1201
|
Chen G, Severo MS, Sakhon OS, Choy A, Herron MJ, Felsheim RF, Wiryawan H, Liao J, Johns JL, Munderloh UG, Sutterwala FS, Kotsyfakis M, Pedra JHF. Anaplasma phagocytophilum dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase 1 affects host-derived immunopathology during microbial colonization. Infect Immun 2012; 80:3194-205. [PMID: 22753375 PMCID: PMC3418742 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00532-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2012] [Accepted: 06/21/2012] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a tick-borne rickettsial pathogen that provokes an acute inflammatory response during mammalian infection. The illness caused by A. phagocytophilum, human granulocytic anaplasmosis, occurs irrespective of pathogen load and results instead from host-derived immunopathology. Thus, characterizing A. phagocytophilum genes that affect the inflammatory process is critical for understanding disease etiology. By using an A. phagocytophilum Himar1 transposon mutant library, we showed that a single transposon insertion into the A. phagocytophilum dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase 1 gene (lpda1 [APH_0065]) affects inflammation during infection. A. phagocytophilum lacking lpda1 revealed enlargement of the spleen, increased splenic extramedullary hematopoiesis, and altered clinicopathological abnormalities during mammalian colonization. Furthermore, LPDA1-derived immunopathology was independent of neutrophil infection and correlated with enhanced reactive oxygen species from NADPH oxidase and nuclear factor (NF)-κB signaling in macrophages. Taken together, these findings suggest the presence of different signaling pathways in neutrophils and macrophages during A. phagocytophilum invasion and highlight the importance of LPDA1 as an immunopathological molecule.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gang Chen
- Department of Entomology and Center for Disease Vector Research, University of California—Riverside, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Maiara S. Severo
- Department of Entomology and Center for Disease Vector Research, University of California—Riverside, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Olivia S. Sakhon
- Department of Entomology and Center for Disease Vector Research, University of California—Riverside, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Anthony Choy
- Department of Entomology and Center for Disease Vector Research, University of California—Riverside, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Michael J. Herron
- Department of Entomology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | | | - Hilda Wiryawan
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California—Riverside, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Jiayu Liao
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California—Riverside, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Jennifer L. Johns
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | | | - Fayyaz S. Sutterwala
- Inflammation Program and Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
| | - Michail Kotsyfakis
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Joao H. F. Pedra
- Department of Entomology and Center for Disease Vector Research, University of California—Riverside, Riverside, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|
1202
|
Abstract
This review is aimed at readers seeking an introductory overview, teaching courses and interested in visionary ideas. It first describes the range of topics covered by evolutionary medicine, which include human genetic variation, mismatches to modernity, reproductive medicine, degenerative disease, host-pathogen interactions and insights from comparisons with other species. It then discusses priorities for translational research, basic research and health management. Its conclusions are that evolutionary thinking should not displace other approaches to medical science, such as molecular medicine and cell and developmental biology, but that evolutionary insights can combine with and complement established approaches to reduce suffering and save lives. Because we are on the cusp of so much new research and innovative insights, it is hard to estimate how much impact evolutionary thinking will have on medicine, but it is already clear that its potential is enormous.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephen C Stearns
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520-8106, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
1203
|
Pontiroli F, Dussurget O, Zanoni I, Urbano M, Beretta O, Granucci F, Ricciardi-Castagnoli P, Cossart P, Foti M. The timing of IFNβ production affects early innate responses to Listeria monocytogenes and determines the overall outcome of lethal infection. PLoS One 2012; 7:e43455. [PMID: 22912878 PMCID: PMC3422257 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0043455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2012] [Accepted: 07/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) and natural killer (NK) cells are essential components of the innate immunity and play a crucial role in the first phase of host defense against infections and tumors. Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) is an intracellular pathogen that colonizes the cytosol of eukaryotic cells. Recent findings have shown Lm specifically in splenic CD8a+ DCs shortly after intravenous infection. We examined gene expression profiles of mouse DCs exposed to Lm to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying DCs interaction with Lm. Using a functional genomics approach, we found that Lm infection induced a cluster of late response genes including type I IFNs and interferon responsive genes (IRGs) in DCs. Type I INFs were produced at the maximal level only at 24 h post infection indicating that the regulation of IFNs in the context of Lm infection is delayed compared to the rapid response observed with viral pathogens. We showed that during Lm infection, IFNγ production and cytotoxic activity were severely impaired in NK cells compared to E. coli infection. These defects were restored by providing an exogenous source of IFNβ during the initial phase of bacterial challenge. Moreover, when treated with IFNβ during early infection, NK cells were able to reduce bacterial titer in the spleen and significantly improve survival of infected mice. These findings show that the timing of IFNβ production is fundamental to the efficient control of the bacterium during the early innate phase of Lm infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Pontiroli
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioscience, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Olivier Dussurget
- Unité des Interactions Bactéries-Cellules, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
- Inserm U604, Paris, France
- INRA USC2020, Paris, France
| | - Ivan Zanoni
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioscience, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Matteo Urbano
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioscience, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Ottavio Beretta
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioscience, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
- Genopolis Consortium, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesca Granucci
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioscience, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Pascale Cossart
- Unité des Interactions Bactéries-Cellules, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
- Inserm U604, Paris, France
- INRA USC2020, Paris, France
| | - Maria Foti
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioscience, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
- Genopolis Consortium, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
1204
|
Balancing resistance and infection tolerance through metabolic means. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:13886-7. [PMID: 22891309 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1211724109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
|
1205
|
Lee H, Khatri A, Plotnikov JM, Zhang XC, Sheen J. Complexity in differential peptide-receptor signaling: response to Segonzac et Al. and Mueller et Al. commentaries. THE PLANT CELL 2012; 24:3177-85. [PMID: 22923676 PMCID: PMC3462623 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.112.099259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
|
1206
|
Sander LE. Improved vaccines through targeted manipulation of the body's immunological risk-assessment? Bioessays 2012; 34:876-84. [PMID: 22815215 DOI: 10.1002/bies.201200057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances have highlighted the outstanding role of the innate immune system for instructing adaptive immunity. Translating this knowledge into successful immunotherapies like vaccines, however, has proven to be a difficult task. This essay is based on the hypothesis that immune responses are tightly scaled to the infectious threat posed by a given microbial stimulus. A meticulous immunological risk-assessment process is therefore instrumental for eliciting well-balanced responses and maintaining immune homeostasis. The immune system makes fine distinctions, for example, between live and dead bacteria, or pathogenic and non-pathogenic microorganisms. Here, I discuss recent evidence for some of the mechanisms underlying these distinctions and speculate on strategies for therapeutically targeting the immunological risk-assessment machinery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leif E Sander
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pulmonary Medicine, Charité University Hospital Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
1207
|
Mustafi D, Maeda T, Kohno H, Nadeau JH, Palczewski K. Inflammatory priming predisposes mice to age-related retinal degeneration. J Clin Invest 2012; 122:2989-3001. [PMID: 22797304 DOI: 10.1172/jci64427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2012] [Accepted: 06/07/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Disruption of cellular processes affected by multiple genes and accumulation of numerous insults throughout life dictate the progression of age-related disorders, but their complex etiology is poorly understood. Postmitotic neurons, such as photoreceptor cells in the retina and epithelial cells in the adjacent retinal pigmented epithelium, are especially susceptible to cellular senescence, which contributes to age-related retinal degeneration (ARD). The multigenic and complex etiology of ARD in humans is reflected by the relative paucity of effective compounds for its early prevention and treatment. To understand the genetic differences that drive ARD pathogenesis, we studied A/J mice, which develop ARD more pronounced than that in other inbred mouse models. Although our investigation of consomic strains failed to identify a chromosome associated with the observed retinal deterioration, pathway analysis of RNA-Seq data from young mice prior to retinal pathological changes revealed that increased vulnerability to ARD in A/J mice was due to initially high levels of inflammatory factors and low levels of homeostatic neuroprotective factors. The genetic signatures of an uncompensated preinflammatory state and ARD progression identified here aid in understanding the susceptible genetic loci that underlie pathogenic mechanisms of age-associated disorders, including several human blinding diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Debarshi Mustafi
- Department of Pharmacology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
1208
|
Five hundred years of mercury exposure and adaptation. J Biomed Biotechnol 2012; 2012:472858. [PMID: 22910643 PMCID: PMC3403783 DOI: 10.1155/2012/472858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2012] [Revised: 05/13/2012] [Accepted: 05/15/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mercury is added to the biosphere by anthropogenic activities raising the question of whether changes in the human chromatin, induced by mercury, in a parental generation could allow adaptation of their descendants to mercury. We review the history of Andean mining since pre-Hispanic times in Huancavelica, Peru. Despite the persistent degradation of the biosphere today, no overt signs of mercury toxicity could be discerned in present day inhabitants. However, mercury is especially toxic to the autonomic nervous system (ANS). We, therefore, tested ANS function and biologic rhythms, under the control of the ANS, in 5 Huancavelicans and examined the metal content in their hair. Mercury levels varied from none to 1.014 ppm, significantly less than accepted standards. This was confirmed by microfocused synchrotron X-ray fluorescence analysis. Biologic rhythms were abnormal and hair growth rate per year, also under ANS control, was reduced (P < 0.001). Thus, evidence of mercury's toxicity in ANS function was found without other signs of intoxication. Our findings are consistent with the hypothesis of partial transgenerational inheritance of tolerance to mercury in Huancavelica, Peru. This would generally benefit survival in the Anthropocene, the man-made world, we now live in.
Collapse
|
1209
|
Bradfield CJ, Kim BH, MacMicking JD. Crossing the Rubicon: new roads lead to host defense. Cell Host Microbe 2012; 11:221-3. [PMID: 22423961 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2012.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Rubicon is a protein known to engage the Beclin-1/Vps34-PI3K/UVRAG complex and inhibit endosome and autophagosomal fusion with lysosomes. Yang et al. (2012) uncover new roles for this adaptor protein within noncanonical p22(phox) or CARD9 complexes that regulate oxidative and cytokine responses in activated macrophages, respectively. Both complexes impact pathogen-specific host defense.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Clinton J Bradfield
- Section of Microbial Pathogenesis, Boyer Centre for Molecular Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
1210
|
Carvalho A, Cunha C, Bozza S, Moretti S, Massi-Benedetti C, Bistoni F, Aversa F, Romani L. Immunity and tolerance to fungi in hematopoietic transplantation: principles and perspectives. Front Immunol 2012; 3:156. [PMID: 22707953 PMCID: PMC3374351 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2012] [Accepted: 05/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Resistance and tolerance are two complementary host defense mechanisms that increase fitness in response to low-virulence fungi. Resistance is meant to reduce pathogen burden during infection through innate and adaptive immune mechanisms, whereas tolerance mitigates the substantial cost of resistance to host fitness through a multitude of anti-inflammatory mechanisms, including immunological tolerance. In experimental fungal infections, both defense mechanisms are activated through the delicate equilibrium between Th1/Th17 cells, which provide antifungal resistance, and regulatory T cells limiting the consequences of the ensuing inflammatory pathology. Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), a rate-limiting enzyme in the tryptophan catabolism, plays a key role in induction of tolerance against fungi. Both hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic compartments contribute to the resistance/tolerance balance against Aspergillus fumigatus via the involvement of selected innate receptors converging on IDO. Several genetic polymorphisms in pattern recognition receptors influence resistance and tolerance to fungal infections in human hematopoietic transplantation. Thus, tolerance mechanisms may be exploited for novel diagnostics and therapeutics against fungal infections and diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Agostinho Carvalho
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Biochemical Sciences, University of Perugia Perugia, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
1211
|
Keystone microbiome meeting 2012: a mountain top experience. EMBO Rep 2012. [DOI: 10.1038/embor.2012.69] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
|
1212
|
Larsen R, Gouveia Z, Soares MP, Gozzelino R. Heme cytotoxicity and the pathogenesis of immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. Front Pharmacol 2012; 3:77. [PMID: 22586395 PMCID: PMC3343703 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2012.00077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2012] [Accepted: 04/11/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Heme, iron (Fe) protoporphyrin IX, functions as a prosthetic group in a range of hemoproteins essential to support life under aerobic conditions. The Fe contained within the prosthetic heme groups of these hemoproteins can catalyze the production of reactive oxygen species. Presumably for this reason, heme must be sequestered within those hemoproteins, thereby shielding the reactivity of its Fe-heme. However, under pathologic conditions associated with oxidative stress, some hemoproteins can release their prosthetic heme groups. While this heme is not necessarily damaging per se, it becomes highly cytotoxic in the presence of a range of inflammatory mediators such as tumor necrosis factor. This can lead to tissue damage and, as such, exacerbate the pathologic outcome of several immune-mediated inflammatory conditions. Presumably, targeting “free heme” may be used as a therapeutic intervention against these diseases.
Collapse
|
1213
|
Lorè NI, Cigana C, De Fino I, Riva C, Juhas M, Schwager S, Eberl L, Bragonzi A. Cystic fibrosis-niche adaptation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa reduces virulence in multiple infection hosts. PLoS One 2012; 7:e35648. [PMID: 22558188 PMCID: PMC3338451 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0035648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2011] [Accepted: 03/19/2012] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa is able to thrive in diverse ecological niches and to cause serious human infection. P. aeruginosa environmental strains are producing various virulence factors that are required for establishing acute infections in several host organisms; however, the P. aeruginosa phenotypic variants favour long-term persistence in the cystic fibrosis (CF) airways. Whether P. aeruginosa strains, which have adapted to the CF-niche, have lost their competitive fitness in the other environment remains to be investigated. In this paper, three P. aeruginosa clonal lineages, including early strains isolated at the onset of infection, and late strains, isolated after several years of chronic lung infection from patients with CF, were analysed in multi-host model systems of acute infection. P. aeruginosa early isolates caused lethality in the three non-mammalian hosts, namely Caenorhabditis elegans, Galleria mellonella, and Drosophila melanogaster, while late adapted clonal isolates were attenuated in acute virulence. When two different mouse genetic background strains, namely C57Bl/6NCrl and Balb/cAnNCrl, were used as acute infection models, early P. aeruginosa CF isolates were lethal, while late isolates exhibited reduced or abolished acute virulence. Severe histopathological lesions, including high leukocytes recruitment and bacterial load, were detected in the lungs of mice infected with P. aeruginosa CF early isolates, while late isolates were progressively cleared. In addition, systemic bacterial spread and invasion of epithelial cells, which were detected for P. aeruginosa CF early strains, were not observed with late strains. Our findings indicate that niche-specific selection in P. aeruginosa reduced its ability to cause acute infections across a broad range of hosts while maintaining the capacity for chronic infection in the CF host.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Ivan Lorè
- Infection and Cystic Fibrosis Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Cristina Cigana
- Infection and Cystic Fibrosis Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Ida De Fino
- Infection and Cystic Fibrosis Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Camilla Riva
- Infection and Cystic Fibrosis Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Mario Juhas
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Plant Biology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Schwager
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Plant Biology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Leo Eberl
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Plant Biology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alessandra Bragonzi
- Infection and Cystic Fibrosis Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
1214
|
Burlingham WJ, Benichou G. Bidirectional alloreactivity: A proposed microchimerism-based solution to the NIMA paradox. CHIMERISM 2012; 3:29-36. [PMID: 22850252 PMCID: PMC3442809 DOI: 10.4161/chim.21668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The NIMA paradox is the observation that in transplants of allogeneic kidneys or hematopoietic stem cells, siblings benefit from re-exposure to non-inherited maternal antigens (NIMA), whereas re-exposure to a transplant from mother herself, theoretically the ideal "NIMA" donor, does not yield clinical results superior to a father-donated allograft. Recent observations of bidirectional alloreactivity in kidney and cord blood transplantation offer a possible solution to this paradox. If correct, the proposed solution points the way to clinical applications of microchimerism in solid organ and hematopoetic transplants.
Collapse
|
1215
|
Chervonsky AV. Intestinal commensals: influence on immune system and tolerance to pathogens. Curr Opin Immunol 2012; 24:255-60. [PMID: 22445718 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2012.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2012] [Accepted: 03/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The interactions of commensal microorganisms with the host's immune system are in the spotlight. The intestinal microbiota provides both stimulatory and inhibitory signals to the host ensuring its own survival and contributing to resistance to pathogens. Some microbial lineages do this better than others and are attracting a lot of attention. The microbial influences go beyond the gut and have profound effects on infections and autoimmunity in distant locations. Commensals are also involved in regulation of 'tolerance to pathogens', a fundamental type of response to infections that does not reduce pathogen burden but keeps the host healthy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander V Chervonsky
- Department of Pathology, University of Chicago, 924 57th Street, Chicago, IL 60637, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
1216
|
Abstract
Mammalian genes and genomes have been shaped by ancient and ongoing challenges from viruses. These genetic imprints can be identified via evolutionary analyses to reveal fundamental details about when (how old), where (which protein domains), and how (what are the functional consequences of adaptive changes) host-virus arms races alter the proteins involved. Just as extreme amino acid conservation can serve to identify key immutable residues in enzymes, positively selected residues point to molecular recognition interfaces between host and viral proteins that have adapted and counter-adapted in a long series of classical Red Queen conflicts. Common rules for the strategies employed by both hosts and viruses have emerged from case studies of innate immunity genes in primates. We are now poised to use these rules to transition from a retrospective view of host-virus arms races to specific predictions about which host genes face pathogen antagonism and how those genetic conflicts transform host and virus evolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D Daugherty
- Division of Basic Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|