Enhancer I predominance in hepatitis B virus gene expression

Loss of microRNA 122 expression in patients with hepatitis B enhances hepatitis B virus replication through cyclin G(1) -modulated P53 activity

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) causes chronic infection in about 350 million people worldwide. Given the important role of the most abundant liver-specific microRNA, miR-122, in hepatic function and liver pathology, here we investigated the potential role and mechanism of miR-122 in regulating HBV replication. We found that miR-122 expression in liver was significantly down-regulated in patients with HBV infection compared with healthy controls, and the miR-122 levels were negatively correlated with intrahepatic viral load and hepatic necroinflammation. The depletion of endogenous miR-122 by its antisense inhibitor led to enhanced HBV replication, whereas overexpression of miR-122 by transfection of mimic or its expression vector inhibited viral production. We next identified cyclin G(1) as an miR-122 target from multiple candidate target genes that are involved in the regulation of HBV replication. Overexpression and knockdown studies both showed that cyclin G(1) regulated viral replication in HBV transfected cells. We also observed that cyclin G(1) expression was up-regulated in HBV-infected patients, and cyclin G(1) levels were inversely associated with miR-122 expression in liver tissues. Using coimmunoprecipitation, a luciferase reporter system, and electrophoretic mobility shift assay, we further demonstrated that cyclin G(1) specifically interacted with p53, and this interaction blocked the specific binding of p53 to HBV enhancer elements and simultaneously abrogated p53-mediated inhibition of HBV transcription. Finally, we show that miR-122 suppressed HBV replication in p53 wildtype cells but not in null isogenic cells.

CONCLUSION

miR-122 down-regulates its target cyclin G(1) , and thus interrupts the interaction between cyclin G(1) and p53 and abrogates p53-mediated inhibition of HBV replication. Our work shows that miR-122 down-regulation induced by HBV infection can impact HBV replication and possibly contribute to viral persistence and carcinogenesis.

Hepatitis B virus X protein is essential to initiate and maintain virus replication after infection

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The molecular biology of hepatitis B virus (HBV) has been extensively studied but the exact role of the hepatitis B X protein (HBx) in the context of natural HBV infections remains unknown.

METHODS

Primary human hepatocytes and differentiated HepaRG cells allowing conditional trans complementation of HBx were infected with wild type (HBV(wt)) or HBx deficient (HBV(x-)) HBV particles and establishment of HBV replication was followed.

RESULTS

We observed that cells inoculated with HBx-deficient HBV particles (HBV(x-)) did not lead to productive HBV infection contrary to cells inoculated with wild type HBV particles (HBV(wt)). Although equal amounts of nuclear covalently closed circular HBV-DNA (cccDNA) demonstrated comparable uptake and nuclear import, active transcription was only observed from HBV(wt) genomes. Trans-complementation of HBx was able to rescue transcription from the HBV(x-) genome and led to antigen and virion secretion, even weeks after infection. Constant expression of HBx was necessary to maintain HBV antigen expression and replication. Finally, we demonstrated that HBx is not packaged into virions during assembly but is expressed after infection within the new host cell to allow epigenetic control of HBV transcription from cccDNA.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that HBx is required to initiate and maintain HBV replication and highlight HBx as the key regulator during the natural infection process.

MicroRNAs-372/373 promote the expression of hepatitis B virus through the targeting of nuclear factor I/B

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play important roles in the posttranscriptional regulation of gene expression. Recent evidence has indicated the pathological relevance of miRNA dysregulation in hepatitis virus infection; however, the roles of microRNAs in the regulation of hepatitis B virus (HBV) expression are still largely unknown. In this study we identified that miR-373 was up-regulated in HBV-infected liver tissues and that the members of the miRs-371-372-373 (miRs-371-3) gene cluster were also significantly co-up-regulated in HBV-producing HepG2.2.15 cells. A positive in vivo association was identified between hepatic HBV DNA levels and the copy number variation of the miRs-371-3 gene cluster. The enhanced expression of miRs-372/373 stimulated the production of HBV proteins and HBV core-associated DNA in HepG2 cells transfected with 1.3×HBV. Further, nuclear factor I/B (NFIB) was identified to be a direct functional target of miRs-372/373 by in silico algorithms and this was subsequently confirmed by western blotting and luciferase reporter assays. Knockdown of NFIB by small interfering RNA (siRNA) promoted HBV expression, whereas rescue of NFIB attenuated the stimulation in the 1.3×HBV-transfected HepG2 cells.

CONCLUSION

Our study revealed that miRNA (miRs-372/373) can promote HBV expression through a pathway involving the transcription factor (NFIB). This novel model provides new insights into the molecular basis in HBV and host interaction.

Hepatocyte metabolic signalling pathways and regulation of hepatitis B virus expression

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a small DNA virus responsible for significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. The liver, which is the main target organ for HBV infection, provides the virus with the machinery necessary for persistent infection and propagation, a process that might ultimately lead to severe liver pathologies such as chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis and liver cancer. HBV gene expression is regulated mainly at the transcriptional level by recruitment of a whole set of cellular transcription factors (TFs) and co-activators to support transcription. Over the years, many of these TFs were identified and interestingly enough most are associated with the body's nutritional state. These include the hepatocyte nuclear factors, forkhead Box O1, Farnesoid X receptor, cyclic-AMP response element-binding (CREB), CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP) and glucocorticoid receptor TFs and the transcription coactivator PPARγ coactivator-1α. Consequently, HBV gene expression is linked to hepatic metabolic processes such as glucose and fat production and utilization as well as bile acids' production and secretion. Furthermore, recent evidence indicates that HBV actively interferes with some of these hepatic metabolic processes by manipulating key TFs, such as CREB and C/EBP, to meet its requirements. The discovery of the mechanisms by which HBV is controlled by the hepatic metabolic milieu may broaden our understanding of the unique regulation of HBV expression and may also explain the mechanisms by which HBV induces liver pathologies. The emerging principle of the intimate link between HBV and liver metabolism can be further exploited for host-targeted therapeutic strategies.

Nucleotide changes related to hepatocellular carcinoma in the enhancer 1/x-promoter of hepatitis B virus subgenotype C2 in cirrhotic patients

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is widely known to develop more frequently in cirrhotic patients with a high expression of Hepatitis B virus X protein (HBx), which is controlled by the enhancer 1 (Enh1)/X-promoter. To examine the effect of the mutations in the Enh1/X-promoter region in hepatitis B virus (HBV) genomes on the development of HCC, we investigated the differences in HBV isolated from cirrhotic patients with or without HCC along with the promoter activities of certain specific mutations within the Enh1/X-promoter. We examined 160 hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg)-positive cirrhotic patients (80 HCC patients, 80 non-HCC patients) by evaluating the biochemical, virological, and molecular characteristics. We evaluated the functional differences in certain specific mutations within the Enh1/X-promoter. The isolated sequences included all of the subgenotypes C2. The sites that showed higher mutation rates in the HCC group were G1053A and G1229A, which were found to be independent risk factors through multiple logistic analysis (P < 0.05). Their promoter activities were elevated 2.38- and 4.68-fold, respectively, over that of the wild type in the HepG2 cells. Similarly, both the mRNA and protein levels of HBx in these two mutants were much higher than that in wild type-transfected HepG2 cells. Mutated nucleotides of the Enh1/X-promoter, especially G1053A and G1229A mutations in the HBV subgenotype C2 of patients with cirrhosis, can be risk factors for hepatocarcinogenesis, and this might be due to an increase in the HBx levels through the transactivation of the Enh1/X-promoter.

Molecular biology of the hepatitis B virus and role of the X gene

The hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a widespread human pathogen and a major health problem in many countries. Molecular cloning and sequencing of the viral DNA genome has demonstrated a small and compact structure organized into four overlapping reading frames that encode the viral proteins. Besides structural proteins of the core and the envelope, HBV encodes a DNA polymerase with reverse transcriptase activity, a secreted antigen of unknown function, and a transcriptional activator that is essential for viral replication. Major steps of the viral life cycle have been unraveled, including transcription of all viral RNAs from nuclear covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA), followed by encapsidation of pregenomic RNA, a more-than-genome length transcript, and reverse transcription of pregenomic RNA leading to asymmetric synthesis of the DNA strands. Although HBV has been recognized as a human tumor virus, no direct transforming activity could be evidenced in different cellular and animal models. However, the transcriptional regulatory protein HBx encoded by the X gene is endowed with weak oncogenic activity. HBx harbors pleiotropic activities and plays a major role in HBV pathogenesis and in liver carcinogenesis.

Evaluation of hepatitis B virus promoters for sustained transgene expression in mice by bioluminescence imaging

To find new liver-specific expression cassettes for long-term expression of therapeutic genes in the context of pDNA, the function and specificity of hepatitis B virus (HBV)' two hepatic enhancers (EnI and EnII), combined with HBV core and X promoters in cultured cells were evaluated. By bioluminescence imaging and hydrodynamic gene transfer technology, the persistence of transgene expression containing these regulatory sequences in the liver of mice was assessed. Our data indicated that both HBV enhancers were able to stimulate HBV core and X promoter activity in cultured cells of hepatic origin. In vivo, HBV core promoter linked to EnI and EnII (EII-EI-Pc) and X promoter linked to EnI and EnII (EI-EII-Px) could direct a constant and high-level gene expression.

High-level expression and large-scale preparation of soluble HBx antigen from Escherichia coli

The HBx (hepatitis B virus X protein) is a multifunctional regulator of cellular signal transduction and transcription pathways in host-infected cells. Evidence suggests that HBx has a critical role in the pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma. However, the lack of efficient large-scale preparation methods for soluble HBx has hindered studies on the structure and function of HBx. Here, a new pMAL-c2x protein fusion and purification system was used for high-level expression of soluble HBx fusion protein. The high-purity fusion protein was obtained via amylose resin chromatography and Q-Sepharose chromatography. The untagged HBx was efficiently and rapidly purified by Sephadex G-75 chromatography after cleavage by Factor Xa at 23 degrees C. The purity of active HBx protein was >99% with a very stable secondary structure dominated by alpha-helix, beta-sheet and random structure. The purified HBx protein can be analysed to determine its crystal structure and function and its capabilities as an effective immunogen.

Hepatitis delta virus proteins repress hepatitis B virus enhancers and activate the alpha/beta interferon-inducible MxA gene

Co-infection and superinfection of hepatitis B virus (HBV) with hepatitis delta virus (HDV) leads to suppression of HBV replication both in patients and in animal and cellular models. The mechanisms behind this inhibition have not previously been explored fully. HBV replication is governed by four promoters and two enhancers, Enh1 and Enh2. Repression of these enhancers has been reported to be one of the main mechanisms of HBV inhibition. Moreover, in a previous study, it has been demonstrated that alpha interferon (IFN-alpha)-inducible MxA protein inhibits HBV replication. HDV encodes two proteins, p24 and p27. p27 was shown to activate several heterologous promoters, including HBV promoters. In an attempt to analyse the mechanisms of HBV inhibition by HDV, the question was raised whether HDV proteins could act directly by repressing HBV enhancers, and/or indirectly by activating the MxA gene. This issue was addressed in a co-transfection model in Huh-7 cells, using p24- or p27-expressing plasmids along with Enh1, Enh2, HBV and MxA promoter-luciferase constructs. Enh1 and Enh2 were strongly repressed, by 60 and 80 % and 40 and 60 %, by p24 and p27, respectively. In addition, p27 was responsible for threefold activation of the MxA promoter and potentiation of IFN-alpha on this promoter. MxA mRNA quantification and a virus yield reduction assay confirmed these results. In conclusion, this study shows that HDV proteins inhibit HBV replication by trans-repressing its enhancers and by trans-activating the IFN-alpha-inducible MxA gene.

Evidence that methylation of hepatitis B virus covalently closed circular DNA in liver tissues of patients with chronic hepatitis B modulates HBV replication

Epigenetic factors may modulate chronic Hepatitis B viral infection by affecting virion gene transcription. The aim of this study was to compare the methylation status of the intrahepatic covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) CpG island 2 and HBV replication capability. HBV cccDNA was extracted from liver biopsies of 55 HBsAg-positive patients with chronic hepatitis B (32 HBeAg-positive and 23 HBeAg-negative), and was analyzed for methylation status and quantity. The two Hpa II recognition sequences CCpGG in the CpG island 2 were methylated in infected liver tissues from 24 (43.6%) of 55 patients. Positive ratios of cccDNA methylation were significantly higher in HBeAg-negative patients (15/23, 65.2%) than HBeAg-positive patients (9/32, 28.1%) (P < 0.05). The percentage of methylated-cccDNA/total-cccDNA of HBeAg-negative samples (a median of 48%, ranging from 5% to 83%) was significantly higher (P < 0.001) than HBeAg-positive samples (a median of 14%, ranging from 0.26% to 35%). Ratios of relaxed circular DNA (rcDNA) to cccDNA molecules revealed that cccDNA methylation correlated with impaired virion productivity in HBeAg-positive individuals (P < 0.05). The bisulfite DNA sequencing showed that methylation density was significantly higher in HBeAg-negative than in HBeAg-positive patients (P < 0.05). The methylation level of the CpG island 2 of the cccDNA in HBeAg-negative patients was higher than that in HBeAg-positive patients, suggesting that HBV cccDNA methylation may be relevant to replication capability of HBV.

The metabolic activator FOXO1 binds hepatitis B virus DNA and activates its transcription

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a small DNA virus that targets the liver and infects humans worldwide. Recently we have shown that the metabolic regulator PGC-1alpha coactivates HBV transcription thereby rendering the virus susceptible to fluctuations in the nutritional status of the liver. PGC-1alpha coactivation of HBV is mediated through the liver-enriched nuclear receptor HNF4alpha and through another yet unknown transcription factor(s). Here we show that the forkhead transcription factor FOXO1, a known target for PGC-1alpha coactivation and a central mediator of glucose metabolism in the liver, binds HBV core promoter and activates its transcription. This activation is further enhanced in the presence of PGC-1alpha, implying that FOXO1 is a target for PGC-1alpha coactivation of HBV transcription. Thus, our results identify another key metabolic regulator as an activator of HBV transcription, thereby supporting the principle that HBV gene expression is regulated in a similar way to key hepatic metabolic genes.

Bioluminescence imaging of hepatitis B virus enhancer and promoter activities in mice

By bioluminescence imaging and hydrodynamic gene transfer technology, the activities of hepatitis B virus (HBV) promoters and the effects of HBV enhancers on these promoters in mice under true physiological conditions have been assessed. Our studies reveal that either of the two HBV enhancers can stimulate HBV major promoter activity in hepa 1-6 cells (in vitro) and in mouse liver (in vivo), and the enhancer effects on the three promoters (S1, S2 and X promoter) are markedly greater in vivo than in vitro. The two HBV enhancers have no cooperative action on HBV promoters in vitro or in vivo.

Transactivation of the hepatitis B virus core promoter by the nuclear receptor FXRalpha

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) core promoter activity is positively and negatively regulated by nuclear receptors, a superfamily of ligand-activated transcription factors, via cis-acting sequences located in the viral genome. In this study, we investigated the role of farnesoid X receptor alpha (FXRalpha) in modulating transcription from the HBV core promoter. FXRalpha is a liver-enriched nuclear receptor activated by bile acids recognizing hormone response elements by forming heterodimers with retinoid X receptor alpha (RXRalpha). Electrophoretic mobility shift assays demonstrated that FXRalpha-RXRalpha heterodimers can bind two motifs on the HBV enhancer II and core promoter regions, presenting high homology to the consensus (AGGTCA) inverted repeat FXRalpha response elements. In transient transfection of the human hepatoma cell line Huh-7, bile acids enhanced the activity of a luciferase reporter containing the HBV enhancer II and core promoter sequences through FXRalpha. Moreover, using a greater-than-genome-length HBV construct, we showed that FXRalpha also increased synthesis of the viral pregenomic RNA and DNA replication intermediates. The data strongly suggest that FXRalpha is another member of the nuclear receptor superfamily implicated in the regulation of HBV core promoter activity and that bile acids could play an important role in the natural history of HBV infection.

Requirement of the cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element-binding protein for hepatitis B virus replication

The cyclic adenosine monophosphate-response element (CRE)-transcription factor complex participates in the regulation of viral gene expression and pathologic processes caused by various viruses. The hepatitis B virus (HBV) enhancer I directs liver-specific transcription of viral genes and contains a CRE sequence (HBV-CRE); however, whether the HBV-CRE and CRE-binding protein (CREB) are required for the HBV life cycle remains to be determined. This study was designed to investigate the role of CREB in HBV replication and gene expression. Sequence-comparison analysis of 984 HBVs reported worldwide showed that the HBV-CRE sequence is highly conserved, indicating the possibility that it plays an important role in the HBV life cycle. The binding of CREB to the HBV-CRE site was markedly inhibited by oligonucleotides containing HBV-CRE and consensus CRE sequences in vitro and in vivo. The HBV promoter activity was demonstrated to be dependent upon the transactivation activity of CREB. Treatment with CRE decoy oligonucleotides reduced HBV promoter activity, and this was reversed by CREB overexpression. The levels of viral transcripts, DNA, and antigens were remarkably decreased in response to the overexpression of CREB mutants or treatment with the CRE decoy oligonucleotides, whereas enhancing CREB activity increased the levels of viral transcripts. In addition, introduction of a three-base mutation into the HBV-CRE led to a marked reduction in HBV messenger RNA synthesis.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, our results demonstrate that both replication and gene expression of HBV require a functional CREB and HBV-CRE. We have also demonstrated that CRE decoy oligonucleotides and the overexpression of CREB mutants can effectively block the HBV life cycle, suggesting that interventions against CREB activity could provide a new avenue to treat HBV infection.

The "metabolovirus" model of hepatitis B virus suggests nutritional therapy as an effective anti-viral weapon

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a small DNA virus that targets the liver almost exclusively. Chronic infection with HBV might lead to severe liver-related pathologies including chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Based on its enhancer composition, which links nutritional signals that control hepatic glucose and fat metabolism in the liver to HBV gene expression and replication, it appears that the virus has adopted a regulatory system that is unique to the major hepatic metabolic genes. This unique virus-host interaction, mediated by metabolic events in the liver, is designated by us the "metabolovirus model". We hypothesize that by mimicking the expression of key genes implicated in glucose homeostasis, HBV sophisticatedly exploits the host resources to ensure its persistence. Specifically, by recruiting transcription factors and coactivators common to essential hepatic metabolic genes the virus avoids a possible resistance by its host, on the one hand, and ensures a timely and proper response to changes in its environment in terms of metabolic milieu, on the other hand. Furthermore, by coupling its gene expression to the expression of hepatic metabolic genes that fluctuate during the day, we predict a fluctuating nature of HBV gene expression. This can serve the virus in its attempts to escape the host immune system in addition to other immune evading strategies adopted by the virus, such as the secretion of the e antigen. Based on our "metabolovirus model", we suggest new mechanisms to previously unexplained clinical phenomena, such as the observed diversity in disease severity between different geographical areas that differ in nutritional habits. Furthermore, given the up-regulatory effect of food deprivation on HBV gene expression and replication, we suggest that conditions of short-term starvation should be completely avoided by HBV-infected individuals, and dietary recommendations such as the ingestion of complex carbohydrates before sleep should be adopted. Thus, our hypothesis sets the stage for viral manipulation by controlling food intake, and opens additional avenues towards food or nutritional therapy as an effective anti-HBV weapon.

Molecular mechanism of p73-mediated regulation of hepatitis B virus core promoter/enhancer II: implications for hepatocarcinogenesis

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a causative agent of chronic hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Recent findings demonstrating p73 and specifically N-terminally truncated p73 (DeltaTAp73) accumulation in hepatocellular carcinoma suggest that p73 plays a role in the malignant phenotype. Here, we investigated the mechanism of HBV pregenomic core promoter/enhancer II (cp/EII) regulation by full-length TAp73 and its oncogenic counterpart DeltaTAp73. Ectopic and endogenous expression of TAp73 leads to a significant downregulation of cp/EII activity in p53-deficient hepatoma cell lines. In contrast, overexpression of DeltaTAp73 results in significant cp/EII activation and increased HBV core (HBc) expression. TAp73-mediated repression of HBV transcription was substantially abolished by DeltaTAp73. We show that both TAp73 and DeltaTAp73 proteins directly bind to the Sp1 transcription factor, a key stimulator of HBV gene expression. However, only TAp73 abolishes Sp1 binding to cp/EII, whereas the DeltaTAp73-Sp1 complex further persists on the DNA. The inhibitory effect of p53/p73 on HBc expression is associated with the inhibition of viral replication, while DeltaTAp73 is not. These data strongly support the fact that the p73-isoform-related interaction with Sp1 is the underlying mechanism of the diverse outcome on HBc expression, suggesting a new mechanism by which oncogenic DeltaTAp73 could enhance the carcinogenic process in liver cells.

Collective repression of the hepatitis B virus enhancer II by human TR4 and TR2 orphan receptors

AIM

The human testicular receptor 4 and 2 (TR4 and TR2) orphan receptors are members of the nuclear receptor superfamily that regulate target gene expression via binding to the consensus AGGTCA direct repeats of the hormone response elements. Previous studies have reported that TR4 and other nuclear receptors could bind to the direct repeat 1 element of the hepatitis B virus (HBV) core promoter.

METHODS

Differential gene expression of HBV caused by TR4 and TR2 was determined by gel retardation and functional assays.

RESULTS

Electrophoretic mobility shift assay demonstrated that TR4 and TR2 might bind to the direct repeat 6 element of the HBV enhancer II region. RESULTS of the dual-luciferasereporter gene assay showed that TR4 and TR2 might significantly suppress HBV gene expression through this direct repeat 6 element in the enhancer II.

CONCLUSION

These results implied that TR4 together with its heterodimer partner TR2 could collectively play a significant role in the transcriptional suppression of HBV gene expression via the direct repeat 6 element in the enhancer II. Therefore, the application of nuclear receptors potentially may be antiviral agents in chronic HBV infection.

A putative new domain target for anti-hepatitis B virus: residues flanking hepatitis B virus reverse transcriptase residue 306 (rtP306)

Previous work showed that conservation of proline at residue 306 (rtP306) of hepatitis B virus (HBV) reverse transcriptase (RT) is crucial for virus replication and encapsidation of pregenomic RNA (pgRNA). In this study, the functions of residues flanking rtP306 in HBV RT (rtG304, rtY305, rtA307, rtL308 and rtL311) are presented. Alanine or phenylalanine was used to substitute these residues by constructing site-directed mutants which were used to transfect Huh-7 cells. Replication competencies and encapsidation efficiencies were compared between the mutants and the parental viral strain. Substitutions at these residues resulted in marked decrease of replication competency, which was confirmed by Southern blot hybridization of HBV DNA isolated from intracytoplasmic core particles, and trans-complementation between a non-replicative defective mutant and corresponding RT mutants. Impaired pgRNA encapsidation efficiency of these mutants was shown as the major mechanism for decreased replication efficiency. Since residues from rt304 to rt311 are highly conserved among genotypes A-H HBV strains, results suggest that rt304 to rt311 in HBV RT may serve as a putative anti-HBV new target domain.

Molecular and functional analysis of occult hepatitis B virus isolates from patients with hepatocellular carcinoma

Occult HBV infection is characterized by the persistence of HBV DNA in the liver of individuals negative for HBV surface antigen (HBsAg). Occult HBV may exist in the hepatocytes as a free genome, although the factors responsible for the very low viral replication and gene expression usually observed in this peculiar kind of infection are mostly unknown. Aims of this study were to investigate whether the viral genomic variability might account for the HBsAg negativity and the inhibition of the viral replication in occult HBV carriers, and to verify in vitro the replication capability of occult HBV strains. We studied liver viral isolates from 17 HBV patients, 13 with occult infection and 4 HBsAg-positive. Full-length HBV genomes from each case were amplified and directly sequenced. Additionally, full-length HBV DNA from eight occult-HBV and two HBsAg-positive cases were cloned and sequenced. Finally, three entire, linear HBV genomes from occult cases were transiently transfected in HuH7 cells. Direct sequencing showed the absence of mutations capable of interfering with viral replication and gene expression in the major viral population of each case. Cloning experiments showed highly divergent HBV strains both in HBsAg-positive and HBsAg-negative individual cases (range of divergence 1.4%-7.1%). All of the 3 transfected full-length HBV isolates showed normal patterns of replication in vitro.

CONCLUSION

Multiple viral variants accumulate in the liver of occult HBV-infected patients. Occult HBV strains are replication-competent in vitro, suggesting that host, rather than viral factors are responsible for cryptic HBV infection.

Mutational analysis revealed that conservation of hepatitis B virus reverse transcriptase residue 306 (rtP306) is crucial for encapsidation of pregenomic RNA

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a DNA virus which replicates via reverse transcription. The structure and function of the reverse transcriptase play important roles in HBV replication. We have previously reported that when proline at residue 306 in HBV reverse transcriptase was substituted by other amino acids, most of the mutants showed decreased replicative competency. To explore the mechanisms for this decrease in replicative competency, constructs with substituted amino acid residues at rtP306 were used to transfect Huh-7 cells, and replication competencies, transcription levels and encapsidation efficiencies of the mutants and the parental viral strain were compared. Decreased replication competency was found with many of the mutants and confirmed by trans-complementation between each mutant and a replication-defective replicon. No change in transcriptional level was detected between all mutated constructs. The encapsidation competencies of these constructs were studied by assaying pregenomic RNAs in intracytoplamic core particles from transfected cells, which were normalized for the amount of HBV core protein by Western blotting using anti-core antibodies. Impaired encapsidation was found in several mutants substituted at residue 306, thereby demonstrating for the first time that conservation of proline at this residue is crucial for efficient encapsidation of pregenomic RNA.

PGC-1alpha controls hepatitis B virus through nutritional signals

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a 3.2-kb DNA virus that replicates preferentially in the liver. Liver-enriched nuclear receptors (NRs) play a major role in the HBV life cycle, operating as essential transcription factors for viral gene expression. Notably, these NRs are also key players in metabolic processes that occur in the liver, serving as central transcription factors for key enzymes of gluconeogenesis, fatty acid beta-oxidation, and ketogenesis. However, the association between these metabolic events and HBV gene expression is poorly understood. Here we show that peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator 1alpha (PGC-1alpha), a major metabolic regulator and a coactivator of key gluconeogenic genes, robustly coactivates HBV transcription. We further demonstrate that the liver-enriched NR hepatocyte nuclear factor 4alpha that binds HBV plays an important role in this process. Physiologically, we show that a short-term fast that turns on the gluconeogenic program robustly induces HBV gene expression in vivo. This induction is completely reversible by refeeding and depends on PGC-1alpha. We conclude that HBV is tightly regulated by changes in the body's nutritional state through the metabolic regulator PGC-1alpha. Our data provide evidence for nutrition signaling to control viral gene expression and life cycle and thus ascribe to metabolism an important role in virus-host interaction.

Molecular functions and biological roles of hepatitis B virus x protein

Chronic infection of hepatitis B virus (HBV) is one of the major causes of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in the world. Hepatitis B virus X protein (HBx) has been long suspected to be involved in hepatocarcinogenesis, although its oncogenic role remains controversial. HBx is a multifunctional regulator that modulates transcription, signal transduction, cell cycle progress, protein degradation pathways, apoptosis, and genetic stability by directly or indirectly interacting with host factors. This review focuses on the biological roles of HBx in HBV replication and cellular transformation in terms of the molecular functions of HBx. Using the transient HBV replication assay, ectopically expressed HBx could stimulate HBV transcription and replication with the X-defective replicon to the level of those with the wild one. The transcription coactivation is mainly contributing to the stimulatory role of HBx on HBV replication although the other functions may affect HBV replication. Effect of HBx on cellular transformation remains controversial and was never addressed with human primary or immortal cells. Using the human immortalized primary cells, HBx was found to retain the ability to overcome active oncogene RAS-induced senescence that requires full-length HBx. At least two functions of HBx, the coactivation function and the ability to overcome oncogene-induced senescence, may be cooperatively involved in HBV-related hepatocarcinogenesis.

Autonomous activation of hepatitis B virus large surface protein

AIM: To construct the yeast expression vector of hepatitis B virus large surface protein (LHBs), and to study its autonomous activation.

METHODS: The Matchmaker GAL4 two-hybrid technique was used. The LHBs, pre-S1, pre-S2 and SHBs genes were amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with respective primers. The amplified PCR fragments were then subcloned into the EcoR I/BamH I sites (5'ands) of pGBKT7 vector to obtain the expression vectors including pGBKT7(-)-LHBs, pGBKT7(-)-preS1, pGBKT7(-)-preS2 and pGBKT7(-)-SHBs. This vectors were identifed by PCR and digestion of EcoR I/BamH I. After the constructed vectors were transformed into yeast AH109, the yeast cells were plated on synthetic dropout nutrient medium (SD/-Trp and SD/-Trp-His-Ade) containing x-a-gal for testing their autonomous activation.

RESULTS: The yeast expression vectors were constructed. The yeast cells transformed with pGBKT7-LHB and pGBKT7-preS1 vectors could grow well on both of the media. However, cells transformed with pGBKT7-preS2 and pGBKT7-SHBs vectors could only grow on the SD/-Trp medium.

CONCLUSION: The LHBs functions as a transcriptional transactivator, and serves as the functional GAL4 activation domain (AD) to activate transcription of reporter genes (ADE2, HIS3, MEL1 and LacZ). The autonomous activation of LHBs roots in its pre-S1 domain.