Concentrations and dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from grilled and smoked foods

The Presence of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Grilled Beef, Chicken and Fish by Considering Dietary Exposure and Risk Assessment

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are dangerous chemical compounds that can be formed by cooking foods at high temperatures. The aim of this study is to determine the level of contamination of PAH compounds with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) on heat treated meat samples and the consumption of PAH compounds in meat samples, as well as the dietary exposure status and possible health risk estimation. In five different heat treated meat samples (meat doner, chicken doner, meatballs, grilled chicken, and fish), the total PAH (Σ16PAH) contamination level was 6.08, 4.42, 4.45, 4.91, and 7.26 μg/kg, respectively. Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) in meatballs and grilled fish samples had a level 0.70 and 0.73 μg/kg. All of the samples analyzed were found to be below the EU permitted limit (5 μg/kg) in terms of BaP. Estimates of daily intake (EDI) for a total of 16PAH in heat treated meat doner, chicken doner, meatballs, grilled chicken and fish samples were 3.41, 3.71, 2.49, 4.12, and 1.77 ng/kg bw/day, respectively. In this study, the average margin of exposure (MOE) value calculated was found in the range of 179.487 and 425.000 for BaP and PAH4. This study is the first study to provide important information in terms of evaluating the possible health risk that PAH compounds can create in people's diets due to heat treatment of meat and meat products in Sivas, Turkey.

Co-consumption of Vegetables and Fruit, Whole Grains, and Fiber Reduces the Cancer Risk of Red and Processed Meat in a Large Prospective Cohort of Adults from Alberta's Tomorrow Project

We examined whether co-consumption of red and processed meat with key foods items and food constituents recommended for cancer prevention (vegetables and fruit, whole grains, and fiber) mitigates cancer incidence. In a prospective cohort of 26,218 adults aged 35–69 years at baseline, dietary intake was collected through 124-item past-year food frequency questionnaire. Incidence of all-cause and 15 cancers previously linked to red and processed meat intake was obtained through data linkage with a cancer registry (average follow-up 13.5 years). Competing risk Cox Proportional Hazard models estimated cancer risk and Accelerated Failure Time models estimated time-to-cancer occurrence for different combinations of intake levels while considering mortality from vital statistics and established confounders. Co-consumption of low vegetables and fruit intake with high processed meat was associated with higher incidence of all-cause and 15 cancers (men: HR = 1.85, 1.91; women: HR = 1.44, 1.49) and accelerated time-to-cancer occurrence (men: 6.5 and 7.1 years and women: 5.6 and 6.3 years, respectively), compared to high vegetables and fruit with low processed meat intake. Less pronounced and less consistent associations were observed for whole grains and fiber and for red meat. The findings provide initial evidence toward refining existing cancer prevention recommendations to optimize the intake and combination of foods in the general adult population.

The effect of gas versus charcoal open flames on the induction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in cooked meat: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

Open flames of gas and charcoal can induce polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in cooked meat. The current study aimed to compare the effect of gas and charcoal open flames on the induction of PAHs in cooked meat using a meta-analysis approach.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was conducted electronically based on the PRISMA guidelines. Experimental studies comparing the PAHs content of cooked meat over open flames of gas and charcoal were searched using the appropriate keywords until June 2018.

RESULTS

Of 1137 papers retrieved, 7 with a total sample size of 474 meat samples were used in the meta-analysis. The mean difference (MD) between the gas and charcoal cooking methods in the induction of each PAH was 2.053 μg/Kg. (95%CI: 1.022-3.085 μg/Kg; P < 0.001). The subgroup analysis of 17 trials indicated the difference between the two cooking methods increases when red meat rather than white meat is cooked (MD in red meat: 3.499 μg/Kg; 95%CI: 2.030-4.967; P < 0.0001 vs. MD in white meat: 3.319 μg/Kg; 95% CI: 1.689-4.950; P < 0.0001). Interestingly, studies that analyzed meat samples for fewer PAHs (cut-off ≤7) found a much wider difference between gas and charcoal-cooked meat (MD: 5.106 μg/Kg; (95% CI: 2.162-8.049; P < 0.001 in studies with ≤7 PAHs vs. MD: 1.447 μg/Kg; 95% CI: 0.628-2.266; P < 0.001 in studies with >7 PAHs).

CONCLUSIONS

It is necessary to avoid open flames of charcoal as the heat source or change the geometry of charcoal-fired cookstoves to prevent fat dripping on the fire and thus, excessive PAHs induction.

Protective Effects of Myricetin on Benzo[a]pyrene-Induced 8-Hydroxy-2'-Deoxyguanosine and BPDE-DNA Adduct

Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P), a group 1 carcinogen, induces mutagenic DNA adducts. Myricetin is present in many natural foods with diverse biological activities, such as anti-oxidative and anti-cancer activities. The aim of this study was to investigate the protective effects of myricetin against B[a]P-induced toxicity. Treatment of B[a]P induced cytotoxicity on HepG2 cells, whereas co-treatment of myricetin with B[a]P reduced the formation of the B[a]P-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide (BPDE)-DNA adduct, which recovered cell viability. Furthermore, we found a protective effect of myricetin against B[a]P-induced genotoxicity in rats, via myricetin-induced inhibition of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) and BPDE-DNA adduct formation in the liver, kidney, colon, and stomach tissue. This inhibition was more prominent in the liver than in other tissues. Correspondingly, myricetin regulated the phase I and II enzymes that inhibit B[a]P metabolism and B[a]P metabolites conjugated with DNA by reducing and inducing CYP1A1 and glutathione S-transferase (GST) expression, respectively. Taken together, this showed that myricetin attenuated B[a]P-induced genotoxicity via regulation of phase I and II enzymes. Our results suggest that myricetin is anti-genotoxic, and prevents oxidative DNA damage and BPDE-DNA adduct formation via regulation of phase I and II enzymes.

Chemical food contaminants during food processing: sources and control

With the development in international food trade, there has been emerging risks in the food chain. Food contamination can be caused by several factors in a complex food chain. This articles provides a comprehensive review of known chemical contaminants from the production of raw materials to the consumption of food products as well as prevention and control measures. Specifically, this review discusses the following topics, raw material contamination caused by environmental pollution, endogenous food contamination caused by processing methods, and cold chain system challenges in food e-commerce.

Symurban Nanocrystals for Advanced Anti-Pollution Skincare

Several of most common dermatoses worldwide, e.g., psoriasis and atopic dermatitis, are worsened in their clinical picture when the skin is regularly exposed to an increased air pollution level, e.g., particulate matter. This is explainable by the activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) in the skin, which results in an increased release of proinflammatory cytokines and matrix metalloproteinases. Symurban is a competitive AhR antagonist and thus allows the effective protection of skin. In order to improve its dermal bioavailability as a poorly soluble active agent (0.25 µg/mL), nanocrystals were prepared and evaluated. Nanocrystals are pure active crystals reduced in particle size to the submicron range of 100 to 1000 nm. They feature the properties of nanocrystals, such as increased saturation solubility and dissolution velocity, without having to be declared as nanomaterial. Production methods and parameters were systematically investigated. Wet bead milling at 2000 rpm for 30 min yielded the best results. A z-average of 280 nm was achieved for a 10% Symurban suspension with a polydispersity index of 0.20, indicating a narrow size distribution. For the long-term stabilization of the nanocrystal suspension, the performance of 15 surfactants of different categories and HLB values were investigated and evaluated. It was found that non-ionic surfactants in general were better able to stabilize the system than anionic or amphoteric surfactants. Highest stability of over 12 months at 25 °C was achieved with 2% Plantacare 810 UP, an ECOCERT surfactant with high skin tolerance. The suspension was also chemically long-term stable with >97% of remaining Symurban over 12 months. The saturation solubility of Symurban as nanocrystals was significantly increased from 0.25 to 2.9 μg/mL, which corresponds to a factor of >11. In a case study of one male volunteer with healthy skin conditions, penetration profiles of Symurban nanocrystal hydrogel and commercial anti-pollution serum containing an identical amount of Symurban were determined and compared. After 20 min of exposure, the relative Symurban concentration in the deeper skin layers (tape 19-30) was more than two times higher for nanocrystal hydrogel (16%) than the commercial serum (7%). These results suggest that nanocrystals are a promising delivery system for the poorly soluble anti-pollution agent Symurban.

Estimation of human exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) based on the dietary and outdoor atmospheric monitoring in the Czech Republic

In everyday life, humans can be exposed to various chemicals including ubiquitous polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) mostly through food consumption and/or inhalation. In the presented study, we evaluated PAH concentrations in duplicate samples (n = 251). Concurrently, the outdoor concentrations of PM2.5-bound PAHs in filters (n = 179) were also monitored. The daily exposure to PAHs was subsequently estimated for the risk group of pregnant women living in two different cities (Most city and Ceske Budejovice city) in the Czech Republic. This is the first unique study in Europe to evaluate human daily exposure to 20 PAHs both from inhalation (outdoor air) and dietary intake. For the analysis of samples collected during the years 2016/2017, a gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry was applied. Focusing on the diet samples, a slightly higher sum of detected PAHs was measured in duplicates obtained from the mothers living in the Most city (0.115-186 ng g^-1) compared to the Ceske Budejovice city (0.115-97.1 ng g^-1). This could be due to a higher occurrence of major analytes (pyrene, phenanthrene and fluoranthene) and the different composition of daily diet. The values of toxic and most often detected substance, namely benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), were also higher by 35% in the Most city. Regarding the outdoor air contamination (only particulate phase - PM2.5 was assessed), here the opposite situation was observed, relatively higher amounts of all PAHs were monitored in the Ceske Budejovice city (median: 2.22 ng m^-3) than in the Most city (median: 1.07 ng m^-3). These higher PAH concentrations in the Ceske Budejovice city are probably caused by more intense traffic, higher population and also by the occurrence of old-fashioned heating plant. Depending on a seasonal variability, especially during the cold season, the concentrations of BaP exceeded the European average emission limit (1 ng m^-3) by 1.5-6 times. This highest inhalation exposure to all PAHs was observed in February. However, the dietary intake still represents the dominant contributor (>90%) to the total PAH exposure.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) levels in urine samples collected in a subarctic region of the Northwest Territories, Canada

Traditional food consumption for Indigenous peoples is associated with improved nutrition and health but can also pose potential risks via exposure to contaminants. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are compounds of interest due to their widespread presence (e.g., their metabolites are detected in up to 100% of the Canadian population) and their toxicological potential. To better understand the range of exposures faced by Indigenous populations in northern Canada and to address a contaminant of emerging concern identified by the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, a multi-year biomonitoring study investigated levels of PAH exposure in subarctic First Nations communities of the Northwest Territories, Canada. Secondary data analysis of banked samples from a subset of the cross-sectional study was done. PAHs and cotinine markers in the urine samples (n = 97) of participants from two regions from the Mackenzie Valley (Dehcho and Sahtú) was completed by liquid and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. Also, participants completed a 24-hr recall food survey. When compared according to age/sex categories, the GM of several biomarkers (1-hydroxypyrene, 1-naphthol, 2-hydroxyfluorene, 2-hydroxyphenanthrene, 2-naphthol, 3-hydroxyfluorene, 3-hydroxyphenanthrene, 4-hydroxyphenanthrene, 9-hydroxyfluorene, 9-hydroxyphenanthrene) appeared higher than observed for the general Canadian population. The PAHs levels observed were, however, below clinical levels associated with adverse health outcomes. Altogether, these elevated biomarkers are metabolites of pyrene, naphthalene, fluorene and phenanthrene. Statistically significant non-parametric associations were observed between several biomarkers and i) the consumption of cooked meat in the last 24 h; and, ii) smoking status (self-reported status and adjusted on urine cotinine level). This work is the first to report PAH levels in a northern Canadian population and provides local baseline data for monitoring the effects of changes to climate and lifestyle over time. These findings will support regional and territorial decision makers in identifying environmental health priorities.

Effects of environmental and lifestyle exposures on urinary levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon metabolites: A cross-sectional study of urban adults in China

Urinary polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) metabolites, biomarkers of internal PAH exposure, are commonly used to explore the effects of PAH on human health. However, the correlation between environmental PAH exposure and the species or levels of urinary PAH metabolites remains unclear. We collected detailed information on PAH exposure sources, including cigarette smoking, cooking, traffic and diet habits via structured questionnaires, and determined 12 urinary monohydroxylated PAH metabolites (OH-PAHs) among 4092 participants from the Wuhan-Zhuhai cohort. Linear mixed models and generalized linear models were conducted to explore the associations of urinary metabolite levels with single or multiple PAH exposure sources. We also calculated the standardized regression coefficients to further compare the contributions of different sources to urinary OH-PAH levels. Our results showed that increasing levels of urinary 1-, 2-hydroxynaphthalene (1-, 2- OHNa) and 2-hydroxyfluorene (2-OHFlu) were significantly correlated with tobacco smoking (all P < 0.01). The concentrations of 1-, 2- OHNa and 9-hydroxyfluorene (9-OHFlu) were positively correlated with dietary intake (all P < 0.05). Individuals who spent a long time in traffic showed elevated levels of 9-OHFlu and 1-hydroxyphenanthrene (1-OHPh) compared with individuals who spent a short time in traffic (all P < 0.05). Self-cooking was associated only with elevated 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHP) levels. Moreover, good kitchen ventilation resulted in significantly decreased urinary low-molecular-weight OH-PAH levels. These findings suggested that cigarette smoking, self-cooking, high dietary PAH intake and a long time spent in traffic were associated with increased levels of specific urinary PAH metabolites, and good kitchen ventilation effectively reduced the exposure to low-molecular-weight PAHs in self-cooking participants.

Effects of Cooking Methods and Tea Marinades on the Formation of Heterocyclic Amines and Benzo[a]pyrene in Grilled Drumsticks

ABSTRACT

The effects of different grilling methods and tea marinades on the formation of heterocyclic amines (HCAs) and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) in grilled chicken drumsticks were investigated. This study showed that both the grilling method and type of charcoal used in charcoal grilling had a significant effect on the formation of HCAs and BaP. The total content of HCAs and BaP detected in drumsticks was the lowest under electric roasting, at 7.25 and 0.04 ng/g, respectively; thus, the electric grill can be used as an alternative grilling method to meet consumer demands for safety. The free radical scavenging ability of tea infusion was significantly higher than that of spice infusion. The white tea marinade significantly increased radical scavenging activity and prevented formation of HCAs and BaP more than the green tea marinade; thus, tea marinade can be applied to flavoring as a pretreatment to preserve the quality of meat and to decrease the generation of HCAs and BaP during cooking.

HIGHLIGHTS

The Influence of Different Smoking Procedures on the Content of 16 PAHs in Traditional Dry Cured Smoked Meat "Hercegovačka Pečenica"

During smoking, meat products may get contaminated by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), especially the ones that are smoked in traditional (uncontrolled) conditions. This study aims to evaluate the difference in PAH content in samples of traditional dry cured pork meat products, "Hercegovačka pečenica", produced in (1) a traditional smokehouse and (2) in industrial chambers. The study revealed that the content of the four priority PAHs (PAH4) in samples produced in a traditional smoking manner highly exceeded (up to 10 times) the maximal limits set for PAHs (12 µg/kg). PAH4 in all samples subjected to industrial smoking procedures was below the limit of quantification. All samples had below-the-limit-of-quantification values for Benzo[a]pyrene. The surface layer of the samples produced in traditional conditions had the highest total content of PAH16. The inner parts of all samples, whether traditional or industrial, had significantly lower PAH16 concentration than the surface layer.

Concentrations and distributions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon in vegetables and animal-based foods before and after grilling: Implication for human exposure

The effects of grilling on health risks posed by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in food remain poorly understood. The changes of concentrations, distributions, and risks of PAHs in vegetables and animal-based foods before and after grilling were investigated in this study. The sum of 16 (∑₁₆) PAH concentrations in grilled vegetables and grilled animal-based foods were 60.4-1936 and 69.1-4668 ng/g, respectively. Grilling markedly increased the ∑₁₆ PAH concentrations in most foods analyzed. Grilling clearly increased the low-molecular-weight PAH contributions to the ∑₁₆ PAH concentrations in vegetables but increased the heavier PAH contributions to the ∑₁₆ PAH concentrations in some animal-based foods. With the grilling, the total benzo[a]pyrene-equivalent concentrations of the 16 PAHs in Chinese chives and enoki mushrooms and most animal-based foods were improved significantly. Source assessments indicated that environmental sources contributed PAHs to the raw foods and high-temperature pyrolysis during grilling contributed large proportions of the PAHs in the grilled foods. The carcinogenic risks to humans from the exposure of PAHs in vegetables and animal-based foods were estimated. Grilling increased the total risks of PAHs in vegetables and animal-based foods by factors of 3.12 and 5.49, respectively. Total risks of PAHs in the 11 foods were 3.43 times higher when the foods were grilled than when raw. The results suggested that the negative effects of grilling on human health should be of great concern.

Curcumin Ameliorates Benzo[a]pyrene-Induced DNA Damages in Stomach Tissues of Sprague-Dawley Rats

Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) is a well-known carcinogen formed during the cooking process. Although BaP exposure has been implicated as one of the risk factors for lung cancer in animals and humans, there are only limited data on BaP-induced gastrointestinal cancer. Therefore, this study investigated the protective effects of curcumin on BaP-induced DNA damage in rat stomach tissues. BaP (20 mg/kg/day) and curcumin (50, 100, or 200 mg/kg) were administered daily to Sprague-Dawley rats by oral gavage over 30 days. Curcumin was pre-administered before BaP exposure. All rats were euthanized, and liver, kidney, and stomach tissues were removed at 24 h after the last treatment. We observed that aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and glucose levels were significantly reduced in rats treated with high dose co-administration of curcumin (200 mg/kg) compared to BaP alone. The expression levels of cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A1 and CYP1B1 were significantly increased in the liver of rats treated with BaP. However, co-administration of curcumin (200 mg/kg) with BaP markedly reduced CYP1A1 expression in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, plasma levels of BaP-diolepoxide (BPDE) and BaP metabolites were significantly reduced by co-administration of curcumin (200 mg/kg). Additionally, co-administration of curcumin (200 mg/kg) with BaP significantly reduced the formation of BPDE-I-DNA and 8-hydroxydeoxy guanosine (8-OHdG) adducts in the liver, kidney, and stomach tissues. The inhibition of these adduct formations were more prominent in the stomach tissues than in the liver. Overall, our observations suggest that curcumin might inhibit BaP-induced gastrointestinal tumorigenesis and shows promise as a chemopreventive agent.

Colonization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria on roots reduces the risk of PAH contamination in vegetables

This is a primary investigation on the mitigation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (phenanthrene as a model PAH) contamination in vegetables including water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica Forsk), pakchoi (Brassica campestris) and Chinese cabbage (Brassica chinensis) using a gfp-labeled PAH-degrading bacterium (RS1-gfp). Effective root colonization led to dense RS1-gfp populations inhabiting the rhizosphere and endosphere of the vegetables, which subsequently led to a reduction in phenanthrene accumulation and risk in vegetables. When compared with the controls without RS1-gfp, the amount of phenanthrene accumulation due to strain RS1-gfp colonization reduced by up to ~93.7% in roots and ~75.2% in shoots of vegetables, respectively. The estimated incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) for adults due to phenanthrene in vegetables was reduced by 24.6%-48% through RS1-gfp inoculation. The proposed method was developed to circumvent the risk of phenanthrene contamination in vegetables by inoculating PAH-degrading bacteria. The findings provide an in-depth understanding of PAH detoxification in agricultural plants grown on contaminated sites by exploiting bacteria like RS1-gfp, which portray both rhizo- and endophytic lifestyles.

Assessment of the physicochemical characteristics, chemical and microbiological safety of two types of kilichi, a grilled meat produced in Niger

Production of kilichi, a grilled meat of West Africa, is a common method of meat preservation in Niger. Thirty samples of condiments-coated kilichi and uncoated kilichi collected in Niger, were analyzed for microbiological contamination, as well as NaCl, protein and lipid contents, using standard methods. Contamination with Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) was also assessed using a HPLC-FLD technique. Highly significant differences (p < .001) were observed between coated kilichi and uncoated kilichi, for NaCl content (2.56% and 1.40%), for proteins (51% and 72%) and lipids (18% and 13%), respectively. Water activity was low in both kilichi, showing a potential microbial stability. Among the 15 European Union (EU) priority PAHs, 12 were detected in the samples. About 56.3% of coated kilichi samples exceeded the EU maximal limit for BaP, and 75% exceeded the EU maximal limit for the sum of 4 PAHs (PAH4). For uncoated kilichi, 28.6% of samples did not meet the standards for BaP and PAH4. About 6% of coated kilichi samples were not compliant with standards related to Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens, and 31%, 50% for yeasts and fungi, respectively. Escherichia coli and Enterobacteria were below the detection limit in both kilichi, but Salmonella and Bacillus cereus were detected only in one coated kilichi. The noncompliant samples of uncoated kilichi were in the proportions varying between 7% -86% for S. aureus, C. perfringens, yeasts, and fungi. This study showed potential risks associated with the consumption of traditionally produced kilichi in Niger due to both PAHs and pathogen bacteria contamination.

Simultaneous determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their chlorinated derivatives in grilled foods

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are unintentionally generated in foods that are cooked, and dietary ingestion of these PAHs is regarded as the dominant route of exposure to PAHs. Some chlorinated PAHs (ClPAHs) are more toxic than their corresponding parent PAHs and can also be generated in food during cooking. Knowledge of the concentrations of ClPAHs in cooked foods has been limited by the lack of an adequate analytical method for measuring ClPAH concentrations in cooked foods. In this study, we developed an analytical method for simultaneous determination of PAHs and ClPAHs in lipid-rich foods. The combination of a potassium hydroxide silica gel column and an activated carbon cartridge enabled us to simultaneously measure PAH and ClPAH concentrations in raw and grilled fish and meats. Twelve kinds of PAHs (e.g., fluorene [Fle], phenanthrene [Phe], fluoranthene [Flu], and pyrene [Pyr]) were detected in grilled foods. The concentrations ranged from below the limit of quantitation (<LOQ) to 310 ng g^-1. We also detected 9-monochlorinated Phe (9-ClPhe), 3-monochlorinated Flu (3-ClFlu), 8-monochlorinated Flu (8-ClFlu), and 1-monochlorinated Pyr (1-ClPyr); those concentrations ranged from <LOQ to 0.16 ng g^-1. The total concentrations of PAHs were significantly lower in gas-grilled meats than in charcoal-grilled meats. In contrast, the concentrations of ClPAHs were significantly higher in gas-grilled meats than in the charcoal-grilled meats. This pattern could be attributed to the difference of reaction temperatures needed to generate them. Toxic equivalent (TEQ) concentrations, which were calculated based on toxicities relative to benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), were much higher in the grilled foods (0.12-12 ng-BaP_eq g^-1) for PAHs than for ClPAHs (<LOQ to 0.026 ng-BaP_eq g^-1).

Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon content in heat-treated meat retailed in Egypt: Health risk assessment, benzo[a]pyrene induced mutagenicity and oxidative stress in human colon (CaCo-2) cells and protection using rosmarinic and ascorbic acids

This study was undertaken to estimate the concentrations of the formed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in heat-treated (boiled, pan-fried and grilled) meats collected from Egypt. Dietary intakes and cancer risks of PAHs among Egyptian adults were calculated. Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P)-induced mutagenicity and oxidative stress in human colon (CaCo-2) cell line and mechanisms behind such effects were also investigated. Finally, protection trials using rosmarinic (RMA) and ascorbic acids (ASA) were carried out. The results indicated formation of PAHs at high levels in the heat-treated meats. Calculated incremental life time cancer risk among Egyptian adults were 7.05179E-07, 7.00604 E-06 and 1.86069 E-05 due to ingestion of boiled, pan-fried and grilled meats, respectively. B[a]P-exposed CaCo-2 cells had high abilities for mutagenicity (490.05 ± 21.37 His + revertants) and production of reactive oxygen species. RMA and ASA protected CaCo-2 cells via reduction of B[a]P-induced mutagenicity and oxidative stress and upregulation of phase II detoxification enzymes and xenobiotic transporters.

Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and potentially toxic metals in commonly consumed beef sausage roll products in Nigeria

Levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and potentially toxic metals (PTMs) were determined in the commonly consumed beef sausage roll products (coded BS1 - BS6) in Nigeria. This was done in order to assess the safety of regular consumption of these products with respect to the substances determined. Three batches of six samples of beef sausage roll products were collected from Ile-Ife, Osun sate, Nigeria. A part of the pretreated sample was Soxhlet extracted using n-hexane and analyzed with Gas Chromatography coupled with Flame Ionization Detector (GC-FID) to identify and quantify each of the PAHs in the sample, while Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS) was used to profile the concentrations of As, Cd, Co, Cu, Pd, Mn and Zn in the digested sausage roll samples. Levels of PAHs in the samples ranged from 1.84 μg/g of Acenaphthylene in BS5 to 282.83 μg/g of Benzo[k]fluoranthene in BS1. Concentrations of benzo[a]pyrene in all the samples were higher than the guideline value of 0.003 mg/kg/day. For PTMs, a range of 0.075 μg/g As in both BS1 and BS6 to 2.950 μg/g Cu in BS3 was obtained. The study concluded that both PAHs and PTMs occurred in the samples at levels that called for caution on the part of consumers to prevent health infarctions that might be associated with prolonged regular and large consumption of beef sausage roll products.

The impact on T-regulatory cell related immune responses in rural women exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in household air pollution in Gansu, China: A pilot investigation

Previous studies found associations between impairments of immune functions and exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in ambient air pollution in the U. S. and China. However, the results remain inconclusive due to the limitations of these studies. In this study, we aimed to examine the direction and magnitude of immune changes related to PAH exposure from household air pollution among rural women living in Gansu, China. Healthy village women (n = 34) were recruited and enrolled in the study. Questionnaires were administered. Blood and urine samples were collected and analyzed during non-heating (September 2017, "summer") and heating (January 2018, "winter") seasons. Urinary 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHP) was quantified as the biomarker of PAH exposure. To evaluate Treg cell related immune functions, we examined immunoglobulin E (IgE), percent of T-regulatory (Treg) cells, and gene expression of following: forkhead box transcription factor 3 (Foxp3), transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), interleukin 10 (IL-10), and interleukin 35 (IL-35), composed of interleukin-12 alpha (IL-12α) and Epstein-Barr-virus-induced gene 3 (EBi3). Urinary 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) was measured to evaluate oxidative DNA damage. The results showed that the concentration of 1-OHP increased from 0.90 to 17.4 μmol mol-Cr ^-1 from summer to winter (p < 0.001). Meanwhile, average percent of Treg cells decreased from 5.01% to 1.15% (p < 0.001); IgE and mRNA expressions of Foxp3, TGF-β, IL-10, IL-12α and EBi3 all significantly decreased (p < 0.001); Urinary 8-OHdG increased from 12.7 to 30.3 ng mg-Cr ^-1 (p < 0.001). The changes in 8-OHdG, Foxp3 and TGF-β were significantly associated with the increase of 1-OHP. The results suggested that we observed a substantial increase of PAH exposure in winter, which was significantly associated with the repression on Treg cell function and oxidative DNA damage. Exposure to PAHs in household air pollution possibly induced immune impairments among rural women in northwest China.

Phenolic compounds in beer inhibit formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from charcoal-grilled chicken wings

The effect of various beer marinades on formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in charcoal-grilled chicken wings (CWs) and the active ingredients in beer contributing to inhibition of PAH formation were studied. The 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging activity and total phenolic content (TPC) of six beers were evaluated. LC-MS analysis indicated a total of 32 phenolic compounds, among which we screened 11 to verify the inhibition of select PAH production. The total stable free radicals and selected PAH content of charcoal-grilled CWs were assayed, revealing a positive correlation. Heineken exhibited the highest phenol content and excellent performance in TPC (393.86 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/L), ability to scavenge free radicals (27.0%), and the most effective inhibition of PAH8 formation (67%). Our study supplies a theoretical foundation for using edible materials rich in phenolic compounds as potential natural inhibitors of PAHs formed during the cooking process.

Study of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons generated from fatty acids by a model system

BACKGROUND

The characteristics of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) produced from various fatty acids, as important components of fats and oils, at high temperature are still little known. The reason is because the existing data are from experiments conducted in complex food systems. In this study, 12 PAHs produced from nine fatty acids, representing saturated fatty acids (SFAs), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), were investigated in a model system heated at 98, 165 and 240 °C.

RESULTS

SFAs can with difficulty be pyrolyzed to generate PAHs at 98 °C, but small amounts of PAHs were determined in MUFAs (44.97 µg kg^-1 ) and PUFAs (177.73 µg kg^-1 ). When the temperature reached 165 °C, there were totals of 27.59, 142.8 and 449.68 µg kg^-1 PAHs assayed in SFAs, MUFAs and PUFAs, respectively. The amounts of PAHs generated from SFAs, MUFAs and PUFAs at 240 °C were higher when compared with those of the 165 °C group (P < 0.05). With an increase of heating temperature, the proportion of PAHs with four to five rings increased. Under the same heating conditions, the concentration of PAHs in fatty acids increased with an increase in the number of double bonds.

CONCLUSIONS

More PAHs, especially carcinogenic ones with four to five rings, will be produced in fatty acids heated at higher temperature. The content of PAHs generated from fatty acids increased with an increase in the number of double bonds. This study will increase the understanding of the production characteristics of PAHs from various fatty acids under heating condition. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Xenobiotics Formed during Food Processing: Their Relation with the Intestinal Microbiota and Colorectal Cancer

The colonic epithelium is exposed to a mixture of compounds through diet, among which some are procarcinogens, whereas others have a protective effect. Therefore, the net impact of these compounds on human health depends on the overall balance between all factors involved. Strong scientific evidence has demonstrated the relationship between nitrosamines (NA), heterocyclic amines (HCAs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are the major genotoxins derived from cooking and food processing, and cancer. The mechanisms of the relationship between dietary toxic xenobiotics and cancer risk are not yet well understood, but it has been suggested that differences in dietary habits affect the colonic environment by increasing or decreasing the exposure to mutagens directly and indirectly through changes in the composition and activity of the gut microbiota. Several changes in the proportions of specific microbial groups have been proposed as risk factors for the development of neoplastic lesions and the enrichment of enterotoxigenic microbial strains in stool. In addition, changes in the gut microbiota composition and activity promoted by diet may modify the faecal genotoxicity/cytotoxicity, which can be associated with a higher or lower risk of developing cancer. Therefore, the interaction between dietary components and intestinal bacteria may be a modifiable factor for the development of colorectal cancer in humans and deserves more attention in the near future.

Health risk from dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a typical high cancer incidence area in southwest China

This study was designed to test whether the dietary intake of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is a potential exposure source relating to the high cancer incidence area in southwest China. Duplicate plate method was used to collect food samples in rural and urban sites in the region. Questionnaire surveys were conducted among 300 local residents to obtain their dietary habits and 50 subjects were chosen to collect the samples. The 16 priority PAHs (PAH₁₆) in composite food samples for each individual subject were measured, and non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks were analyzed based on the results of Monte Carlo method. The average concentration of the PAH₁₆ in food samples was 12.04 ± 8.52 ng g^-1. The life time average daily benzo(a)pyrene equivalent (BaP_eq) exposure dose was 6.07 × 10^-6 mg kg^-1 day^-1. Although non-carcinogenic risk was found to be within a controllable range, the average incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) was 3.7 × 10^-5 for rural subjects and 6.1 × 10^-5 for urban subjects, which is comparable with other regions in China. The serious risk level of 10^-4 was exceeded by 10.7% of urban residents and 2.1% of rural residents. This study implies that dietary exposure to PAHs is a potential exposure source to the high cancer in the region, and further cancer risk control strategies need to be formulated.

Small Molecular Weight Aldose (d-Glucose) and Basic Amino Acids (l-Lysine, l-Arginine) Increase the Occurrence of PAHs in Grilled Pork Sausages

(1) Background: Amino acids and carbohydrates are widely used as additives in the food industry. These compounds have been proven to be an influencing factor in the production of chemical carcinogenic compounds polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). However, the effect of the properties of the amino acids and carbohydrates on the production of PAHs is still little known. (2) Methods: We added different (i) R groups (the R group represents an aldehyde group in a glucose molecule or a ketone group in a fructose molecule); (ii) molecular weight carbohydrates; (iii) polarities, and (iv) acid-base amino acids to pork sausages. The effects of the molecular properties of carbohydrates and amino acids on the formation of PAHs in grilled pork sausages were investigated. (3) Results: The results showed that a grilled sausage with aldehyde-based d-glucose was capable of producing more PAHs than a sausage with keto-based d-fructose. A higher PAH content was determined in the grilled pork sausage when the smaller molecular weight, d-glucose, was added compared with the sausage where the larger molecular weight, 4-(α-d-glucosido)-d-glucose and cellulose were added. The addition of basic amino acids (l-lysine, l-arginine) was capable of producing more PAHs compared with the addition of acidic amino acids (l-glutamic acid, l-aspartate). When amino acid containing a benzene ring was added, a smaller volume of PAHs was produced compared with the addition of other amino acids. (4) Conclusions: Our study suggests that systematic consideration of molecule properties is necessary when using food additives (amino acids and carbohydrates) for food processing.

Probabilistic approach for assessing cancer risk due to benzo[a]pyrene in barbecued meat: Informing advice for population groups

BACKGROUND

Consumption of meat prepared by barbecuing is associated with risk of cancer due to formation of carcinogenic compounds including benzo[a]pyrene (BaP). Assessment of a population's risk of disease and people's individual probability of disease given specific consumer attributes may direct food safety strategies to where impact on public health is largest. The aim of this study was to propose a model that estimates the risk of cancer caused by exposure to BaP from barbecued meat in Denmark, and to estimate the probability of developing cancer in subgroups of the population given different barbecuing frequencies.

METHODS

We developed probabilistic models applying two dimensional Monte Carlo simulation to take into account the variation in exposure given age and sex and in the individuals' sensitivity to develop cancer after exposure to BaP, and the uncertainty in the dose response model. We used the Danish dietary consumption survey, monitoring data of chemical concentrations, data on consumer behavior of frequency of barbecuing, and animal dose response data.

FINDINGS

We estimated an average extra lifetime risk of cancer due to BaP from barbecued meat of 6.8 × 10-5 (95% uncertainty interval 2.6 × 10-7 - 7.0 × 10-4) in the Danish population. This corresponds to approximately one to 4,074 extra cancer cases over a lifetime, reflecting wide uncertainty. The impact per barbecuing event on the risk of cancer for men and women of low body weight was higher compared to higher bodyweight. However, the difference due to sex and bodyweight between subgroups are dwarfed by the uncertainty.

INTERPRETATION

This study proposes a model that can be applied to other substances and routes of exposure, and allows for deriving the change in risk following a specific change in behaviour. The presented methodology can serve as a valuable tool for risk management, allowing for the formulation of behaviour advice targeted to specific sub-groups in the population.

Data on concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in roasted and fried chicken - A case study: Bushehr, Iran

In the present data article, the presence and amount of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were surveyed in Iranian roasted and fried chicken in Bushehr restaurants. For data collection, 73 samples (including 36 Roasted chicken and 37 Fried chicken samples) were collected from local restaurants and various retail outlets of Bushehr, Iran. The concentrations of 16 PAHs were determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Results indicated that the total PAHs level was ranged from 4.20 to 32.29 mg/kg and 2.06–19.65 µg/kg in Roasted and Fried chicken, respectively. The differences in PAHs levels were observed among charcoal and gas-roasted samples as well as between chicken fried with different oil types. benzo[a] pyrene(BaP), an appropriate marker for occurrence and potential toxicity of PAHs food matrixes was found in all roasted samples ranged from 1.41–5.71 mg/kg and all fried samples in range of 0.9–3.32 µg/kg. Moreover, unsaturated fatty acid (UFA) and saturated fatty acid (SFA) ratios in the in the used vegetable oils had an important role in the generation of PAHs in fried chicken.

Occurrence, dietary exposure, and health risk estimation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in grilled and fried meats in Shandong of China

There is a lack of information regarding the quantitative determination and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in grilled and fried meat products in Shandong Province of China. The aim of this work was firstly to detect the contamination levels of 15 PAHs in 52 grilled and fried meats consumed by the population of Shandong Province, China. In brief, concentrations of the sum of 15 PAHs in individual samples were ranged from 8.23 to 341 μg/kg with a mean contamination level of 63.3 μg/kg. Moreover, the factors for the formation of PAHs in these samples have been identified and analyzed. One grilled meat sample exceeded the maximum limits of 2 and 12 μg/kg set for BaP and PAH4 by the European Union. For a further step, the mean dietary exposures for total PAHs from grilled and fried meat products were estimated to be 120 and 74.8 ng/kg bw/day, respectively. Finally, the health risk estimation was performed using the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) approach. The obtained values of four groups were all lower than 10-4, indicating a slight potential carcinogenic risk of consumer health. This study was the first attempt to provide baseline information of potential health risk of dietary exposure of PAH-containing grilled and fried meats, which could be useful for health management of the local consumers.