies is acknowledged as a public health problem. In the present study, we applied immunofluorescence assay (IFA), PCR and loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) for the detection of the two protozoa.

METHODS

Over a period of 12 months, surface water samples were collected from two rivers in the north of Iran, and filtrated by 142 mm membrane filters. At each sampling point 10 L water were used for IFT and the10 L were analysed using molecular methods.

RESULTS

In 15/40 samples, (oo)cysts were detected by one of the IFA, PCR or LAMP methods. Five samples that were Cryptosporidium-negative by IFA were positive by LAMP. A total of 10 out of 13 samples that were Giardia-positive by IFA were also positive by PCR. IFA revealed high levels of Giardia, with 1-1800 cysts and 1-16 Cryptosporidium oocysts detected per 10 L.

CONCLUSION

The study reveals that the investigated water supplies were contaminated by Cryptosporidium and Giardia. The LAMP assay has advantages for detection and screening of these protozoa at relatively low concentration in water samples. The three assays applied are complimentary but no single one will give the true prevalence of these parasites in surface water samples. However, each method has its own advantages and disadvantages dependent of the aim and the study design; a combination of detection methods should be applied to discover whether water is, or is not, contaminated with (oo)cysts. This is the first report on the occurrence of (oo)cysts in Iranian surface waters to compare the results of parasite detection obtained with the different methods.

Presence of Cryptosporidium scrofarum, C. suis and C. parvum subtypes IIaA16G2R1 and IIaA13G1R1 in Eurasian wild boars (Sus scrofa)

The aim of the present study was to identify the species of Cryptosporidium infecting Eurasian wild boars (Sus scrofa) in Galicia (NW, Spain). A sampling of 209 wild boars shot in different game preserves was carried out during the hunting season in 2009-2010. All samples were examined for Cryptosporidium infection, using both immunological and molecular tools. Cryptosporidium oocysts in faecal samples were identified using a direct immunofluorescence technique with monoclonal antibodies (DFA). The presence of Cryptosporidium DNA was determined using nested PCR involving amplification of a fragment of the small-subunit (SSU) ribosomal RNA gene (SSU rRNA). A total of 35 (16.7%) samples tested positive with both techniques. However, sequencing was only possible in 27 samples. Cryptosporidium scrofarum, Cryptosporidium suis and Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts were identified in 19, 5 and 3 of the samples, respectively. Moreover, C. scrofarum was detected as a dominant species infecting all age groups (juveniles, sub adults and adults). Sequence analyses of the glycoprotein (GP60) gene revealed the presence of C. parvum subtypes IIaA16G2R1 in 2 juveniles and IIaA13G1R1 in 1 sub adult wild boar. These species and subtypes have previously been described in human patients, indicating that isolates from asymptomatic wild boars might have zoonotic potential. This is the first report of the presence of C. scrofarum, C. suis and C. parvum subtypes IIaA16G2R1 and IIaA13G1R1 in wild boars (S. scrofa) in Spain.

Genetic diversity of Cryptosporidium spp. within a remote population of Soay Sheep on St. Kilda Islands, Scotland

This is the first report to characterize the genotypes and subtypes of Cryptosporidium species infecting a geographically isolated population of feral Soay sheep (Ovis aries) on Hirta, St. Kilda, Scotland, during two distinct periods: (i) prior to a population crash and (ii) as host numbers increased. Cryptosporidium DNA was extracted by freeze-thawing of immunomagnetically separated (IMS) bead-oocyst complexes, and species were identified following nested-PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)/PCR sequencing at two Cryptosporidium 18S rRNA loci. Two hundred fifty-five samples were analyzed, and the prevalent Cryptosporidium species in single infections were identified as C. hominis (11.4% of all samples tested), C. parvum (9%), C. xiaoi (12.5%), and C. ubiquitum (6.7%). Cryptosporidium parvum was also present with other Cryptosporidium species in 27.1% of all samples tested. Cryptosporidium parvum- and C. hominis-positive isolates were genotyped using two nested-PCR assays that amplify the Cryptosporidium glycoprotein 60 gene (GP60). GP60 gene analysis showed the presence of two Cryptosporidium genotypes, namely, C. parvum IIaA19G1R1 and C. hominis IbA10G2. This study reveals a higher diversity of Cryptosporidium species/genotypes than was previously expected. We suggest reasons for the high diversity of Cryptosporidium parasites within this isolated population and discuss the implications for our understanding of cryptosporidiosis.

Occurrence of pathogens in wild rodents caught on Swedish pig and chicken farms

A total of 207 wild rodents were caught on nine pig farms, five chicken farms and five non-farm locations in Sweden and surveyed for a selection of bacteria, parasites and viruses.Lawsonia intracellulariaand pathogenicYersinia enterocoliticawere only detected in rodents on pig farms (9% and 8% prevalence, respectively) which indicate that these agents are more likely to be transmitted to rodents from pigs or the environment on infected farms.Brachyspira hyodysenteriae(1%),Brachyspira intermedia(2%),Campylobacter jejuni(4%),Campylobacter upsaliensis(2%), leptospires (7%) and encephalomyocarditis virus (9%) were also detected from rodents not in contact with farm animals.GiardiaandCryptosporidiumspp. were common, although no zoonotic types were verified, andSalmonella entericawas isolated from 1/11 mice on one farm but not detected by PCR from any of the rodents.Trichinellaspp. andToxoplasma gondiiwere not detected.

Cryptosporidium spp. in quails (Coturnix coturnix japonica) in Henan, China: molecular characterization and public health significance

The prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. was investigated in scale quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) farms in Henan Province, China between September 2006 and August 2007. One thousand eight hundred and eighteen fecal samples from 47 quail farms in five areas were collected for the examination of Cryptosporidium oocysts. The overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium was 13.1% (95% CI 13.1±1.6%) (29 of 47 farms), with 72-100-day-old quails having the highest prevalence (23.6%, 95% CI 23.6±2.6%) (χ(2)=64.91; ρ<0.01). The highest prevalence was observed in autumn (21.8%, 95% CI 21.8±3.1%) and the lowest in winter (χ(2)=74.83; ρ<0.01). Two hundred and thirty-nine Cryptosporidium-positive samples were analyzed by PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of the small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene, and 42 were further analyzed by DNA sequencing of the PCR products. Two Cryptosporidium species were identified, Cryptosporidium baileyi in 237 birds on 29 farms, and potentially zoonotic Cryptosporidium meleagridis in only two birds on two farms. These findings may suggest that quails are not a major source of zoonotic Cryptosporidium in the study area.

High diversity of Cryptosporidium subgenotypes identified in Malaysian HIV/AIDS individuals targeting gp60 gene

Background

Currently, there is a lack of vital information in the genetic makeup of Cryptosporidium especially in developing countries. The present study aimed at determining the genotypes and subgenotypes of Cryptosporidium in hospitalized Malaysian human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) positive patients.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In this study, 346 faecal samples collected from Malaysian HIV positive patients were genetically analysed via PCR targeting the 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene. Eighteen (5.2% of 346) isolates were determined as Cryptosporidium positive with 72.2% (of 18) identified as Cryptosporidium parvum whilst 27.7% as Cryptosporidium hominis. Further gp60 analysis revealed C. parvum belonging to subgenotypes IIaA13G1R1 (2 isolates), IIaA13G2R1 (2 isolates), IIaA14G2R1 (3 isolates), IIaA15G2R1 (5 isolates) and IIdA15G1R1 (1 isolate). C. hominis was represented by subgenotypes IaA14R1 (2 isolates), IaA18R1 (1 isolate) and IbA10G2R2 (2 isolates).

Conclusions/Significance

These findings highlighted the presence of high diversity of Cryptosporidium subgenotypes among Malaysian HIV infected individuals. The predominance of the C. parvum subgenotypes signified the possibility of zoonotic as well as anthroponotic transmissions of cryptosporidiosis in HIV infected individuals.

Presence and molecular characterisation of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in alpacas (Vicugna pacos) from Peru

The presence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium was investigated in 274 faecal samples of alpacas (Vicugna pacos) from 12 herds from Peru by immunofluorescence microscopy and PCR amplification and sequencing of fragments of the ssu-rRNA and β-giardin genes from Giardia spp., as well as the ssu-rRNA gene from Cryptosporidium spp. A total of 137 samples (50.0%) were positive for Giardia spp., and 12 samples (4.4%) for Cryptosporidium spp. In ten samples (3.6%), co-infection by both pathogens was found. Herd prevalence was found to be 91.7% (11/12 herds) for Giardia and 58.3% (7/12 herds) for Cryptosporidium. Regarding the age of the animals, although Giardia was detected in animals as young as 1 week, the prevalence increased with age, reaching 80% by 8 weeks. Similarly, the highest percentage of Cryptosporidium detection (20%) was also found in the 8 week-old group. By PCR, 92 of the 274 analysed samples were positive for Giardia. Sequencing of the amplicons showed the existence of Giardia duodenalis assemblage A in 67 samples; G. duodenalis assemblage E in 24 samples; and inconsistent results between the two molecular markers used in a further sample. Cryptosporidium was only detected by PCR in 3 of the 274 samples; Cryptosporidium parvum was identified in two samples and Cryptosporidium ubiquitum in one sample. This study is the first performing molecular characterisation of both parasites in Peruvian alpacas, and the first report of C. ubiquitum in this host. The identification of G. duodenalis assemblage A, C. parvum and C. ubiquitum, suggests that zoonotic transmission of these enteropathogens between alpacas and humans is possible.