Cannabis and Its Secondary Metabolites: Their Use as Therapeutic Drugs, Toxicological Aspects, and Analytical Determination

THC and CBD Fingerprinting of an Elite Cannabis Collection from Iran: Quantifying Diversity to Underpin Future Cannabis Breeding

Cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) has a rich history of human use, and the therapeutic importance of compounds produced by this species is recognized by the medical community. The active constituents of cannabis, collectively called cannabinoids, encompass hundreds of distinct molecules, the most well-characterized of which are tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), which have been used for centuries as recreational drugs and medicinal agents. As a first step to establish a cannabis breeding program, we initiated this study to describe the HPLC-measured quantity of THC and CBD biochemistry profiles of 161 feral pistillate cannabis plants from 20 geographical regions of Iran. Our data showed that Iran can be considered a new region of high potential for distribution of cannabis landraces with diverse THC and CBD content, predominantly falling into three groups, as Type I = THC-predominant, Type II = approximately equal proportions of THC and CBD (both CBD and THC in a ratio close to the unity), and Type III = CBD-predominant. Correlation analysis among two target cannabinoids and environmental and geographical variables indicated that both THC and CBD contents were strongly influenced by several environmental-geographical factors, such that THC and CBD contents were positively correlated with mean, min and max annual temperature and negatively correlated with latitude, elevation, and humidity. Additionally, a negative correlation was observed between THC and CBD concentrations, suggesting that further studies to unravel these genotype × environment interactions (G × E interactions) are warranted. The results of this study provide important pre-breeding information on a collection of cannabis that will underpin future breeding programs.

Effects of short-term environmental stresses on the onset of cannabinoid production in young immature flowers of industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.)

BACKGROUNDS

Cannabis sativa L. produces at least 120 cannabinoids. Although genetic variation is the main factor in cannabinoid production, the effects of short-term environmental stresses in the early flowering stage remains largely unknown.

METHODS

To investigate the effects of short-term environmental stresses on the onset of cannabinoid production in young immature flowers, a hemp variety, Green-Thunder (5-8% CBD/mg of dry weight), was treated with mechanical damage, insect herbivory, extreme heat, or drought stress for 5-7 days during the first 2 weeks of flowering. Three hemp tissues, including flowers, leaves, and stems, were collected from hemp grown under these stress conditions at multiple time points during the first 2 weeks after transition to the short photoperiod and analyzed using high pressure liquid chromatography to quantify phytocannabinoids including cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), cannabigerol (CBG), cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), cannabidiol (CBD), Δ-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), Δ-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and cannabinol (CBN).

RESULTS

The 5 days of mechanical wounding did not affect the production of any of the cannabinoids during the initial stage of flowering. However, after 5 days of herbivore treatment, there was a significant difference in concentration between day 1 and day 6 of CBGA (control: 308 μg/g; treatment - 24 μg/g), CBG (control: 69 μg/g; treatment: 52 μg/g), and CBD (control: 755 μg/g; treatment: 194 μg/g) between the control and treatment plants. The 7 days of heat treatment at 45-50 oC significantly reduced the production of CBGA during this observed window (control: 206 μg/g; treatment: 182 μg/g) and CBG (control: 21 μg/g; treatment: - 112 μg/g). Notably, the largest change was observed after 7 days of drought stress, when plants showed a 40% greater accumulation of CBG (control: 336 μg/g; treatment: 622 μg/g), and a significant decrease (70-80%) in CBD (control: 1182 μg/g; treatment: 297 μg/g) and THC amounts (control: 3927 μg/g; treatment: 580 μg/g).

CONCLUSIONS

Although this observation is limited in the early flowering stage, the common field stresses are adequate to induce changes in the cannabinoid profiles, particularly drought stress being the most impactful stress for hemp flower initiation with the altering the cannabinoid production by decreasing CBD and THC accumulation while increasing CBG by 40%.

Role of cannabinoids in various diseases: A review

BACKGROUND

The plant, Cannabis sativa is heavily explored and researched with many industrial and pharmaceutical applications. The medicinal and therapeutic role of cannabis Sativa has been summarized in the paper, citing its mechanism of action and influence on the human body. Diseases like metabolic disorders, infectious diseases, and psychological disorders pose negative and long-term drastic effects on the body like neurodegeneration and other chronic system failures. Several existing literature has proved its effectiveness against such diseases.

OBJECTIVES

This review aims to provide an overview of the role of cannabinoids in various diseases like metabolic disorders, infectious diseases, and psychological disorders.

METHOD

Various e-resources like Pubmed, Science Direct, and Google Scholar were thoroughly searched and read to form a well-informed and information-heavy manuscript. Here we tried to summaries the therapeutic aspect of Cannabis sativa and its bioactive compound cannabinoids in various diseases.

RESULT

This review highlights the various constituents which are present in Cannabis sativa, the Endocannabinoid system, and the role of cannabinoids in various diseases Conclusion: Recent research on Cannabis has suggested its role in neurodegenerative diseases, inflammation, sleep disorders, pediatric diseases, and their analgesic nature. Therefore, the authors majorly focus on the therapeutic aspect of Cannabis sativa in various diseases. The focus is also on the endocannabinoid system (ECS) and its role in fighting or preventing bacterial, parasitic, fungal, and viral infections.

Antimicrobial and Antiviral (SARS-CoV-2) Potential of Cannabinoids and Cannabis sativa: A Comprehensive Review

Antimicrobial resistance has emerged as a global health crisis and, therefore, new drug discovery is a paramount need. Cannabis sativa contains hundreds of chemical constituents produced by secondary metabolism, exerting outstanding antimicrobial, antiviral, and therapeutic properties. This paper comprehensively reviews the antimicrobial and antiviral (particularly against SARS-CoV-2) properties of C. sativa with the potential for new antibiotic drug and/or natural antimicrobial agents for industrial or agricultural use, and their therapeutic potential against the newly emerged coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Cannabis compounds have good potential as drug candidates for new antibiotics, even for some of the WHO's current priority list of resistant pathogens. Recent studies revealed that cannabinoids seem to have stable conformations with the binding pocket of the Mpro enzyme of SARS-CoV-2, which has a pivotal role in viral replication and transcription. They are found to be suppressive of viral entry and viral activation by downregulating the ACE2 receptor and TMPRSS2 enzymes in the host cellular system. The therapeutic potential of cannabinoids as anti-inflammatory compounds is hypothesized for the treatment of COVID-19. However, more systemic investigations are warranted to establish the best efficacy and their toxic effects, followed by preclinical trials on a large number of participants.

The potential of cannabinoids and inhibitors of endocannabinoid degradation in respiratory diseases

The global incidence of respiratory diseases and complications is increasing. Therefore, new methods of treatment, as well as prevention, need to be investigated. A group of compounds that should be considered for use in respiratory diseases is cannabinoids. There are three groups of cannabinoids - plant-derived phytocannabinoids, synthetic cannabinoids, and endogenous endocannabinoids including the enzymes responsible for their synthesis and degradation. All cannabinoids exert their biological effects through either type 1 cannabinoid receptors (CB₁) and/or type 2 cannabinoid receptors (CB₂). In numerous studies (in vitro and in vivo), cannabinoids and inhibitors of endocannabinoid degradation have shown beneficial anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer, and anti-fibrotic properties. Although in the respiratory system, most of the studies have focused on the positive properties of cannabinoids and inhibitors of endocannabinoid degradation. There are few research reports discussing the negative impact of these compounds. This review summarizes the properties and mechanisms of action of cannabinoids and inhibitors of endocannabinoid degradation in various models of respiratory diseases. A short description of the effects selected cannabinoids have on the human respiratory system and their possible use in the fight against COVID-19 is also presented. Additionally, a brief summary is provided of cannabinoid receptors properties and their expression in the respiratory system and cells of the immune system.

The impact of extraction protocol on the chemical profile of cannabis extracts from a single cultivar

The last two decades have seen a dramatic shift in cannabis legislation around the world. Cannabis products are now widely available and commercial production and use of phytocannabinoid products is rapidly growing. However, this growth is outpacing the research needed to elucidate the therapeutic efficacy of the myriad of chemical compounds found primarily in the flower of the female cannabis plant. This lack of research and corresponding regulation has resulted in processing methods, products, and terminology that are variable and confusing for consumers. Importantly, the impact of processing methods on the resulting chemical profile of full spectrum cannabis extracts is not well understood. As a first step in addressing this knowledge gap we have utilized a combination of analytical approaches to characterize the broad chemical composition of a single cannabis cultivar that was processed using previously optimized and commonly used commercial extraction protocols including alcoholic solvents and super critical carbon dioxide. Significant variation in the bioactive chemical profile was observed in the extracts resulting from the different protocols demonstrating the need for further research regarding the influence of processing on therapeutic efficacy as well as the importance of labeling in the marketing of multi-component cannabis products.

Cannabinoids-Characteristics and Potential for Use in Food Production

Scientific demonstrations of the beneficial effects of non-psychoactive cannabinoids on the human body have increased the interest in foods containing hemp components. This review systematizes the latest discoveries relating to the characteristics of cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa L. var. sativa, it also presents a characterization of the mentioned plant. In this review, we present data on the opportunities and limitations of cannabinoids in food production. This article systematizes the data on the legal aspects, mainly the limits of Δ9-THC in food, the most popular analytical techniques (LC-MS and GC-MS) applied to assay cannabinoids in finished products, and the available data on the stability of cannabinoids during heating, storage, and access to light and oxygen. This may constitute a major challenge to their common use in food processing, as well as the potential formation of undesirable degradation products. Hemp-containing foods have great potential to become commercially popular among functional foods, provided that our understanding of cannabinoid stability in different food matrices and cannabinoid interactions with particular food ingredients are expanded. There remains a need for more data on the effects of technological processes and storage on cannabinoid degradation.

Fertilization Following Pollination Predominantly Decreases Phytocannabinoids Accumulation and Alters the Accumulation of Terpenoids in Cannabis Inflorescences

In the last decades, growing evidence showed the therapeutic capabilities of Cannabis plants. These capabilities were attributed to the specialized secondary metabolites stored in the glandular trichomes of female inflorescences, mainly phytocannabinoids and terpenoids. The accumulation of the metabolites in the flower is versatile and influenced by a largely unknown regulation system, attributed to genetic, developmental and environmental factors. As Cannabis is a dioecious plant, one main factor is fertilization after successful pollination. Fertilized flowers are considerably less potent, likely due to changes in the contents of phytocannabinoids and terpenoids; therefore, this study examined the effect of fertilization on metabolite composition by crossbreeding (-)-Δ⁹-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)- or cannabidiol (CBD)-rich female plants with different male plants: THC-rich, CBD-rich, or the original female plant induced to develop male pollen sacs. We used advanced analytical methods to assess the phytocannabinoids and terpenoids content, including a newly developed semi-quantitative analysis for terpenoids without analytical standards. We found that fertilization significantly decreased phytocannabinoids content. For terpenoids, the subgroup of monoterpenoids had similar trends to the phytocannabinoids, proposing both are commonly regulated in the plant. The sesquiterpenoids remained unchanged in the THC-rich female and had a trend of decrease in the CBD-rich female. Additionally, specific phytocannabinoids and terpenoids showed an uncommon increase in concentration followed by fertilization with particular male plants. Our results demonstrate that although the profile of phytocannabinoids and their relative ratios were kept, fertilization substantially decreased the concentration of nearly all phytocannabinoids in the plant regardless of the type of fertilizing male. Our findings may point to the functional roles of secondary metabolites in Cannabis.

Analgesic Potential of Terpenes Derived from Cannabis sativa

Pain prevalence among adults in the United States has increased 25% over the past two decades, resulting in high health-care costs and impacts to patient quality of life. In the last 30 years, our understanding of pain circuits and (intra)cellular mechanisms has grown exponentially, but this understanding has not yet resulted in improved therapies. Options for pain management are limited. Many analgesics have poor efficacy and are accompanied by severe side effects such as addiction, resulting in a devastating opioid abuse and overdose epidemic. These problems have encouraged scientists to identify novel molecular targets and develop alternative pain therapeutics. Increasing preclinical and clinical evidence suggests that cannabis has several beneficial pharmacological activities, including pain relief. Cannabis sativa contains more than 500 chemical compounds, with two principle phytocannabinoids, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). Beyond phytocannabinoids, more than 150 terpenes have been identified in different cannabis chemovars. Although the predominant cannabinoids, Δ9-THC and CBD, are thought to be the primary medicinal compounds, terpenes including the monoterpenes β-myrcene, α-pinene, limonene, and linalool, as well as the sesquiterpenes β-caryophyllene and α-humulene may contribute to many pharmacological properties of cannabis, including anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects. The aim of this review is to summarize our current knowledge about terpene compounds in cannabis and to analyze the available scientific evidence for a role of cannabis-derived terpenes in modern pain management. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Decades of research have improved our knowledge of cannabis polypharmacy and contributing phytochemicals, including terpenes. Reform of the legal status for cannabis possession and increased availability (medicinal and recreational) have resulted in cannabis use to combat the increasing prevalence of pain and may help to address the opioid crisis. Better understanding of the pharmacological effects of cannabis and its active components, including terpenes, may assist in identifying new therapeutic approaches and optimizing the use of cannabis and/or terpenes as analgesic agents.

Phytocannabinoids - An Overview of the Analytical Methodologies for Detection and Quantification of Therapeutically and Recreationally Relevant Cannabis Compounds

The legalization of the cultivation of low Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and high cannabidiol (CBD) Cannabis Sativa plants is gaining momentum around the world due to increasing demand for CBD-containing products. In many countries where CBD oils, extracts and CBD-infused foods and beverages are being sold in health shops and supermarkets, appropriate testing of these products is a legal requirement. Normally this involves determining the total Δ9-THC and CBD and their precursor tetrahydrocannabinolic acids (THCA) and cannabidiolic acid (CBDA). As our knowledge of the other relevant cannabinoids expands, it is likely so too will the demand for them as additives in many consumer products ensuring a necessity for quantification methods and protocols for their identification. This paper discusses therapeutically relevant cannabinoids found in Cannabis plant, the applicability and efficiency of existing extraction and analytical techniques as well as the legal requirements for these analyses.

Changes in Hepatic Phospholipid Metabolism in Rats under UV Irradiation and Topically Treated with Cannabidiol

The liver is a key metabolic organ that is particularly sensitive to environmental factors, including UV radiation. As UV radiation induces oxidative stress and inflammation, natural compounds are under investigation as one method to counteract these consequences. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of topical application of phytocannabinoid-cannabidiol (CBD) on the skin of nude rats chronically irradiated with UVA/UVB, paying particular attention to its impact on the liver antioxidants and phospholipid metabolism. The results of this study indicate that CBD reaches the rat liver where it is then metabolized into decarbonylated cannabidiol, 7-hydroxy-cannabidiol and cannabidiol-glucuronide. CBD increased the levels of GSH and vitamin A after UVB radiation. Moreover, CBD prevents the increase of 4-hydroxynonenal and 8-iso-prostaglandin-F2α levels in UVA-irradiated rats. As a consequence of reductions in phospholipase A2 and cyclooxygenases activity following UV irradiation, CBD upregulates the level of 2-arachidonoylglycerol and downregulates prostaglandin E2 and leukotriene B4. Finally, CBD enhances decreased level of 15-deoxy-Δ-12,14-prostaglandin J2 after UVB radiation and 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid after UVA radiation. These data show that CBD applied to the skin prevents ROS- and enzyme-dependent phospholipid metabolism in the liver of UV-irradiated rats, suggesting that it may be used as an internal organ protector.

Transcriptomic Changes and the Roles of Cannabinoid Receptors and PPARγ in Developmental Toxicities Following Exposure to Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Cannabidiol

Human consumption of cannabinoid-containing products during early life or pregnancy is rising. However, information about the molecular mechanisms involved in early life stage Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) toxicities is critically lacking. Here, larval zebrafish (Danio rerio) were used to measure THC- and CBD-mediated changes on transcriptome and the roles of cannabinoid receptors (Cnr) 1 and 2 and peroxisome proliferator activator receptor γ (PPARγ) in developmental toxicities. Transcriptomic profiling of 96-h postfertilization (hpf) cnr+/+ embryos exposed (6 - 96 hpf) to 4 μM THC or 0.5 μM CBD showed differential expression of 904 and 1095 genes for THC and CBD, respectively, with 360 in common. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways enriched in the THC and CBD datasets included those related to drug, retinol, and steroid metabolism and PPAR signaling. The THC exposure caused increased mortality and deformities (pericardial and yolk sac edemas, reduction in length) in cnr1-/- and cnr2-/- fish compared with cnr+/+ suggesting Cnr receptors are involved in protective pathways. Conversely, the cnr1-/- larvae were more resistant to CBD-induced malformations, mortality, and behavioral alteration implicating Cnr1 in CBD-mediated toxicity. Behavior (decreased distance travelled) was the most sensitive endpoint to THC and CBD exposure. Coexposure to the PPARγ inhibitor GW9662 and CBD in cnr+/+ and cnr2-/- strains caused more adverse outcomes compared with CBD alone, but not in the cnr1-/- fish, suggesting that PPARγ plays a role in CBD metabolism downstream of Cnr1. Collectively, PPARγ, Cnr1, and Cnr2 play important roles in the developmental toxicity of cannabinoids with Cnr1 being the most critical.

The Highs and Lows of P Supply in Medical Cannabis: Effects on Cannabinoids, the Ionome, and Morpho-Physiology

Environmental conditions, including the availability of mineral nutrients, affect secondary metabolism in plants. Therefore, growing conditions have significant pharmaceutical and economic importance for Cannabis sativa. Phosphorous is an essential macronutrient that affects central biosynthesis pathways. In this study, we evaluated the hypothesis that P uptake, distribution and availability in the plant affect the biosynthesis of cannabinoids. Two genotypes of medical "drug-type" cannabis plants were grown under five P concentrations of 5, 15, 30, 60, and 90 mg L-1 (ppm) in controlled environmental conditions. The results reveal several dose-dependent effects of P nutrition on the cannabinoid profile of both genotypes, as well as on the ionome and plant functional physiology, thus supporting the hypothesis: (i) P concentrations ≤15 mg L-1 were insufficient to support optimal plant function and reduced photosynthesis, transpiration, stomatal conductance and growth; (ii) 30-90 mg L-1 P was within the optimal range for plant development and function, and 30 mg L-1 P was sufficient for producing 80% of the maximum yield; (iii) Ionome: about 80% of the plant P accumulated in the unfertilized inflorescences; (iv) Cannabinoids: P supply higher than 5 mg L-1 reduced Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) and cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) concentrations in the inflorescences by up to 25%. Cannabinoid concentrations decreased linearly with increasing yield, consistent with a yield dilution effect, but the total cannabinoid content per plant increased with increasing P supply. These results reveal contrasting trends for effects of P supply on cannabinoid concentrations that were highest under <30 mg L-1 P, vs. inflorescence biomass that was highest under 30-90 mg L-1 P. Thus, the P regime should be adjusted to reflect production goals. The results demonstrate the potential of mineral nutrition to regulate cannabinoid metabolism and optimize pharmacological quality.

Epigenetic Regulation of Cannabinoid-Mediated Attenuation of Inflammation and Its Impact on the Use of Cannabinoids to Treat Autoimmune Diseases

Chronic inflammation is considered to be a silent killer because it is the underlying cause of a wide range of clinical disorders, from cardiovascular to neurological diseases, and from cancer to obesity. In addition, there are over 80 different types of debilitating autoimmune diseases for which there are no cure. Currently, the drugs that are available to suppress chronic inflammation are either ineffective or overtly suppress the inflammation, thereby causing increased susceptibility to infections and cancer. Thus, the development of a new class of drugs that can suppress chronic inflammation is imperative. Cannabinoids are a group of compounds produced in the body (endocannabinoids) or found in cannabis (phytocannabinoids) that act through cannabinoid receptors and various other receptors expressed widely in the brain and immune system. In the last decade, cannabinoids have been well established experimentally to mediate anti-inflammatory properties. Research has shown that they suppress inflammation through multiple pathways, including apoptosis and inducing immunosuppressive T regulatory cells (Tregs) and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). Interestingly, cannabinoids also mediate epigenetic alterations in genes that regulate inflammation. In the current review, we highlight how the epigenetic modulations caused by cannabinoids lead to the suppression of inflammation and help identify novel pathways that can be used to target autoimmune diseases.

Medicinal Applications of Cannabinoids Extracted from Cannabis sativa (L.): A New Route in the Fight Against COVID-19?

Cannabis sativa is a well-known plant that has been recognized for its benefits since ancient times by several medicinal systems, including those of China, India, Greece, and Egypt. Although C. sativa is one of the most investigated medicinal plants in the world, it faces some of the greatest controversies surrounding its legalization and use as a medication. C. sativa contains several hundred phytoconstituents, including the infamous "cannabinoids". It is necessary to properly understand the medicinal importance of these phytochemicals and spread awareness among the countries where cannabis is still facing legal obstacles. The current review focuses on the most recent literature pertaining to various applications of cannabinoids, with a special focus on the medicinal aspect of these phytochemicals. Peer-reviewed articles focusing on the importance of cannabis and cannabinoids are the target of this review. Articles were selected based on the relevance to the general scope of the work, i.e., application of cannabinoids. Cannabinoids can truly be regarded as wonder drugs, considering their immense diversity of usage. Unfortunately, however, many of the mares have never been researched biologically or pharmacologically due to their low yield in the plant. However, the approval of some cannabinoids by the FDA (along with other recognized national medical health systems) has opened the horizon for the use of these natural drugs in medicines such as Epidiolex® (cannabidiol, used for the treatment of severe forms of epilepsy) and Sativex®(Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol, used for the treatment of spasticity caused by multiple sclerosis). Many pharmacological properties of C. sativa are attributed to cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive component, along with Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC), a psychoactive component. This review addresses the most important applications or current utilization of cannabinoids in a variety of treatments such as chronic pain, cancer, emesis, anorexia, irritable bowel syndrome, communicable diseases, glaucoma, and central nervous system disorders. The biosynthetic pathway of cannabinoids is also discussed. In short, cannabis has a myriad of bioactive compounds that have the potential to increase the list of approved cannabinoids suitable for therapy.

Cannabidiol-Driven Alterations to Inflammatory Protein Landscape of Lipopolysaccharide-Activated Macrophages In Vitro May Be Mediated by Autophagy and Oxidative Stress

Background: The nonpsychotropic phytocannabinoid cannabidiol (CBD) presents itself as a potentially safe and effective anti-inflammatory treatment relative to clinical standards. In this present study, we compare the capacity of CBD to the corticosteroid dexamethasone (Dex) in altering the secreted protein landscape of activated macrophages and speculate upon the mechanism underpinning these alterations. Materials and Methods: Human THP-1 monocytes were differentiated into macrophages (THP-1 derived macrophages [tMACs]), activated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and then treated with 5, 10, 25, 50, or 100 μM CBD or 10 μM Dex for 24 h. Following treatment, cytotoxicity of CBD and protein expression levels from culture supernatants and from whole cell lysates were assessed for secreted and intracellular proteins, respectively. Results: High concentration (50 and 100 μM) CBD treatments exhibit a cytotoxic effect on LPS-activated tMACs following the 24-h treatment. Relative to the LPS-activated and untreated control (M[LPS]), both 25 μM CBD and 10 μM Dex reduced expression of pro-inflammatory markers-tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 1 beta, and regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES)-as well as the pleiotropic marker interleukin-6 (IL-6). A similar trend was observed for anti-inflammatory markers interleukin-10 and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Dex further reduced secreted levels of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in addition to suppressing IL-6 and VEGF beyond treatments with CBD. The anti-inflammatory capacity of 25 μM CBD was concurrent with reduction in levels of phosphorylated mammalian target of rapamycin Ser 2448, endothelial nitric oxide synthase, and induction of cyclooxygenase 2 relative to M(LPS). This could suggest that the observed effects on macrophage immune profile may be conferred through inhibition of mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 and ensuing induction of autophagy. Conclusion: Cumulatively, these data demonstrate cytotoxicity of high concentration CBD treatment. The data reported herein largely agree with other literature demonstrating the anti-inflammatory effects of CBD. However, there is discrepancy within literature surrounding efficacious concentrations and effects of CBD on specific secreted proteins. These data expand upon previous work investigating the effects of CBD on inflammatory protein expression in macrophages, as well as provide insight into the mechanism by which these effects are conferred.

Cannabinoids and Terpenes: How Production of Photo-Protectants Can Be Manipulated to Enhance Cannabis sativa L. Phytochemistry

Cannabis sativa L. is cultivated for its secondary metabolites, of which the cannabinoids have documented health benefits and growing pharmaceutical potential. Recent legal cannabis production in North America and Europe has been accompanied by an increase in reported findings for optimization of naturally occurring and synthetic cannabinoid production. Of the many environmental cues that can be manipulated during plant growth in controlled environments, cannabis cultivation with different lighting spectra indicates differential production and accumulation of medically important cannabinoids, including Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and cannabigerol (CBG), as well as terpenes and flavonoids. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation shows potential in stimulating cannabinoid biosynthesis in cannabis trichomes and pre-harvest or post-harvest UV treatment merits further exploration to determine if plant secondary metabolite accumulation could be enhanced in this manner. Visible LED light can augment THC and terpene accumulation, but not CBD. Well-designed experiments with light wavelengths other than blue and red light will provide more insight into light-dependent regulatory and molecular pathways in cannabis. Lighting strategies such as subcanopy lighting and varied light spectra at different developmental stages can lower energy consumption and optimize cannabis PSM production. Although evidence demonstrates that secondary metabolites in cannabis may be modulated by the light spectrum like other plant species, several questions remain for cannabinoid production pathways in this fast-paced and growing industry. In summarizing recent research progress on light spectra and secondary metabolites in cannabis, along with pertinent light responses in model plant species, future research directions are presented.

"Photo-Rimonabant": Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Novel Photoswitchable Molecules Derived from Rimonabant Lead to a Highly Selective and Nanomolar "Cis-On" CB1R Antagonist

Human cannabinoid receptor type 1 (hCB₁R) plays important roles in the regulation of appetite and development of addictive behaviors. Herein, we describe the design, synthesis, photocharacterization, molecular docking, and in vitro characterization of "photo-rimonabant", i.e., azo-derivatives of the selective hCB₁R antagonist SR1411716A (rimonabant). By applying azo-extension strategies, we yielded compound 16a, which shows marked affinity for CB₁R (K_{i (cis form)} = 29 nM), whose potency increases by illumination with ultraviolet light (CB₁R K_itrans/cis ratio = 15.3). Through radioligand binding, calcium mobilization, and cell luminescence assays, we established that 16a is highly selective for hCB₁R over hCB₂R. These selective antagonists can be valuable molecular tools for optical modulation of CBRs and better understanding of disorders associated with the endocannabinoid system.

The Cannabis Spread throughout the Continents and its Therapeutic Use in History

BACKGROUND

Cannabis sativa L. (C. sativa) is a plant whose use as a therapeutic agent shares its origins with the first Far East's human societies. Cannabis has been used not only for recreational purposes but as food to obtain textile fibers, to produce hemp paper, to treat many physical and mental disorders.

AIM

This review aims to provide a complete assessment of the deep knowledge of the cannabis psychoactive effects and medicinal properties in the course of history covering i.) The empirical use of the seeds and the inflorescences to treat many physical ailments by the ancient Oriental physicians' ii.) The current use of cannabis as a therapeutic agent after the discovery of its key psychoactive constituent and the human endogenous endocannabinoid system.

METHODS

This study was performed through a detailed analysis of the studies on the historical significance and medical applications of Cannabis sativa by using international scientific databases, historical and medical books, ancient Greek and Chinese manuscripts translations, library and statistical data from government reports and texts from the National Library of Greece (Stavros Niarchos Foundation), from the School of Health Sciences of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (Greece). We selected papers and texts focusing on a historical point of view about the medical importance of the plant and its applications for a therapeutic purpose in the past.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Through a detailed analysis of the available resources about the origins of C. sativa, we found that its use by ancient civilizations as a source of food and textile fibers dates back over 10,000 years, while its therapeutic applications have been improved over the centuries, from the ancient East medicine of the 2nd and 1st millennium B.C. to the more recent introduction in the Western world after the 1st century A.D. In the 20th and 21st centuries, Cannabis and its derivatives have been considered as a menace and banned throughout the world, but nowadays, they are still the most widely consumed illicit drugs all over the world. Its legalization in some jurisdictions has been accompanied by new lines of research to investigate its possible applications for medical and therapeutic purposes.

Duration of Neurocognitive Impairment With Medical Cannabis Use: A Scoping Review

While the recreational use of cannabis has well-established dose-dependent effects on neurocognitive and psychomotor functioning, there is little consensus on the degree and duration of impairment typically seen with medical marijuana use. Compared to recreational cannabis users, medical cannabis patients have distinct characteristics that may modify the presence and extent of impairment. The goal of this review was to determine the duration of acute neurocognitive impairment associated with medical cannabis use, and to identify differences between medical cannabis patients and recreational users. These findings are used to gain insight on how medical professionals can best advise medical cannabis patients with regards to automobile driving or safety-sensitive tasks at work. A systematic electronic search for English language randomized controlled trials (RCTs), clinical trials and systematic reviews (in order to capture any potentially missed RCTs) between 2000 and 2019 was conducted through Ovid MEDLINE and EMBASE electronic databases using MeSH terms. Articles were limited to medical cannabis patients using cannabis for chronic non-cancer pain or spasticity. After screening titles and abstracts, 37 relevant studies were subjected to full-text review. Overall, seven controlled trials met the inclusion/exclusion criteria and were included in the qualitative synthesis: six RCTs and one observational clinical trial. Neurocognitive testing varied significantly between all studies, including the specific tests administered and the timing of assessments post-cannabis consumption. In general, cognitive performance declined mostly in a THC dose-dependent manner, with steady resolution of impairment in the hours following THC administration. Doses of THC were lower than those typically reported in recreational cannabis studies. In all the studies, there was no difference between any of the THC groups and placebo on any neurocognitive measure after 4 h of recovery. Variability in the dose-dependent relationship raises the consideration that there are other important factors contributing to the duration of neurocognitive impairment besides the dose of THC ingested. These modifiable and non-modifiable factors are individually discussed.

Non-Cannabinoid Metabolites of Cannabis sativa L. with Therapeutic Potential

The cannabis plant (Cannabis sativa L.) produces an estimated 545 chemical compounds of different biogenetic classes. In addition to economic value, many of these phytochemicals have medicinal and physiological activity. The plant is most popularly known for its two most-prominent and most-studied secondary metabolites—Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). Both Δ⁹-THC and CBD have a wide therapeutic window across many ailments and form part of a class of secondary metabolites called cannabinoids—of which approximately over 104 exist. This review will focus on non-cannabinoid metabolites of Cannabis sativa that also have therapeutic potential, some of which share medicinal properties similar to those of cannabinoids. The most notable of these non-cannabinoid phytochemicals are flavonoids and terpenes. We will also discuss future directions in cannabis research and development of cannabis-based pharmaceuticals. Caflanone, a flavonoid molecule with selective activity against the human viruses including the coronavirus OC43 (HCov-OC43) that is responsible for COVID-19, and certain cancers, is one of the most promising non-cannabinoid molecules that is being advanced into clinical trials. As validated by thousands of years of the use of cannabis for medicinal purposes, vast anecdotal evidence abounds on the medicinal benefits of the plant. These benefits are attributed to the many phytochemicals in this plant, including non-cannabinoids. The most promising non-cannabinoids with potential to alleviate global disease burdens are discussed.

Cannabis: A Toxin-Producing Plant with Potential Therapeutic Uses

For thousands of years, Cannabis sativa has been utilized as a medicine and for recreational and spiritual purposes. Phytocannabinoids are a family of compounds that are found in the cannabis plant, which is known for its psychotogenic and euphoric effects; the main psychotropic constituent of cannabis is Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC). The pharmacological effects of cannabinoids are a result of interactions between those compounds and cannabinoid receptors, CB1 and CB2, located in many parts of the human body. Cannabis is used as a therapeutic agent for treating pain and emesis. Some cannabinoids are clinically applied for treating chronic pain, particularly cancer and multiple sclerosis-associated pain, for appetite stimulation and anti-emesis in HIV/AIDS and cancer patients, and for spasticity treatment in multiple sclerosis and epilepsy patients. Medical cannabis varies from recreational cannabis in the chemical content of THC and cannabidiol (CBD), modes of administration, and safety. Despite the therapeutic effects of cannabis, exposure to high concentrations of THC, the main compound that is responsible for most of the intoxicating effects experienced by users, could lead to psychological events and adverse effects that affect almost all body systems, such as neurological (dizziness, drowsiness, seizures, coma, and others), ophthalmological (mydriasis and conjunctival hyperemia), cardiovascular (tachycardia and arterial hypertension), and gastrointestinal (nausea, vomiting, and thirst), mainly associated with recreational use. Cannabis toxicity in children is more concerning and can cause serious adverse effects such as acute neurological symptoms (stupor), lethargy, seizures, and even coma. More countries are legalizing the commercial production and sale of cannabis for medicinal use, and some for recreational use as well. Liberalization of cannabis laws has led to increased incidence of toxicity, hyperemesis syndrome, lung disease cardiovascular disease, reduced fertility, tolerance, and dependence with chronic prolonged use. This review focuses on the potential therapeutic effects of cannabis and cannabinoids, as well as the acute and chronic toxic effects of cannabis use on various body systems.

The Neuroprotective Properties, Functions, and Roles of Cannabis sativa in Selected Diseases Related to the Nervous System

BACKGROUND

Cannabis and its extracts are now being explored due to their huge health benefits. Although, the effect they elicit, whether on humans or rodents, may vary based on the age of the animal/subject and or the time in which the extract is administered. However, several debates exist concerning the various medical applications of these compounds. Nonetheless, their applicability as therapeutics should not be clouded based on their perceived negative biological actions.

METHODS

Articles from reliable databases such as Science Direct, PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Ovid were searched. Specific search methods were employed using multiple keywords: ''Medicinal Cannabis; endocannabinoid system; cannabinoids receptors; cannabinoids and cognition; brain disorders; neurodegenerative diseases''. For the inclusion/exclusion criteria, only relevant articles related to medicinal Cannabis and its various compounds were considered.

RESULTS

The current review highlights the role, effects, and involvement of Cannabis, cannabinoids, and endocannabinoids in preventing selected neurodegenerative diseases and possible amelioration of cognitive impairments. Furthermore, it also focuses on Cannabis utilization in many disease conditions such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease among others.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the usage of Cannabis should be further explored as accumulating evidence suggests that it could be effective and somewhat safe, especially when adhered to the recommended dosage. Furthermore, in-depth studies should be conducted in order to unravel the specific mechanism underpinning the involvement of cannabinoids at the cellular level and their therapeutic applications.

The Chemistry of Cannabis and Cannabinoids

The science of cannabis and cannabinoids encompasses a wide variety of scientific disciplines and can appear daunting to newcomers to the field. The encroachment of folklore and ‘cannabis culture’ into scientific discussions can cloud the situation further. This Primer Review is designed to give a succinct overview of the chemistry of cannabis and cannabinoids. It is hoped that it will provide a useful resource for chemistry undergraduates, postgraduates and their instructors, and experienced chemists who require a comprehensive and up to date summary of the field. The Review begins with a brief overview of the history and botany of cannabis, then goes on to detail important aspects of the chemistry of phytocannabinoids, endocannabinoids and synthetic cannabinomimetics. Other natural constituents of the cannabis plant are then described including terpenes and terpenoids, polyphenolics, alkaloids, waxes and triglycerides, and important toxic contaminants. A discussion of key aspects of the pharmacology associated with cannabinoids and the endocannabinoid system then follows, with a focus on the cannabinoid receptors, CB1 and CB2. The medicinal chemistry of cannabis and cannabinoids is covered, highlighting the range of diseases targeted with cannabis and phytocannabinoids, as well as key aspects of phytocannabinoid metabolism, distribution, and delivery. The modulation of endocannabinoid levels through the inhibition of key endocannabinoid-degrading enzymes fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) is then discussed. The Review concludes with an assessment of the much touted ‘entourage effect’. References to primary literature and more specialised reviews are provided throughout.

Natural Compounds for the Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular and Neurodegenerative Diseases

Secondary metabolites from plants and fungi are stimulating growing interest in consumers and, consequently, in the food and supplement industries. The beneficial effects of these natural compounds are being thoroughly studied and there are frequent updates about the biological activities of old and new molecules isolated from plants and fungi. In this article, we present a review of the most recent literature regarding the recent discovery of secondary metabolites through isolation and structural elucidation, as well as the in vitro and/or in vivo evaluation of their biological effects. In particular, the possibility of using these bioactive molecules in the prevention and/or treatment of widely spread pathologies such as cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases is discussed.

Integration of silicon and secondary metabolites in plants: a significant association in stress tolerance

As sessile organisms, plants are unable to avoid being subjected to environmental stresses that negatively affect their growth and productivity. Instead, they utilize various mechanisms at the morphological, physiological, and biochemical levels to alleviate the deleterious effects of such stresses. Amongst these, secondary metabolites produced by plants represent an important component of the defense system. Secondary metabolites, namely phenolics, terpenes, and nitrogen-containing compounds, have been extensively demonstrated to protect plants against multiple stresses, both biotic (herbivores and pathogenic microorganisms) and abiotic (e.g. drought, salinity, and heavy metals). The regulation of secondary metabolism by beneficial elements such as silicon (Si) is an important topic. Silicon-mediated alleviation of both biotic and abiotic stresses has been well documented in numerous plant species. Recently, many studies have demonstrated the involvement of Si in strengthening stress tolerance through the modulation of secondary metabolism. In this review, we discuss Si-mediated regulation of the synthesis, metabolism, and modification of secondary metabolites that lead to enhanced stress tolerance, with a focus on physiological, biochemical, and molecular aspects. Whilst mechanisms involved in Si-mediated regulation of pathogen resistance via secondary metabolism have been established in plants, they are largely unknown in the case of abiotic stresses, thus leaving an important gap in our current knowledge.

The Effects of Cannabidiol, a Non-Intoxicating Compound of Cannabis, on the Cardiovascular System in Health and Disease

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a non-intoxicating and generally well-tolerated constituent of cannabis which exhibits potential beneficial properties in a wide range of diseases, including cardiovascular disorders. Due to its complex mechanism of action, CBD may affect the cardiovascular system in different ways. Thus, we reviewed the influence of CBD on this system in health and disease to determine the potential risk of cardiovascular side effects during CBD use for medical and wellness purposes and to elucidate its therapeutic potential in cardiovascular diseases. Administration of CBD to healthy volunteers or animals usually does not markedly affect hemodynamic parameters. Although CBD has been found to exhibit vasodilatory and antioxidant properties in hypertension, it has not affected blood pressure in hypertensive animals. Hypotensive action of CBD has been mainly revealed under stress conditions. Many positive effects of CBD have been observed in experimental models of heart diseases (myocardial infarction, cardiomyopathy, myocarditis), stroke, neonatal hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy, sepsis-related encephalitis, cardiovascular complications of diabetes, and ischemia/reperfusion injures of liver and kidneys. In these pathological conditions CBD decreased organ damage and dysfunction, oxidative and nitrative stress, inflammatory processes and apoptosis, among others. Nevertheless, further clinical research is needed to recommend the use of CBD in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases.

Cannabis Extract CT-921 Has a High Efficacy-Adverse Effect Profile in a Neuropathic Pain Model

Background

Legalization of cannabis encourages the development of specific cultivars to treat disease such as neuropathic pain. Because of the large number of cultivars, it is necessary to prioritize extracts before proceeding to clinical trials.

Purpose

To compare extracts of two unique cannabis cultivars (CT-921, CT-928) for treatment of neuropathic pain induced by constriction of sciatic nerve in mice and to illustrate the use of this animal model to set priority for future trials.

Methods

Pain severity was measured by threshold force causing paw withdrawal. Dose-response relationships and time course were determined for intravenously injected extracts of cultivars and vehicle. The doses for allodynia relief were correlated with decreased respiratory rate, temperature and behavioral changes.

Results

Effective analgesic dose for 50 and 95% (ED_50An and ED_95An) was 15, and 29 mg/kg for CT-921 and 0.9 and 4.7 for CT-928. At ED_50An, for both extracts, the duration was 120 min. At ED_95An, administration of CT-928 significantly decreased respiratory rate while CT-921 did not. CT-928 decreased temperature more than CT-921. CT-928 produced frantic hyperactivity not seen with CT-921. At equivalent analgesic doses, THC was much less in CT-921 than in CT-928 suggesting interactions with components other than THC influenced the analgesia. At equivalent analgesic doses, efficacy-to-adverse effect profile for CT-928 was worse than for CT-921.

Conclusion

Both extracts relieved neuropathic pain; however, CT-921 had a better efficacy-to-adverse effect profile, a rational basis for prioritizing cultivars for future clinical evaluation.

A Cup of Hemp Coffee by Moka Pot from Southern Italy: An UHPLC-HRMS Investigation

After a long period defined by prohibition of hemp production, this crop has been recently re-evaluated in various industrial sectors. Until now, inflorescences have been considered a processing by-product, not useful for the food industry, and their disposal also represents an economic problem for farmers. The objects of the present work are coffee blends enriched with shredded inflorescences of different cultivars of industrial hemp that underwent solid/liquid extraction into the Italian “moka” coffee maker. The obtained coffee drinks were analyzed by Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-High Resolution Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS) tools for their quali-quantitative phytocannabinoid profiles. The results showed that they are minor constituents compared to chlorogenic acids and caffeine in all samples. In particular, cannabidiolic acid was the most abundant among phytocannabinoids, followed by tetrahydrocannabinolic acid. Neither Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) nor cannabinol, its main oxidation product, were detected. The percentage of total THC never exceeded 0.04%, corresponding to 0.4 mg/kg, far below the current maximum limits imposed by the Italian Ministry of Health. This study opens up a new concrete possibility to exploit hemp processing by-products in order to obtain drinks with high added value and paves the way for further in vitro and in vivo investigations aimed at promoting their benefits for human health.

Aquaponic and Hydroponic Solutions Modulate NaCl-Induced Stress in Drug-Type Cannabis sativa L

The effects of salt-induced stress in drug-type Cannabis sativa L. (C. sativa), a crop with increasing global importance, are almost entirely unknown. In an indoor controlled factorial experiment involving a type-II chemovar (i.e., one which produces Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid ~THCA and cannabidiolic acid ~ CBDA), the effects of increasing NaCl concentrations (1-40 mM) was tested in hydroponic and aquaponic solutions during the flowering stage. Growth parameters (height, canopy volume), plant physiology (chlorophyll content, leaf-gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence, and water use efficiency), and solution physicochemical properties (pH, EC, and nutrients) was measured throughout the experiment. Upon maturation of inflorescences, plants were harvested and yield (dry inflorescence biomass) and inflorescence potency (mass-based concentration of cannabinoids) was determined. It was found that cannabinoids decreased linearly with increasing NaCl concentration: -0.026 and -0.037% THCA·mM NaCl^-1 for aquaponic and hydroponic solutions, respectively. The growth and physiological responses to NaCl in hydroponic-but not the aquaponic solution-became negatively affected at 40 mM. The mechanisms of aquaponic solution which allow this potential enhanced NaCl tolerance is worthy of future investigation. Commercial cultivation involving the use of hydroponic solution should carefully monitor NaCl concentrations, so that they do not exceed the phytotoxic concentration of 40 mM found here; and are aware that NaCl in excess of 5 mM may decrease yield and potency. Additional research investigating cultivar- and rootzone-specific responses to salt-induced stress is needed.

Δ9 -Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid alleviates collagen-induced arthritis: Role of PPARγ and CB1 receptors

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Δ⁹ -Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (Δ⁹ -THCA-A), the precursor of Δ⁹ -THC, is a non-psychotropic phytocannabinoid that shows PPARγ agonist activity. Here, we investigated the ability of Δ⁹ -THCA-A to modulate the classic cannabinoid CB₁ and CB₂ receptors and evaluated its anti-arthritis activity in vitro and in vivo.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Cannabinoid receptors binding and intrinsic activity, as well as their downstream signalling, were analysed in vitro and in silico. The anti-arthritis properties of Δ⁹ -THCA-A were studied in human chondrocytes and in the murine model of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA). Plasma disease biomarkers were identified by LC-MS/MS based on proteomic and elisa assays.

KEY RESULTS

Functional and docking analyses showed that Δ⁹ -THCA-A can act as an orthosteric CB₁ receptor agonist and also as a positive allosteric modulator in the presence of CP-55,940. Also, Δ⁹ -THCA-A seemed to be an inverse agonist for CB₂ receptors. In vivo, Δ⁹ -THCA-A reduced arthritis in CIA mice, preventing the infiltration of inflammatory cells, synovium hyperplasia, and cartilage damage. Furthermore, Δ⁹ -THCA-A inhibited expression of inflammatory and catabolic genes on knee joints. The anti-arthritic effect of Δ⁹ -THCA-A was blocked by either SR141716 or T0070907. Analysis of plasma biomarkers, and determination of cytokines and anti-collagen antibodies confirmed that Δ⁹ -THCA-A mediated its activity mainly through PPARγ and CB₁ receptor pathways.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Δ⁹ -THCA-A modulates CB₁ receptors through the orthosteric and allosteric binding sites. In addition, Δ⁹ -THCA-A exerts anti-arthritis activity through CB₁ receptors and PPARγ pathways, highlighting its potential for the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis.

Mitochondrial COI Sequence Variations within and among Geographic Samples of the Hemp Pest Psylliodes attenuata from China

The hemp flea beetle Psylliodes attenuata (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Psylliodes) is a common pest of Cannabis sativa, including cultivars of both industrial hemp and medicinal marijuana. Both the larval and adult stages of this beetle can cause significant damages to C. sativa, resulting in substantial crop losses. At present, little is known about the populations of this pest, including its genetic diversity. In this study, we obtained 281 P. attenuata samples from nine field sites representing broad industrial hemp productions in China and analyzed their DNA sequences at the mitochondrial COI gene, the insect DNA barcode. Our analyses revealed a total of 48 haplotypes, with 28 being found only in one specimen each while the remaining 20 were shared by two or more specimens each. Of the 20 shared haplotypes, eight were shared among local populations often from far away locations, consistent with recent long-distance dispersals. However, the observed putative long-distance dispersals have not obscured the significant genetic differentiations among the regional populations from northeastern, eastern, central and southwestern China. Interestingly, haplotype network analyses suggest evidence for potential mitochondrial recombination in natural populations of this species. We briefly discuss the implications of our results on its evolution, center of diversity, route of spread, and pest management strategies in hemp fields.

Cannabinoids-Promising Antimicrobial Drugs orIntoxicants with Benefits?

Novel antimicrobial drugs are urgently needed to counteract the increasing occurrence ofbacterial resistance. Extracts of Cannabis sativa have been used for the treatment of several diseasessince ancient times. However, its phytocannabinoid constituents are predominantly associated withpsychotropic effects and medical applications far beyond the treatment of infections. It has beendemonstrated that several cannabinoids show potent antimicrobial activity against primarily Grampositivebacteria including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). As first in vivoefficacy has been demonstrated recently, it is time to discuss whether cannabinoids are promisingantimicrobial drug candidates or overhyped intoxicants with benefits.

Recreational Cannabis Usage Among Young Adults Living with Diabetes: Protocol for a Mixed Methods Study

BACKGROUND

Canada is the second country in the world to legalize recreational cannabis (marijuana). Young adults are the highest users of cannabis. Recreational cannabis use may increase anxiety, depression, breathing problems, and weight in young adults in general and further result in poor control of sugar levels, increased consumption of carbohydrates, and poor self-management in young adults living with diabetes. There is limited research on the influence of recreational cannabis usage on young adults living with diabetes.

PURPOSE

To explore the frequency of recreational cannabis usage, self-management behaviors and experiences of cannabis-related adverse events, to identify the factors encouraging recreational cannabis usage, and to determine the influence of recreational cannabis usage on self-reported health among young adults living with diabetes.

METHODS

A sequential explanatory mixed method design will be used. The first phase will be a cross-sectional online survey in which quantitative data will be collected on the demographic and health/clinical characteristics, cannabis use patterns, and diabetes self-management of young adults living with diabetes who use cannabis. The second phase will involve the collection of qualitative data through telephone, semi-structured, one-on-one interviews. Potential participants will be recruited through study flyers, posters, and clinicians from two outpatient diabetes clinics in the province of Ontario, Canada.

PLANNED OUTCOMES

The findings from this study may provide useful information regarding the effects of recreational cannabis consumption on young adults living with diabetes. This, in turn, may provide guidance to healthcare providers on how to counsel, assist, educate, and support diabetes-related management through strategies and interventions for this patient population, contributing to patient health and safety.

Uncovering the Hidden Antibiotic Potential of Cannabis

The spread of antimicrobial resistance continues to be a priority health concern worldwide, necessitating the exploration of alternative therapies. Cannabis sativa has long been known to contain antibacterial cannabinoids, but their potential to address antibiotic resistance has only been superficially investigated. Here, we show that cannabinoids exhibit antibacterial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), inhibit its ability to form biofilms, and eradicate preformed biofilms and stationary phase cells persistent to antibiotics. We show that the mechanism of action of cannabigerol is through targeting the cytoplasmic membrane of Gram-positive bacteria and demonstrate in vivo efficacy of cannabigerol in a murine systemic infection model caused by MRSA. We also show that cannabinoids are effective against Gram-negative organisms whose outer membrane is permeabilized, where cannabigerol acts on the inner membrane. Finally, we demonstrate that cannabinoids work in combination with polymyxin B against multidrug resistant Gram-negative pathogens, revealing the broad-spectrum therapeutic potential for cannabinoids.

Cannabis Microbiome and the Role of Endophytes in Modulating the Production of Secondary Metabolites: An Overview

Plants, including cannabis (Cannabis sativa subsp. sativa), host distinct beneficial microbial communities on and inside their tissues and organs, including seeds. They contribute to plant growth, facilitating mineral nutrient uptake, inducing defence resistance against pathogens, and modulating the production of plant secondary metabolites. Understanding the microbial partnerships with cannabis has the potential to affect the agricultural practices by improving plant fitness and the yield of cannabinoids. Little is known about this beneficial cannabis-microbe partnership, and the complex relationship between the endogenous microbes associated with various tissues of the plant, and the role that cannabis may play in supporting or enhancing them. This review will consider cannabis microbiota studies and the effects of endophytes on the elicitation of secondary metabolite production in cannabis plants. The review aims to shed light on the importance of the cannabis microbiome and how cannabinoid compound concentrations can be stimulated through symbiotic and/or mutualistic relationships with endophytes.

Establishment and optimization of a hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) agroinfiltration system for gene expression and silencing studies

Industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is a high-yielding annual crop primarily grown for fiber, seeds, and oil. Due to the phytochemical composition of hemp, there has been an increased interest in the market for nutraceuticals and dietary supplements for human health. Recent omics analysis has led to the elucidation of hemp candidate genes involved in the syntheses of specialized metabolites. However, a detailed study of these genes has not been undertaken due to the lack of a stable transformation system. We report for the first time an agroinfiltration system in hemp utilizing vacuum infiltration, which is an alternative method to stable transformation. A combination of 0.015% Silwett L-77, 5 mM ascorbic acid, and thirty second sonication followed by a 10-minute vacuum treatment resulted in the highest β-glucuronidase expression in the leaf, male and female flowers, stem, and root tissues. The phytoene desaturase gene was silenced with a transient hairpin RNA expression, resulting in an albino phenotype in the leaves and the male and female flowers. This agroinfiltration system would be useful for overexpression and silencing studies of target genes to regulate the yield of specialized metabolites in hemp.

Tourette's disorder in children and adolescents

Tourette's disorder (TD) is one of the five American Psychiatric Association's 2013 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) classifications of tic disorders. Eponymously linked with the noted 19th century French physician, Gilles de la Tourette [1857-1904], this disorder is identified in 0.3% to 0.7% of the population. It is characterized as a familial neuropsychiatric condition with multiple motor tics and vocal tics (one or more) present for more than 1 year with varying severity. The underlying pathophysiology involves dysfunctional activity of the basal ganglia and circuitry of the frontal cortex as well as dorsolateral striatum deficits. Contributory factors include genetic features interacting with milieu influences. A number of comorbid disorders are seen including obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Concepts of management are considered including behavioral therapy and pharmacologic approaches with alpha-adrenoceptor agonists, atypical antipsychotics (AAs), haloperidol, pimozide and others. Other management includes botulinum injections and deep brain stimulation in adults.

Analysis of Phenolic Compounds in Commercial Cannabis sativa L. Inflorescences Using UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS

Industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L. Family Cannabaceae) contains a vast number of bioactive relevant compounds, namely polyphenols including flavonoids, phenolic acids, phenol amides, and lignanamides, well known for their therapeutic properties. Nowadays, many polyphenols-containing products made of herbal extracts are marketed, claiming to exert health-promoting effects. In this context, industrial hemp inflorescence may represent an innovative source of bioactive compounds to be used in nutraceutical formulations. The aim of this work was to provide a comprehensive analysis of the polyphenolic fraction contained in polar extracts of four different commercial cultivars (Kompoti, Tiborszallasi, Antal, and Carmagnola Cs) of hemp inflorescences through spectrophotometric (TPC, DPPH tests) and spectrometry measurement (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS). Results highlighted a high content of cannflavin A and B in inflorescence analyzed samples, which appear to be cannabis-specific, with a mean value of 61.8 and 84.5 mg/kg, meaning a ten-to-hundred times increase compared to other parts of the plant. Among flavonols, quercetin-3-glucoside reached up to 285.9 mg/kg in the Carmagnola CS cultivar. Catechin and epicatechin were the most representative flavanols, with a mean concentration of 53.3 and 66.2 mg/kg, respectively, for all cultivars. Total polyphenolic content in inflorescence samples was quantified in the range of 10.51 to 52.58 mg GAE/g and free radical-scavenging included in the range from 27.5 to 77.6 mmol trolox/kg. Therefore, C. sativa inflorescence could be considered as a potential novel source of polyphenols intended for nutraceutical formulations.

Enantioselective Total Synthesis of Potent 9β-11-Hydroxyhexahydrocannabinol

The first total synthesis of potent cannabinoid, 9β-11-hydroxyhexahydrocannabinol, is achieved through a proline-catalyzed inverse-electron-demand Diels-Alder reaction. Using this asymmetric catalysis, the cyclohexane ring is constructed with two chiral centers as a single diastereomer with 97% ee. The creation of the third chiral center and benzopyran ring is demonstrated with the elegant synthetic strategies. This mild and efficient synthetic methodology provides a new route for the asymmetric synthesis of the other potent hexahydrocannabinols.

Cannabis Use in Pregnant and Breastfeeding Women: Behavioral and Neurobiological Consequences

Nowadays, cannabis is the most consumed illicit drug. The global prevalence of the use of cannabis in 2017 was estimated in 188 million of people, 3.8% of worldwide population. Importantly, the legalization of cannabis in different countries, together with the increase in the apparent safety perception, may result in a great variety of health problems. Indeed, an important concern is the increase in cannabis use among pregnant and breastfeeding women, especially since the content of delta9-tetrahidrocannabinol (THC) is currently around 2-fold higher than it was 15-20 years ago. The purpose of this study was to review cannabis use during pregnancy and breastfeeding including epidemiological aspects, therapeutic or preventive strategies, and experimental considerations and results from animal models of perinatal cannabis exposure to analyze the underlying neurobiological mechanisms and to identify new therapeutic approaches. A recent report revealed that among pregnant women aged 15-44, last month cannabis use prevalence was over 4.9%, raising to 8.5% in the 18-25-year-old age range. Pre- and post-natal exposure to cannabis may be associated with critical alterations in the newborn infants that are prolonged throughout childhood and adolescence. Briefly, several reports revealed that perinatal cannabis exposure was associated with low birth weight, reduction in the head circumference, cognitive deficits (attention, learning, and memory), disturbances in emotional response leading to aggressiveness, high impulsivity, or affective disorders, and higher risk to develop a substance use disorder. Furthermore, important neurobiological alterations in different neuromodulatory and neurotransmission systems have been associated with cannabis consumption during pregnancy and lactation. In spite of the evidences pointing out the negative behavioral and neurobiological consequences of cannabis use in pregnant and breastfeeding women, there are still limitations to identify biomarkers that could help to establish preventive or therapeutic approaches. It is difficult to define the direct association specifically with cannabis, avoiding other confusing factors, co-occurrence of other drugs consumption (mainly nicotine and alcohol), lifestyle, or socioeconomic factors. Therefore, it is necessary to progress in the characterization of short- and long-term cannabis exposure-related disturbances.

A review of bioanalytical techniques for evaluation of cannabis (Marijuana, weed, Hashish) in human hair

Cannabis products (marijuana, weed, hashish) are among the most widely abused psychoactive drugs in the world, due to their euphorigenic and anxiolytic properties. Recently, hair analysis is of great interest in analytical, clinical, and forensic sciences due to its non-invasiveness, negligible risk of infection and tampering, facile storage, and a wider window of detection. Hair analysis is now widely accepted as evidence in courts around the world. Hair analysis is very feasible to complement saliva, blood tests, and urinalysis. In this review, we have focused on state of the art in hair analysis of cannabis with particular attention to hair sample preparation for cannabis analysis involving pulverization, extraction and screening techniques followed by confirmatory tests (e.g., GC–MS and LC–MS/MS). We have reviewed the literature for the past 10 years’ period with special emphasis on cannabis quantification using mass spectrometry. The pros and cons of all the published methods have also been discussed along with the prospective future of cannabis analysis.

Biological Potential and Medical Use of Secondary Metabolites

This Medicines special issue focuses on the great potential of secondary metabolites for therapeutic applications. The special issue contains 16 articles reporting relevant experimental results and overviews of bioactive secondary metabolites. Their biological effects and new methodologies that improve the lead compounds’ synthesis were also discussed. We would like to thank all 83 authors, from all over the world, for their valuable contributions to this special issue.