Pesticides: formulants, distribution pathways and effects on human health - a review

Pesticide Take-Home Pathways, Storage, and Application Methods Among Hmong Farmers in Central Valley, California

OBJECTIVE

Pesticide exposure via take-home pathways is a major health concern among farmers. However, little is known about the effects of pesticide take-home pathways on small-scale Hmong farmers in the Central Valley. This study explored factors that contribute to pesticide exposure via the take-home pathway among small-scale Hmong farmers in the Central Valley.

METHODS

Detailed ethnographic observations of small-scale farms and corresponding homes were coupled with in-depth qualitative interviews with Hmong farmers to assess the extent of the pesticide take-home pathway.

RESULTS

The study found daily challenges and numerous ways that pesticide particles may be introduced into farmers' homes. Given the paucity of research about Hmong farmers' pesticide take-home pathways, the study's findings advance the scholarship on pesticide exposures in the Hmong farmer community.

CONCLUSION

This study advocates for more culturally and linguistically appropriate pesticide exposure training and educational programs tailored to Hmong farmers in the United States.

Bioaccumulation of pesticides in fish resulting toxicities in humans through food chain and forensic aspects

A crucial component for agricultural productivity is pesticide application. Increased usage of pesticides has significantly increased agricultural output, reduced grain losses in storage, and overall enhanced human wellbeing. Globally, every year approximately 3 billion kg of pesticides are used which budgets around 40 billion USD. Pesticide use can leave behind unwanted residues that can contaminate food, the environment, and living tissues. They are known to spread from agricultural regions that have been treated into the wider environment, where they affect non-target creatures. All tiers of biological organisms, directly impacted by this exposure. Pesticides at sub-lethal levels alter every aspect of a fish's physiology, including histology, haematology, defence mechanisms, and behaviour. The same topic of pesticide toxicology is the emphasis of this article, which also addresses some important induced chronic toxicological effects of pesticides in fish and the extent of their bioaccumulation in fish tissues. The data represents the largest bodies of water, such as rivers and lakes, that have been contaminated by pesticides, notably due to pesticide drift. It has been discussed how readily pesticides are absorbed into fish bodies and how this enters the food chain inducing harmful impacts on human health when consumed.

Toxicity analysis of endocrine disrupting pesticides on non-target organisms: A critical analysis on toxicity mechanisms

Endocrine disrupting compounds are the chemicals which mimics the natural endocrine hormones and bind to the receptors made for the hormones. Upon binding they activate the cascade of reaction which leads to permanent activating of the signalling cycle and ultimately leads to uncontrolled growth. Pesticides are one of the endocrine disrupting chemicals which cause cancer, congenital birth defects, and reproductive defects in non-target organisms. Non-target organisms are keen on exposing to these pesticides. Although several studies have reported about the pesticide toxicity. But a critical analysis of pesticide toxicity and its role as endocrine disruptor is lacking. Therefore, the presented review literature is an endeavour to understand the role of the pesticides as endocrine disruptors. In addition, it discusses about the endocrine disruption, neurological disruption, genotoxicity, and ROS induced pesticide toxicity. Moreover, biochemical mechanisms of pesticide toxicity on non-target organisms have been presented. An insight on the chlorpyrifos toxicity on non-target organisms along with species names have been presented.

Effect of pesticides on phosphorylation of tau protein, and its influence on Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive and neurodegenerative illness which results in alterations in cognitive development. It is characterized by loss/dysfunction of cholinergic neurons, and formation of amyloid plaques, and formation of neurofibrillary tangles, among other changes, due to hyperphosphorylation of tau-protein. Exposure to pesticides in humans occurs frequently due to contact with contaminated food, water, or particles. Organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates, pyrethroids and neonicotinoids are associated with the most diagnosed incidents of severe cognitive impairment. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of these pesticides on the phosphorylation of tau protein, and its cognitive implications in the development of AD. It was found that exposure to pesticides increased the phosphorylation of tau protein at sites Ser198, Ser199, Ser202, Thr205, Ser396 and Ser404. Contact with these chemicals altered the enzymatic activities of cyclin-dependent kinase 5 and glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta, and protein phosphatase-2A. Moreover, it altered the expression of the microtubule associated protein tau gene, and changed levels of intracellular calcium. These changes affected tau protein phosphorylation and neuroinflammation, and also increased oxidative stress. In addition, the exposed subjects had poor level of performance in tests that involved evaluation of novelty, as test on verbal, non-verbal, spatial memory, attention, and problem-solving skills.

Seasonal variation in pesticide residue occurrences in surface waters found in Narok and Bomet Counties, Kenya

Narok and Bomet are agricultural counties in Kenya which depend on flowing surface waters for farming activities. Agrochemicals have frequently been used to increase agricultural produce in this region. Occasionally, appropriate pesticide utilization measures are not followed. These surface waters are also consumed domestically by humans, livestock, and wild animals thus posing safety concerns to them. The current study sought to evaluate the levels and nature of pesticide residues found in surface waters in the dry and wet seasons of these counties. Eight water samples were collected in July (dry season) and October (wet season) at four different river sites in each of the two counties predetermined by the agricultural activity of its proximate environs. Pesticides extracted by solid phase extraction were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. At least 38 different pesticides were detected in the two counties with the highest concentration being recorded for chlorpyrifos and piperidine in Narok and Bomet counties, respectively. The pesticides chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, cyfluthrin, and cyhalothrin were more prevalent in Narok County while triazine, semicarbazone, and epinephrine were more prevalent in Bomet County. There were significantly more pesticides detected during the wet season (P ≤ 0.05). Out of the nine prevalent pesticides detected, four of them posed serious ecotoxicology concerns with risk quotients above 1.0 (high risk); thus, there is a need for more government policy interventions in deterring farming near riparian lands and in training of famers regarding best practice for pesticide applications.

Research of Pesticide Metabolites in Human Brain Tumor Tissues by Chemometrics-Based Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Analysis for a Hypothetical Correlation between Pesticide Exposure and Risk Factor of Central Nervous System Tumors

Pesticides are widely used, resulting in continuing human exposure with potential health impacts. Some exposures related to agricultural works have been associated with neurological disorders. Since the 2000s, the hypothesis of the role of pesticides in the occurrence of central nervous system (CNS) tumors has been better documented in the literature. However, the etiology of childhood brain cancers still remains largely unknown. The major objective of this work was to assess the potential role of pesticide exposure as a risk factor for CNS tumors based on questionnaires and statistical analysis of information collected from patients hospitalized in the Neurosurgery Department of the Habib Bourguiba Hospital Medium in Sfax, Tunisia, during the period from January 1, 2022, to May 31, 2023. It also aimed to develop a simple and rapid analytical method by the gas chromatography-mass spectrometry technique for the research traces of pesticide metabolites in some collected human brain tumor tissues in order to more emphasize our hypothesis for such a correlation between pesticide exposure and brain tumor development. Patients with a history of high-risk exposure were selected to conduct further analysis. Chemometric methods were adapted to discern intrinsic variation between pathological and control groups and ascertain effective separation with the identification of differentially expressed metabolites accountable for such variations. Three samples revealed traces of pesticide metabolites that were mostly detected at an early age. The histopathological diagnosis was medulloblastoma for a 10-year-old child and high-grade gliomas for 27- and 35-year-old adults. The bivariate analyses (odds ratio >1 and P value <5%) confirmed the great probability of developing cancer by an exposure case. The Cox proportional hazards model revealed the risk of carcinogenicity beyond the age of 50 as a long-term effect of pesticide toxicity. Our study supports the correlation between pesticide exposure and the risk of development of human brain tumors, suggesting that preconception pesticide exposure, and possibly exposure during pregnancy, is associated with an increased childhood brain tumor risk. This hypothesis was enhanced in identifying traces of metabolites from the carbamate insecticide class known for their neurotoxicity and others from pyridazinone, organochlorines (OCs), triazole fungicide, and N-nitroso compounds known for their carcinogenicity. The 2D-OXYBLOT analysis confirmed the neurotoxicity effect of insecticides to induce oxidative damage in CNS cells. Aldicarb was implicated in brain carcinogenicity confirmed by the identification of oxime metabolites in a stress degradation study. Revealing "aziridine" metabolites from the OC class may better emphasize the theory of detecting traces of pesticide metabolites at an early age. Overall, our findings lead to the recommendation of limiting the residential use of pesticides and the support of public health policies serving this objective that we need to be vigilant in the postmarketing surveillance of human health impacts.

Simultaneous Screening of 322 Residual Pesticides in Fruits and Vegetables Using GC-MS/MS and Deterministic Health Risk Assessments

The development of efficient methods for evaluating pesticide residues is essential in order to ensure the safety and quality of agricultural products since the Republic of Korea implemented the Positive List System (PLS). The objective of this research was to establish a method for the simultaneous analysis of 322 pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables (such as coffee, potato, corn, and chili pepper), using the quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) approach in combination with gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). This study introduces a robust, high-throughput GC-MS/MS method for screening the target pesticide residues in agricultural products, achieving the PLS criterion of 0.01 mg/kg LOQ. Despite some compounds not aligning with the CODEX recovery guideline, sufficient reproducibility was confirmed, attesting to the method's applicability in qualitative analyses. A health risk assessment conducted using estimated daily intake/acceptable daily intake ratios indicated low risks associated with product consumption (<0.035391%), thereby confirming their safety. This efficient method holds significant implications for the safe distribution of agricultural products, including during import inspections.

Maternal pesticide exposure and risk of preterm birth: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Maternal pesticide exposure might be associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes through triggering inflammation and oxidative stress and disrupting endocrine functions. Yet the association between prenatal pesticide exposure and risk of preterm birth remains inconclusive.

OBJECTIVES

To conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of human observational studies using the Office of Health Assessment and Translation (OHAT) framework to explore the association of per ten-fold increase of pesticide concentrations in maternal biological samples during pregnancy with risk of preterm birth and length of gestational age at birth.

DATA SOURCE

Five English (PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, Web of Science and Scopus) and 3 Chinese databases (China national knowledge infrastructure (CNKI), Wanfang Data, and Chinese Biomedical Literature Database (CBM)) were searched till Jan 18th, 2023.

STUDY ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA, PARTICIPANTS, AND INTERVENTIONS

To be included, pesticide exposure should be measured in maternal biological samples during pregnancy and in log-transformed forms. The primary outcome was preterm birth and the secondary outcome was gestational age at birth.

STUDY APPRAISAL, SYNTHESIS METHODS AND CONFIDENCE ASSESSMENT

Quality of studies was evaluated using OHAT Risk of Bias Tool. Evidence was quantitatively synthesized with Correlated and Hierarchical Effects (CHE) model. The confidence rating in the body of evidence was done using OHAT.

RESULTS

A total of 21 studies reported by 18 papers were included, with 7 studies for preterm birth and 19 for gestational age at birth. The meta-analysis found a ten-fold increase of pesticide concentrations was potentially associated with risk of preterm birth (pooled OR = 1.28; 95%CI: 0.93, 1.78) and shortened gestational age at birth (β = -0.10; 95%CI: -0.21, 0.01). Sampling biospecimens in different trimesters was identified as a potential modifier in the association between pesticide exposure and length of gestational age (F = 2.77, P < 0.05). For studies that collected samples at any time during pregnancy, pesticide exposure was found to be associated with shortened length of gestational age (β = -0.43; 95%CI: -0.81, -0.06). The confidence rating in the body of evidence was "moderate" and "very low" for preterm birth and gestational age at birth, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Our result suggested moderate evidence of an association between pesticide exposure and higher risk of preterm birth. Yet more studies are still needed with larger sample size and careful considerations of confounders and accuracy of outcome measurements. Attention is also required on other pesticide compounds in addition to organochlorine and organophosphorus pesticides, and on windows of susceptibility.

Nanozymes paper-based analytical device for the detection of organophosphate pesticides in fruits and vegetables

In this work, copper oxide nanoparticles (CuONPs) nanozymes paper-based analytical device was designed for the rapid detection of organophosphate pesticides in fruits and vegetables. The paper-based analytical device was modified with silica oxide nanoparticles to enhance the assay sensitivity. CuO nanozymes displayed peroxidase-like activity and catalyzed the oxidation of o-dianisidine in the presence of H₂O₂ from the hydrolysis of acetylthiocholine. This results in the formation of a brown-colored product. In the presence of organophosphate pesticides such as malathion, acetylcholinesterase activity was inhibited, resulting in reduced color intensity production, and which was measured with a smartphone. The proposed nanozymes paper-based analytical device exhibited a good linear detection range (0.1-5 mg L^-1), a low detection limit of 0.08 mg L^-1, and the analysis time was only about 10 min for malathion detection under optimal conditions. Moreover, the CuONPs had excellent catalytic activity and higher stability than peroxidase. Finally, this device can be applied to detect organophosphate pesticides in fruits and vegetables with rapidity, accuracy, portability, and ease of handling in the field.

Recent trends in pesticides in crops: A critical review of the duality of risks-benefits and the Brazilian legislation issue

Due to the increasing population worldwide, in recent years, an exponential increase in agricultural practices has occurred in order to attend to the growing demand for food. Unfortunately, this increase is not associated with the supply of foodstuffs free of environmental pollutants. In Brazil, agriculture is one of the most important economic pillars, making the country one of the largest consumers of pesticides around the world. The intense use of pesticides, mainly glyphosate, 2,4-D, and atrazine, constitutes an essential factor in the viability of this great agricultural productivity. Sugarcane, corn, soybean, and citrus crops consume around 66% of the total pesticides worldwide, representing 76% of the planted area. Pesticide residues have been frequently detected in food and the environment, becoming a significant concern for human health. Monitoring programs for pesticide use are essential to reduce the potential negative impacts on the environment and improve the overall efficiency and sustainability of their use. However, in Brazil, the approval status of pesticide-active ingredients is very discrepant compared to other agricultural countries. Moreover, the duality of benefits and risks of pesticide application creates an economic and toxicological conflict. In this paper, we have critically reviewed the duality of risks-benefits of the use of pesticides in agriculture and the current Brazilian legislation issues. We have also compared this flawed legislation with other countries with high economic potential. Due to the negative environmental impacts on soil and water by the high levels of pesticides, remediation techniques, sustainable agriculture, and the development of new technologies can be considered some viable alternatives to reduce the levels in these compartments. Besides, this paper includes some recommendations that can be included in the coming years.

Simultaneous Analysis of 53 Pesticides in Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) by Using LC-MS/MS Coupled with a Modified QuEChERS Technique

OBJECTIVE

An optimized quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) technique was investigated and compared with the conventional QuEChERS technique for the simultaneous analysis of fifty-three pesticide residues in safflower using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS).

METHOD

Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄) consisting of a major amount of carbon and nitrogen with a large surface area was used as a QuEChERS adsorbent instead of graphitized carbon black (GCB) for safflower extraction purification. Validation experiments were performed using spiked pesticide samples, and real samples were analyzed.

RESULTS

The linearity of the modified QuEChERS technique was evaluated with high coefficients of determination (R-2) being higher than 0.99. The limits of detection were <10 μg/kg. The spiked recoveries ranged from 70.4% to 97.6% with a relative standard deviation of less than 10.0%. The fifty-three pesticides exhibited negligible matrix effects (<20%). Thiamethoxam, acetamiprid, metolachlor, and difenoconazole were detected in real samples using an established method.

CONCLUSION

This work provides a new g-C₃N₄-based modified QuEChERS technique for multi-pesticide residue analysis in complex food matrices.

Highly-Selective Analytical Strategy for 90 Pesticides and Metabolites Residues in Fish and Shrimp Samples

The analysis of pesticide residues in aquatic products is challenging due to low residue levels and the complex matrix interference. In this study, we developed a simple, fast method for the trace analysis of 90 pesticides and metabolites in aquatic products. The analytes covered a wide polarity range with log Kow (log octanol-water partition coefficient) ranging from -1.2 to 6.37. Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) and prawn (Penaeus chinensis) samples were chosen to validate the quantification method. The samples were extracted by 0.2% formic-acetonitrile, cleaned by solid-phase extraction (PRiME HLB), and analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The results showed good linearities for the analytes and were observed in the range of 0.05-50 μg/L. The recoveries of the method were within 50.4-118.6%, with the relative standard deviations being lower than 20%. The limits of quantifications (LOQs) of the method were in the range of 0.05-5.0 μg/kg, which were superior to values compared with other research. The developed method was applied to detect pesticide residues in prawn samples from eastern coastal areas of China. Three herbicide residues of diuron, prometryn, and atrazine were detected in prawn samples. The method was sensitive and efficient, which is of significance in expanding the screening scope and improving the quantitative analysis efficiency in aquatic products.

Amelioration of Hepatotoxic and Neurotoxic Effect of Cartap by Aloe vera in Wistar Rats

Pesticide exposure can pose a serious risk to nontarget animals. Cartap is being broadly used in agricultural fields. The toxic effects of cartap on the levels of hepatotoxicity and neurotoxicity have not been properly studied in mammalian systems. Therefore, the present work focused on the effect of cartap on the liver and brain of Wistar rats and made an assessment of the ameliorating potential of A. vera. The experimental animals were divided into 4 groups, comprising six rats in each: Group 1-Control; Group 2-A. vera; Group 3-Cartap; and Group 4-A. vera + Cartap. The animals orally given cartap and A. vera were sacrificed after 24 h of the final treatment and histological and biochemical investigations were conducted in liver and brain of Wistar rats. Cartap at sublethal concentrations caused substantial decreases in CAT, SOD, and GST levels in the experimental rats. The activity levels of transaminases and phosphatases in cartap group were also found to be substantially altered. The AChE activity was recorded as decreasing in RBC membrane and brain of the cartap-treated animals. The TNF-α and IL-6 level in serum were increased expressively in the cartap challenged groups. Histological investigation of liver showed disorganized hepatic cords and severely congested central veins due to cartap. However, the A. vera extract was observed to significantly protect against the effects of cartap toxicity. The protective impact of A. vera against cartap toxicity may be due to the existence of antioxidants in it. These findings suggest that A. vera may be developed as a potential supplement to the appropriate medication in the treatment of cartap toxicity.

Four Most Pathogenic Superfamilies of Insect Pests of Suborder Sternorrhyncha: Invisible Superplunderers of Plant Vitality

Sternorrhyncha representatives are serious pests of agriculture and forestry all over the world, primarily causing damage to woody plants. Sternorrhyncha members are vectors for the transfer of a large number of viral diseases, and subsequently, the host plant weakens. Additionally, many are inherent in the release of honeydew, on which fungal diseases develop. Today, an innovative approach is needed to create new and effective ways to control the number of these insects based on environmentally friendly insecticides. Of particular relevance to such developments is the need to take into account the large number of organisms living together with insect pests in this group, including beneficial insects. Practically without changing their location on their host plant, they adopted to be more invisible and protected due to their small size, symbiosis with ants, the ability to camouflage with a leaf, and moderately deplete plants and others, rarely leading them to death but still causing substantial economic loss in the subtropics and tropics. Due to the lack of presence in the literature, this review fills in this pesky spot by examining (on the example of distinct species from four superfamilies) the characteristic adaptations for this suborder and the chemical methods of combating these insects that allow them to survive in various environmental conditions, suggesting new and highly promising ways of using olinscides for plant protection against Sternorrhyncha members.

Insights into the ubiquity, persistence and microbial intervention of imidacloprid

Imidacloprid, a neonicotinoid pesticide, is employed to increase crop productivity. Meanwhile, its indiscriminate application severely affects the non-target organisms and the environment. As an eco-friendly and economically workable option, the microbial intervention has garnered much attention. This review concisely outlines the toxicity, long-term environmental repercussions, degradation kinetics, biochemical pathways, and interplay of genes implicated in imidacloprid remediation. The studies have highlighted imidacloprid residue persistence in the environment for up to 3000 days. In view of high persistence, effective intervention is highly required. Bacteria-mediated degradation has been established as a viable approach with Bacillus spp. being among the most efficient at 30 ℃ and pH 7. Further, a comparative metagenomic investigation reveals dominant neonicotinoid degradation genes in agriculture compared to forest soils with distinctive microbial communities. Functional metabolism of carbohydrates, amino acids, fatty acids, and lipids demonstrated a significantly superior relative abundance in forest soil, implying its quality and fertility. The CPM, CYP4C71v2, CYP4C72, and CYP6AY3v2 genes that synthesize cyt p450 monooxygenase enzyme play a leading role in imidacloprid degradation. In the future, a systems biology approach incorporating integrated kinetics should be utilized to come up with innovative strategies for moderating the adverse effects of imidacloprid on the environment.

Selected herbicides screened for toxicity and analysed as inhibitors of both cholinesterases

Sets of 346 herbicides in use and 163 outdated no longer in use were collected from open access online sources and compared in silico with cholinesterases inhibitors (ChI) and drugs in terms of physicochemical profile and estimated toxic effects on human health. The screening revealed at least one potential adverse consequence for each herbicide class assigned according to their mode of action on weeds. The classes with most toxic warnings were K1, K3/N, F1 and E. The selection of 11 commercial herbicides for in vitro biological tests on human acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), the enzymes involved in neurotoxicity and detoxification of various xenobiotics, respectively, was based mainly on the structural similarity with inhibitors of cholinesterases. Organophosphate anilofos and oxyacetanilide flufenacet were the most potent inhibitors of AChE (25 μM) and BChE (6.4 μM), respectively. Glyphosate, oxadiazon, tembotrione and terbuthylazine were poor inhibitors with an estimated IC₅₀ above 100 μM, while for glyphosate the IC₅₀ was above 1 mM. Generally, all of the selected herbicides inhibited with a slight preference towards BChE. Cytotoxicity assays showed that anilofos, bensulide, butamifos, piperophos and oxadiazon were cytotoxic for hepatocytes (HepG2) and neuroblastoma cell line (SH-SY5Y). Time-independent cytotoxicity accompanied with induction of reactive oxygen species indicated rapid cell death in few hours. Our results based on in silico and in vitro analyses give insight into the potential toxic outcome of herbicides in use and can be applied in the design of new molecules with a less hazardous impact on humans and the environment.

Recent innovations and challenges in the eradication of emerging contaminants from aquatic systems

Presence of emerging pollutants (EPs), aka Micropollutants (MPs) in the freshwater environments is a severe threat to the environment and human beings. They include pharmaceuticals, insecticides, industrial chemicals, natural hormones, and personal care items and the pollutants are mostly present in wastewater generated from urbanization and increased industrial growth. Even concentrations as low as ngL^-1 or mgL^-1 have proven ecologically lethal to aquatic biota. For several years, the biodegradation of various Micropollutants (MPs) in aquatic ecosystems has been a significant area of research worldwide, with many chemical compounds being discovered in various water bodies. As aquatic biota spends most of their formative phases in polluted water, the impacts on aquatic biota are obvious, indicating that the environmental danger is substantial. In contrast, the impact of these contaminants on aquatic creatures and freshwater consumption is more subtle and manifests directly when disrupting the endocrine system. Research and development activities are expected to enable the development of ecologically sustainable, cost-effective, and efficient treatments for practical systems in the near future. Therefore, this review aims to understand recent emerging pollutants discovered and the available treatment technologies and suggest an innovative and cost-effective method to treat these EPs, which is sustainable and follows the circular bioeconomy.

Preparation and Characterization of Avermectin B2 Microcapsules and Effective Control of Root-Knot Nematodes

Polyurethane microcapsules of avermectin B2 were prepared by means of interfacial polymerization with methylene diphenyl diisocyanate as the wall material and triethanolamine as the initiator. The microcapsules were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis. The surfaces of the microcapsules were found to be smooth and almost spherical, and the encapsulation efficiency was high. The avermectin B2 microcapsules exhibited a good diffusion-controlled sustained-release performance, giving a cumulative release rate of 91.81%. The results indicated that the polyurethane capsule protected against the photolysis of avermectin B2. Finally, the microcapsules exhibited good soil leaching properties and were able to control the population of root-knot nematodes with an efficacy of 80.80%.

An inclusive outlook on the fate and persistence of pesticides in the environment and integrated eco-technologies for their degradation

Intensive and inefficient exploitation of pesticides through modernized agricultural practices has caused severe pesticide contamination problems to the environment and become a crucial problem over a few decades. Due to their highly toxic and persistent properties, they affect and get accumulated in non-target organisms, including microbes, algae, invertebrates, plants as well as humans, and cause severe issues. Considering pesticide problems as a significant issue, researchers have investigated several approaches to rectify the pesticide contamination problems. Several analyses have provided an extensive discussion on pesticide degradation but using specific technology for specific pesticides. However, in the middle of this time, cleaner techniques are essential for reducing pesticide contamination problems safely and environmentally friendly. As per the research findings, no single research finding provides concrete discussion on cleaner tactics for the remediation of contaminated sites. Therefore, in this review paper, we have critically discussed cleaner options for dealing with pesticide contamination problems as well as their advantages and disadvantages have also been reviewed. As evident from the literature, microbial remediation, phytoremediation, composting, and photocatalytic degradation methods are efficient and sustainable and can be used for treatment at a large scale in engineered systems and in situ. However, more study on the bio-integrated system is required which may be more effective than existing technologies.

A national-scale distribution of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in cropland soils and major types of food crops in China: Co-occurrence and associated risks

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are persistent organic pollutants (POPs) that resist degradation in the environment. OCPs remain detectable in cropland systems in China. However, spatial distribution of OCPs across China and associated ecological and health risks, as well as the relationship between levels of OCPs in cropland soils and crops, remain to be elucidated. To fill these gaps, we conducted a national-scale characterization of 19 individual OCPs in cropland soils and food crops including cereals and legumes in China, which were on-spot sampled simultaneously. Sparse canonical correlation analysis was employed to investigate the co-occurrence of OCPs in cropland soils and corresponding food crops. The ecological soil screening levels and risk quotient method were adopted for ecological and health risk assessment, respectively. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) were dominant in cropland systems, with its levels ranging up to 337 and 22.8 μg/kg in cropland soils and food crops, respectively. The mean ∑OCP levels in cropland soils varied from below the limit of detection to 337 μg/kg. Peanuts were the most contaminated crop, in which endosulfans and hexachlorobenzene (HCB) were co-occurrent with those in cropland soils (correlation coefficient R = 0.999 and 0.947, respectively). Besides, lindane and β-endosulfan in rice were co-occurrent with those in cropland soils (R = 0.810 and 0.868, respectively). The componential ratio analysis indicated fresh inputs of technical DDT, lindane, chlordane, endosulfan, HCB and aldrin. Among these pesticides, ecological impacts of DDTs, lindane, aldrin and β-endosulfan could be expected. Human health risk assessment suggested that daily consumption of the OCP-contaminated food crops raises a health concern especially for male teens. It is concluded that OCPs remain present in cropland systems in China at levels that raise a concern for both environment and human health.

Wide-scope target screening characterization of legacy and emerging contaminants in the Danube River Basin by liquid and gas chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry

A state-of-the-art wide-scope target screening of 2,362 chemicals and their transformation products (TPs) was performed in samples collected within the Joint Danube Survey 4 (JDS4) performed in 2019. The analysed contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) included three major categories: plant protection products (PPPs), industrial chemicals and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs). In total, 586 CECs were detected in the samples including 158 PPPs, 71 industrial chemicals, 348 PPCPs, and 9 other chemicals. A wide-variety of sample matrices were collected including influent and effluent wastewater, groundwater, river water, sediment and biota. Forty-five CECs (19 PPPs, 8 industrial chemicals, 18 PPCPs) were detected at levels above their ecotoxicological thresholds (lowest predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) values) in one or more of the investigated environmental compartments, indicating potential adverse effects on the impacted ecosystems. Among them 12 are legacy substances; 33 are emerging and qualify as potential Danube River Basin Specific Pollutants (RBSPs). Moreover, the efficiency of the wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) was evaluated using 20 selected performance indicator chemicals. WWTPs showed effective removal (removal rate ≥80%) and medium removal (removal rate 25-80%) for 6 and 8 of the indicator chemicals, respectively. However, numerous contaminants passed the WWTPs with a lower removal rate. Further investigation on performance of WWTPs is suggested at catchment level to improve their removal efficiency. WWTP effluents are proven to be one of the major sources of contaminants in the Danube River Basin (DRB). Other sources include sewage discharges, industrial and agricultural activities. Continuous monitoring of the detected CECs is suggested to ensure water quality of the studied area.

Theoretical and Experimental Study of Molecular Interactions of Fluralaner with Lipid Membranes

Fluralaner is a relatively new insecticide belonging to the isoxazoline group, whose action mechanism involves the blocking of GABA_A-receptors in the insect nervous system. Because of its high hydrophobicity, fluralaner could bioaccumulate and reach toxic local concentrations. Since there are no data available about the penetration and persistence of isoxazolines in biological membranes, we intend to evaluate fluralaner permanence as a pollutant by using model membranes. We used experimental and in silico models to characterize the incorporation of fluralaner into the lipid phase at different packing states. We determined its impact in the membrane structure and organization. Our results confirm that fluralaner is capable of penetrating, holding, and accumulating in the lipid membrane and provide details on its precise location and orientation. These properties would allow fluralaner to reach high local concentrations in different membranes and organs, which could be dangerous for vertebrate organisms if its handling is not properly controlled.

Enzyme Inhibition-Based Assay to Estimate the Contribution of Formulants to the Effect of Commercial Pesticide Formulations

Pesticides can affect the health of individual organisms and the function of the entire ecosystem. Therefore, thorough assessment of the risks associated with the use of pesticides is a high-priority task. An enzyme inhibition-based assay is used in this study as a convenient and quick tool to study the effects of pesticides at the molecular level. The contribution of formulants to toxicological properties of the pesticide formulations has been studied by analyzing effects of 7 active ingredients of pesticides (AIas) and 10 commercial formulations based on them (AIfs) on the function of a wide range of enzyme assay systems differing in complexity (single-, coupled, and three-enzyme assay systems). Results have been compared with the effects of AIas and AIfs on bioluminescence of the luminous bacterium Photobacterium phosphoreum. Mostly, AIfs produce a considerably stronger inhibitory effect on the activity of enzyme assay systems and bioluminescence of the luminous bacterium than AIas, which confirms the contribution of formulants to toxicological properties of the pesticide formulation. Results of the current study demonstrate that "inert" ingredients are not ecotoxicologically safe and can considerably augment the inhibitory effect of pesticide formulations; therefore, their use should be controlled more strictly. Circular dichroism and fluorescence spectra of the enzymes used for assays do not show any changes in the protein structure in the presence of commercial pesticide formulations during the assay procedure. This finding suggests that pesticides produce the inhibitory effect on enzymes through other mechanisms.

Core-shell Au@ZIF-67-based pollutant monitoring of thiram and carbendazim pesticides

A sensitive and stable substrate plays a vital role in the Raman spectroscopic techniques as an analytical method for detecting pesticides effectively from the environment. Enhancing signals from nanoparticles are weak and inconsistent in repeatability since analytes tend to degrade quickly under laser exposure. Herein, a novel substrate of Au@ZIF-67 is prepared on octahedral AuNPs by trapping pesticide molecules with small three-dimensional volumes by the flexibility of ZIF-67 for rapid detection with high sensitivity and stability. The two types of thiram and carbendazim pesticides, which are environmental pollutants that affect biodiversity, were successfully absorbed in Au@ZIF-67 nanostructures by adsorption-desorption equilibrium for analytical purposes in Raman spectroscopy. Spectra calculations of the thiram and carbendazim molecules on 8 atoms of Au using DFT were compared with the experimental data. The SERS enhancement factors for thiram and carbendazim were estimated to be 1.91 × 10⁸ and 3.12 × 10⁸, respectively, with the LOD values of trace amounts of ∼10^-10 mol L^-1. The novel substrate of Au@ZIF-67 is a propitious platform for detecting thiram and carbendazim in trace amounts, providing a helpful strategy for detecting residues with high performance in the environment at the laboratory and practical scales.

Behavioral and neurochemical impairments after intranasal administration of chlorpyrifos formulation in mice

Among the most relevant environmental factors associated with the etiology of neurodegenerative disorders are pesticides. Spray drift or volatilization generates pesticide dispersion after its application. In addition, inhalation or intranasal (IN) administration of xenobiotics constitutes a feasible route for substance delivery to the brain. This study investigates the behavioral and neurochemical effects of IN exposure to a commercial formulation of chlorpyrifos (fCPF). Adult male CF-1 mice were intranasally administered with fCPF (3-10 mg/kg/day) three days a week, for 2 weeks. Behavioral and biochemical analyses were conducted 20 and 30 days after the last IN fCPF administration, respectively. No significant behavioral or biochemical effects were observed in the 3 mg/kg fCPF IN exposure group. However, animals exposed to 10 mg/kg fCPF showed anxiogenic behavior and recognition memory impairment, with no effects on locomotor activity. In addition, the IN administration of 10 mg/kg fCPF altered the redox balance, modified the activity of enzymes belonging to the cholinergic and glutamatergic pathways, and affected glucose metabolism, and cholesterol levels in different brain areas. Taken together, these observations suggest that these biochemical imbalances could be responsible for the neurobehavioral disturbances observed after IN administration of fCPF in mice.

Chronic toxicity of three formulations of neonicotinoid insecticides and their mixture on two daphniid species: Daphnia magna and Ceriodaphnia dubia

Neonicotinoid insecticides represent nearly a quarter of the global insecticide market and are widely used in agriculture but also for lawn, garden care, and pest control. They are highly water-soluble, persistent in soil, may enter the aquatic compartment via spray drift, runoff, or leaching, and contribute to downstream aquatic toxicity. Although insects appear to be the most sensitive group to neonicotinoids, other groups, such as crustaceans, may also be affected. Furthermore, most studies focus on single-insecticide exposure and very little is known concerning the impact of neonicotinoid mixtures on aquatic invertebrates. The present study was designed to test potential toxicological effects of an environmentally relevant mixture of imidacloprid, clothianidin, and thiamethoxam on populations of Ceriodaphnia dubia and Daphnia magna under controlled conditions. Chronic toxicity tests were conducted in the laboratory, and survival and reproduction were measured for both species under environmentally relevant, 'worst-case' concentrations for each compound separately and in combination as pesticides are often detected as mixtures in aquatic environments. The neonicotinoids did not appear to affect the survival of C. dubia and D. magna. Reproduction of C. dubia was affected by the mixture whereas all three individual insecticides as well as the mixture caused a significant reduction in the reproduction of D. magna. Our results highlight the complexity of pesticide toxicity and show that traditional toxicological approaches such as, acute mortality studies and tests with single compounds can underestimate negative impacts that occur in the environment.

Preparation and Biological Evaluation of Novel Osthole-Derived N-Benzoylthioureas as Insecticide Candidates

To discover novel natural-product-based insecticide candidates, herein, a variety of osthole-derived N-benzoylthioureas were synthesized and assessed for their insecticidal activities against three insect pests. An insecticidal assay showed that most of the target osthole-derived N-benzoylthioureas displayed a more potent and broad-spectrum insecticidal effect than the parent osthole after the introduction of N-benzoylthioureas on the C-3' position of osthole. Compound B24 displayed the most potent growth inhibitory (GI) effect on Mythimna separata Walker, with a final corrected mortality rate of 82.1% when treated with a concentration of 1 mg/mL, which was 1.64- and 1.53-fold higher in comparison to osthole and the botanical insecticide toosendanin, respectively. Compounds B22, B23, and B25 displayed a more promising aphicidal effect on Myzus persicae Sulzer, and their LD₅₀ values were 0.015, 0.017, and 0.019 μg/larvae, respectively, superior to the commercially available insecticide rotenone (0.024 μg/larvae). Derivatives B19, B20, B23, and B25 displayed more potent larvicidal activity against Plutella xylostella Linnaeus, with LC₅₀ values of 0.22, 0.26, 0.15, and 0.30 mg/mL, respectively, exceeding that of rotenone (0.37 mg/mL). Furthermore, both compounds B19 and B23 against P. xylostella were found to be more effective than rotenone in a control efficacy assay under greenhouse conditions. The structure-activity relationship (SAR) suggested that osthole-derived N-benzoylthioureas are more active in most cases when the R group is an electron-withdrawing group than when it is an electron-donating group, especially for halogenated groups. Additionally, the potent compounds B19 and B23 possessed good selectivity and were less toxic to non-target organisms. This study suggests that these osthole-derived N-benzoylthioureas could be further studied in depth as eco-friendly natural product pesticides in crop protection.

Validation of a Multi-Residue Analysis Method for 287 Pesticides in Citrus Fruits Mandarin Orange and Grapefruit Using Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Since the introduction of the positive list system (PLS) for agricultural products in the Republic of Korea, the demand for a quick, easy multi-residue analysis method increased continuously. Herein, the quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) technique combined with liquid chromatography−tandem mass spectrometry was employed to optimize a method for the multi-residue analysis of 287 pesticide residues in mandarin orange and grapefruit. Method validation was conducted in terms of selectivity, limit of quantitation (LOQ), linearity, accuracy, precision, and matrix effect. All the compounds at low spiking levels (1, 2.5, 5, or 10 mg/kg) could be quantified at LOQs lower than 0.01 mg/kg (PLS level). The linearity of the matrix-matched calibration curve for each compound is in the range 0.5−50 μg/L, and its coefficient of determination (R2) is >0.990. Satisfactory recovery values of 70−120% with a relative standard deviation of ≤20% are obtained for all compounds in the mandarin orange and grapefruit samples. A negligible matrix effect (−20−20%) is observed for more than 94.8% and 85.4% of the pesticides in mandarin orange and grapefruit, respectively. Therefore, this analytical method can contribute to pesticide residue analyses of citrus fruits for routine laboratory testing.

Bio-removal of emerging pollutants by advanced bioremediation techniques

This review highlights the relevance of bioremediation techniques for the removal of emerging pollutants (EPs). The EPs are chemical or biological pollutants that are not currently monitored or regulated by environmental authorities, but which can enter the environment and cause harmful effects to the environment and human health. In recent times, an ample range of EPs have been found in water bodies, where they can unbalance ecosystems and cause negative effects on non-target species. In addition, some EPs have shown high rates of bioaccumulation in aquatic species, thus affecting the safety and quality of seafood. The negative impacts of emerging pollutants, their wide distribution in the environment, their bioaccumulation rates, and their resistance to wastewater treatment plants processes have led to research on sustainable remediation. Remediation techniques have been recently directed to advanced biological remediation technologies. Such technologies have exhibited numerous advantages like in-situ remediation, low costs, eco-friendliness, high public acceptance, and so on. Thus, the present review has compiled the most recent studies on bioremediation techniques for water decontamination from emerging pollutants to extend the current knowledge on sustainable remediation technologies. Biological emerging contaminants, agrochemicals, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and pharmaceutical and personal care products were considered for this review study, and their removal by bioremediation techniques involving plants, bacteria, microalgae, and fungi. Finally, further research opportunities are presented based on current challenges from an economic, biological, and operation perspective.

Valorisation of agri-food waste to fertilisers is a challenge in implementing the circular economy concept in practice

The area of agricultural wastes valorisation to fertilizers is attracting growing attention because of the increasing fertilizer prices of fertilizers and the higher costs of waste utilization. Despite the scientific and political interest in the concept of circular economy, few studies have considered the practical approach towards the implementation of elaborated technologies. This article outlines innovative strategies for the valorisation of different biobased wastes into fertilizers. The present work makes a significant contribution to the field of new ideas for waste biomass management to recover significant fertilizer nutrients. These results emphasize the importance of the biomass use as a base of renewable resources, which has recently gained special importance, especially in relation to the outbreak of pandemia and war. Broken supply chains and limited access to deposits of raw materials used in fertilizer production (natural gas, potassium salts) meant that now, as never before, it has become more important and feasible to implement the idea of a circular economy and a green deal. We have obtained satisfactory results that demonstrate that appropriate management of biological waste (originating from agriculture, food processing, aquaculture, forest, pharmaceutical industry, and other branches of industry, sewage sludge) will not only reduce environmental nuisance (reducing waste heaps), but will also allow recovery of valuable materials, such as nitrogen (especially valuable amino acids), phosphorus, potassium, microelements, and biologically active substances with properties that stimulate plant growth. The results reported here provide information on production of biobased plant protection products (bioagrochemicals) from agri-food waste. This work reports an overview of biopesticides and biofertilisers production technologies and summarizes their properties and the mechanisms of action.

The pyrethroid insecticide permethrin confers hepatotoxicity through DNA damage and mitochondria-associated apoptosis induction in rat: Palliative benefits of Fumaria officinalis

Permethrin (PER) is a pyrethroid pesticide that is extensively used as an insecticide in world because of its high activity and its low mammalian toxicity. The current study was conducted to investigate the protective action of Fumaria officinalis against PER-induced liver injury in male rats. However, HPLC-DAD showed the richness of 6 components in F. officinalis (F) including quercetin, ferulic acid, and naringenin which were the most abundant. Total polyphenols, total flavonoids, and condensed tannins were studied by phytochemical screening. In vitro, antioxidant properties showed that F. officinalis exhibited the highest DPPH radical, FRAP, and H2 O2 tests and total antioxidant capacity. Wistar rats were divided into four groups: negative control group (C), positive control group (F) (200 mg F. officinalis/kg BW), PER group (34.05 mg permethrin/kg BW), and PER + F group (34.05 mg permethrin/kg BW and 200 mg F. officinalis/kg BW). Oral administration of PER led to promote a decrease of body weight and Ca2+ -ATPases and Mg2+ -ATPases activities and an increase of plasma C-reactive protein level, transaminases, and hepatic ϒ-GT activities as well as hepatic and mitochondrial oxidative stress. An increase in plasma lactate-to pyruvate ratio and a reduction in complexes enzymes I, III, and IV activities were also observed. In addition, histoarchitecture of liver in PER-treated rats showed apoptosis and necrosis as confirmed by DNA fragmentation. F. officinalis significantly exerted hepatoprotective effect by modulating hepatic alteration and mitochondrial dysfunction as well as genotoxicity. This effect could be attributed to phenolics compounds such as polyphenols, condensed tannins, and flavonoids.

Ameliorating effect of the biological Zinc nanoparticles in abamectin induced hepato-renal injury in a rat model: Implication of oxidative stress, biochemical markers and COX-2 signaling pathways

Extensive use of abamectin (ABM) as an anthelmintic in veterinary systems adversely affects the health and welfare of animals and humans. Zinc nanoparticles (ZnNPs) have therapeutic benefits and ameliorate the effect of environmental pollutants. In this study, we assessed the ameliorative effect of ZnNPs against the sub-lethal toxicity of ABM in rats. Forty healthy rats were randomly selected into four groups (n = 10); the control received normal saline and test rats were treated orally twice weekly with ABM (1 mg/kg bwt), ZnNPs (10 mg/kg bwt) and ABM + ZnNPs for 28 days. Upon completion of the study period, blood and tissue samples were collected and prepared for hematological, biochemical, pathological, and immunohistochemical analysis. Our results showed that ABM treatment significantly decreased body weight gain (BWG), red blood cells (RBCs), hemoglobin (Hb), hematocrit (HC), and platelet (PLT); while it significantly increased white blood cells (WBCs) and lymphocytes. ABM also significantly decreased antioxidant enzyme activities: superoxide dismuthase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and catalase (CAT) and increased hydrogen peroxide and malondialdehyde levels compared with other groups. ABM significantly raised alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate amino transaminase (AST), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels, which was restored by co-administration of ZnNPs. Moreover, ZnNPs ameliorated ABM-mediated negative histopathological changes in the liver and kidney tissues, exhibiting a significant protective effect. Cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) + immuno-expression were reduced after pretreatment with ZnNPs. These findings suggested that co-administration of ZnNPs with ABM mitigated its toxicity by combating oxidative stress and boosting antioxidant capacity, indicating the efficacy of ZnNPs in attenuating ABM toxicity.

Identification, isolation, characterization, and synthesis of impurities of pesticide spirotetramat

Research work featured in this article describes the impurity profile of spirotetramat, a widely used broad-spectrum pesticide targeting acetyl-CoA carboxylase. Technical grade spirotetramat from four different sources were analyzed and compared with commercial Movento using UPLC-MS. Seven potential impurities were detected and six of them except for the trans-isomer of spirotetramat were subsequently isolated using preparative HPLC. All impurities were characterized mainly by MS and NMR spectroscopy and their structures were further confirmed by chemical synthesis. The formation of the impurities was described in this report as well.

Impacts of Pesticides on Oral Cavity Health and Ecosystems: A Review

Pesticides are chemical substances used to control, prevent, or destroy agricultural, domestic, and livestock pests. These compounds produce adverse changes in health, and they have been associated with the development of multiple chronic diseases. This study aimed to present a detailed review of the effect of pesticides on the oral cavity and the oral microbiome. In the oral cavity, pesticides alter and/or modify tissues and the microbiome, thereby triggering imbalance in the ecosystem, generating an inflammatory response, and activating hydrolytic enzymes. In particular, the imbalance in the oral microbiome creates a dysbiosis that modifies the number, composition, and/or functions of the constituent microorganisms and the local response of the host. Pesticide exposure alters epithelial cells, and oral microbiota, and disrupts the homeostasis of the oral environment. The presence of pesticides in the oral cavity predisposes the appearance of pathologies such as caries, periodontal diseases, oral cancer, and odontogenic infections. In this study, we analyzed the effect of organochlorines, organophosphates, pyrethroids, carbamates, bipyridyls, and triazineson oral cavity health and ecosystems.

Pesticide Pollution: Detrimental Outcomes and Possible Mechanisms of Fish Exposure to Common Organophosphates and Triazines

Pesticides are well known for their high levels of persistence and ubiquity in the environment, and because of their capacity to bioaccumulate and disrupt the food chain, they pose a risk to animals and humans. With a focus on organophosphate and triazine pesticides, the present review aims to describe the current state of knowledge regarding spatial distribution, bioaccumulation, and mode of action of frequently used pesticides. We discuss the processes by which pesticides and their active residues are accumulated and bioconcentrated in fish, as well as the toxic mechanisms involved, including biological redox activity, immunotoxicity, neuroendocrine disorders, and cytotoxicity, which is manifested in oxidative stress, lysosomal and mitochondrial damage, inflammation, and apoptosis/autophagy. We also explore potential research strategies to close the gaps in our understanding of the toxicity and environmental risk assessment of organophosphate and triazine pesticides.

Multi-walled Carbon Nanotubes Remediate the Phytotoxicity of Quinclorac to Tomato

In order to remediate the phytotoxicity of quinclorac to tomato by multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), the adsorption of quinclorac to MWCNTs was monitored and the effect of MWCNTs on the phytotoxicity of quinclorac to tomato in soil were studied. The results showed that the Linear equation and Freundlich equation can well fit the adsorption isotherm of quinclorac in the soil containing MWCNTs. The adsorption of quinclorac in soil was significantly enhanced by the addition of MWCNTs; the K_d of soil (1% MWCNTs) was 28.7 times of pure soil. The quinclorac had an obvious inhibitory effect on the growth of tomatoes; serious phytotoxicity was also induced even at the lowest concentration of 0.025 mg/kg. With the MWCNTs content in soil increased to 0.5% and 1%, the phytotoxicity of quinclorac to tomatoes decreased significantly, and the height and fresh weight of tomatoes were even higher than those of the control group, indicating that MWCNTs can promote the growth of tomato. These results provide a reference for resolving the problem of phytotoxicity induced by residual herbicides in farmland.

Mycodegradation of diazinon pesticide utilizing fungal strains isolated from polluted soil

The current study aimed to isolate biodegradable soil fungi capable of metabolizing diazinon. The collected soil samples were investigated for diazinon pollution to detect the pesticide level in the polluted soil samples. Food poisoning techniques were utilized to preliminary investigate the biodegradation efficiency of the isolated fungal strains to diazinon pesticide using solid and liquid medium and also to detect their tolerance to different concentrations. GC-MS analysis of control and treated flasks were achieved to determine the diazinon residues for confirmation of the biodegradation efficiency. The total diazinon residues in the collected soil samples was found to be 0.106 mg/kg. Out of thirteen fungal strains isolated form diazinon polluted soils, six strains were potentially active in diazinon biodegradation. Food poisoning technique showed that A. niger, B. antennata, F. graminearum, P. digitatum, R. stolonifer and T. viride strains recorded fungal growth diameters of 65.2 ± 0.18, 57.5 ± 0.41, 47.2 ± 0.36, 56.5 ± 0.27, 85.0 ± 0.01, 85.0 ± 0.06 mm respectively in the treated group which were non significantly different compared to that of control (P > 0.05), indicating the high efficiency of these strains in diazinon degradation compared to the other isolated strains. GC-MS analysis revealed that B. antennata was the most efficient strain in diazinon degradation recording 32.24 ± 0.15 ppm concentration after 10 days incubation. Linear regression analysis confirmed that B. antennata was the most effective biodegradable strain recording the highest diazinon dissipation (83.88%) with the lowest T1/2 value of 5.96 days while T. viride, A. niger, R. stolonifer and F. graminearum exhibited a high biodegradable activities reducing diazinon to 80.26%, 78.22%, 77.36% and 75.43% respectively after 10 days incubation. In conclusion, these tolerant fungi could be considered as promising, eco-friendly and biodegradable fungi for the efficient and potential removal of hazardous diazinon from polluted soil.

Current status of pesticide effects on environment, human health and it's eco-friendly management as bioremediation: A comprehensive review

Pesticides are either natural or chemically synthesized compounds that are used to control a variety of pests. These chemical compounds are used in a variety of sectors like food, forestry, agriculture and aquaculture. Pesticides shows their toxicity into the living systems. The World Health Organization (WHO) categorizes them based on their detrimental effects, emphasizing the relevance of public health. The usage can be minimized to a least level by using them sparingly with a complete grasp of their categorization, which is beneficial to both human health and the environment. In this review, we have discussed pesticides with respect to their global scenarios, such as worldwide distribution and environmental impacts. Major literature focused on potential uses of pesticides, classification according to their properties and toxicity and their adverse effect on natural system (soil and aquatic), water, plants (growth, metabolism, genotypic and phenotypic changes and impact on plants defense system), human health (genetic alteration, cancer, allergies, and asthma), and preserve food products. We have also described eco-friendly management strategies for pesticides as a green solution, including bacterial degradation, myco-remediation, phytoremediation, and microalgae-based bioremediation. The microbes, using catabolic enzymes for degradation of pesticides and clean-up from the environment. This review shows the importance of finding potent microbes, novel genes, and biotechnological applications for pesticide waste management to create a sustainable environment.

A risk ranking of pesticides in Irish drinking water considering chronic health effects

This paper presents a novel scoring system which facilitates a relative ranking of pesticide risk to human health arising from contaminated drinking water. This method was developed to identify risky pesticides to better inform monitoring programmes and risk assessments. Potential risk was assessed considering pesticide use, chronic human health effects and environmental fate. Site-specific soil conditions, such as soil erodibility, hydrologic group, soil depth, clay, sand, silt, and organic carbon content of soil, were incorporated to demonstrate how pesticide fate can be influenced by the areas in which they are used. The indices of quantity of use, consequence and likelihood of exposure, hazard score and quantity-weighted hazard score were used to describe the level of concern that should be attributed to a pesticide. Metabolite toxicity and persistence were also considered in a separate scoring to highlight the contribution metabolites make to overall pesticide risk. This study presents two sets of results for 63 pesticides in an Irish case study, (1) risk scores calculated for the parent compounds only and (2) a combined pesticide-metabolite risk score. In both cases the results are assessed for two locations with differing soil and hydrological properties. The method developed in this paper can be adapted by pesticide users to assess and compare pesticide risk at site level using pesticide hazard scores. Farm advisors, water quality monitors, and catchment managers can apply this method to screen pesticides for human health risk at a regional or national level.

Conductive polymer layered semiconductor for degradation of triclopyr acid and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid from aqueous stream using coalesce adsorption-photocatalysis technique

Polyaniline supported titanium dioxide nanoparticles (PTs) were fabricated using chemical oxidative aniline polymerization in the presence of titanium dioxide with ammonium peroxydisulfate as an oxidant. The synthesized PTs were thoroughly characterized for their morphological and functional features. PTs were employed for the photodegradation of acidic herbicides; 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and triclopyr acid (TCP). PT's surface modifications were imparted and their herbicide removal efficiencies were compared. The best operating conditions for adsorption/photocatalysis were 0.5 g/L photocatalyst, 10 mg/L concentration of individual herbicides resulted in 90.72% removal of TCP at pH 4 and 99.91% removal of 2,4-D at pH 5. Adsorption kinetics of herbicides, onto PT-1 showed the equilibrium attainment within 30 min and experimental data obeyed pseudo-second order model for TCP and 2,4-D removal which was governed by chemisorption. Analysis of TCP and 2,4-D adsorption indicated that the removal followed Sips model for TCP removal while Redlich-Peterson model explained the removal of 2,4-D by PT-1. Rate constants indicated that the amount of TiO₂ in the PTs played an important role in removing the herbicides and PT-1 material excellent remarkable activity for three cycles of photodegradation. Thus, this work reports the polymerization of aniline onto TiO₂ and their utility as photocatalyst for the expulsion of 2,4-D and TCP from water.

Evaluation of Pesticide Residues Occurrence in Random Samples of Organic Fruits and Vegetables Marketed in Poland

In recent years, organic food, produced with the use of natural means and production methods, has been gaining more and more popularity among consumers. This is due, inter alia, to their belief that it is more abundant in health-promoting bioactive compounds and safer than conventional food. Consumers are increasingly aware of the harmfulness of plant protection products used in intensive agriculture, which are not allowed in organic production. At the same time, it is reported that a certain share of organic products on the EU market are contaminated with pesticide residues, which may raise consumer concerns and lead to a loss of trust in organic food. The aim of the present study was to investigate the problem of pesticide residues occurrence in random samples of organically produced fruits and vegetables (apples, potatoes, carrots, and beetroots) commonly used in the Polish households, and which are available directly from the organic producers in open markets in Poland. For simultaneous analysis of 375 pesticides, an LC-MS/MS system consisting of an Eksigent expert ultraLC 100-XL coupled to a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer QTRAP 6500 and GC Agilent 6890 N equipped with ECD/NPD system were used. Among the 96 vegetable and fruit samples studied, 89 samples (92.7%) were free from detectable pesticide residues, 7 samples (7.3%) of carrot (5) and potato (2) were contaminated, and in 1 of them (1.0%) the detected residues exceeded the maximum residue limit (MRL). None of the tested apple and beetroot samples were found to contain detectable residues. These findings are important for Polish consumers who look for high-quality organic food. However, the presence of detectable residues in a small proportion of the organic samples indicates a need to strengthen the monitoring of pesticides in organic crops, to educate farmers and to raise their awareness regarding the risks of unauthorized use of pesticides banned in organic farming, which can damage the reputation of the whole organic sector.

A Multicomponent Butyrylcholinesterase Preparation for Enzyme Inhibition-Based Assay of Organophosphorus Pesticides

A new method of producing butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) preparations, stable in storage and use, has been proposed. The BChE preparation is the enzyme co-immobilized with 0.2 M 5-5′-dithiobis (2-nitrobenzoic acid) in starch or gelatin gel. All experimental preparations retain enzyme activity for at least 300 d. The preparations based on gelatin gel show higher activity but lower sensitivity to the toxicants tested in this study compared to the starch gel-based preparations. A method has been proposed for integrated detection of anti-cholinesterase substances in aqueous solutions using the experimental preparation with immobilized BChE. After the additional incubation of the preparation with the immobilized enzyme in the solution of the analyte, the detection limits of malathion and pirimiphos-methyl determined using the IC20 values were below their maximum allowable concentrations—0.005 µM and 0.03 µM, respectively.

Environmental Chemicals: Integrative Approach to Human Biomonitoring and Health Effects

In recent decades, citizen awareness of toxic chemicals has been a topic of interest, particularly concerning national and international policy decision makers, expert/scientific platforms, and health protection organizations (WHO, UNEP, CDC, EFSA, IPEN, etc [...].

Current Role of Mass Spectrometry in the Determination of Pesticide Residues in Food

The extensive use of pesticides represents a risk to human health. Consequently, legal frameworks have been established to ensure food safety, including control programs for pesticide residues. In this context, the performance of analytical methods acquires special relevance. Such methods are expected to be able to determine the largest number of compounds at trace concentration levels in complex food matrices, which represents a great analytical challenge. Technical advances in mass spectrometry (MS) have led to the development of more efficient analytical methods for the determination of pesticides. This review provides an overview of current analytical strategies applied in pesticide analysis, with a special focus on MS methods. Current targeted MS methods allow the simultaneous determination of hundreds of pesticides, whereas non-targeted MS methods are now applicable to the identification of pesticide metabolites and transformation products. New trends in pesticide analysis are also presented, including approaches for the simultaneous determination of pesticide residues and other food contaminants (i.e., mega-methods), or the recent application of techniques such as ion mobility–mass spectrometry (IM–MS) for this purpose.

Recent developments on graphene and its derivatives based electrochemical sensors for determinations of food contaminants

The sensing of food contaminants is essential to prevent their adverse health effects on the consumers. Electrochemical sensors are promising in the determination of electroactive analytes including food pollutants, biomolecules etc. Graphene nanomaterials offer many benefits as electrode material in a sensing device. To further improve the analytical performance, doped graphene or derivatives of graphene such as reduced graphene oxide and their nanocomposites were explored as electrode materials. Herein, the advancements in graphene and its derivatives-based electrochemical sensors for analysis of food pollutants were summarized. Determinations of both organic (food colourants, pesticides, drugs, etc.) and inorganic pollutants (metal cations and anions) were considered. The influencing factors including nature of electrode materials and food pollutants, pH, electroactive surface area etc., on the sensing performances of modified electrodes were highlighted. The results of pollutant detection in food samples by the graphene-based electrode have also been outlined. Lastly, conclusions and current challenges in effective real sample detection were presented.

Emerging Midges Transport Pesticides from Aquatic to Terrestrial Ecosystems: Importance of Compound- and Organism-Specific Parameters

Emerging aquatic insects have the potential to retain aquatic contaminants after metamorphosis, potentially transporting them into adjacent terrestrial food webs. It is unknown whether this transfer is also relevant for current-use pesticides. We exposed larvae of the nonbiting midge, Chironomus riparius, to a sublethal pulse of a mixture of nine moderately polar fungicides and herbicides (logK_ow 2.5-4.7) at three field relevant treatment levels (1.2-2.5, 17.5-35.0, or 50.0-100.0 μg/L). We then assessed the pesticide bioaccumulation and bioamplification over the full aquatic-terrestrial life cycle of both sexes including the egg laying of adult females. By applying sensitive LC-MS/MS analysis to small sample volumes (∼5 mg, dry weight), we detected all pesticides in larvae from all treatment levels (2.8-1019 ng/g), five of the pesticides in the adults from the lowest treatment level and eight in the higher treatment levels (1.5-3615 ng/g). Retention of the pesticides through metamorphosis was not predictable based solely on pesticide lipophilicity. Sex-specific differences in adult insect pesticide concentrations were significant for five of the pesticides, with greater concentrations in females for four of them. Over the duration of the adults' lifespan, pesticide concentrations generally decreased in females while persisting in males. Our results suggest that a low to moderate daily dietary exposure to these pesticides may be possible for tree swallow nestlings and insectivorous bats.

Overarching issues on relevant pesticide transformation products in the aquatic environment: A review

The intensification of agricultural production during the last decades has forced the rapid increase in the use of pesticides that finally end up in the aquatic environment. Albeit well-documented, pesticides continue to raise researchers' attention, because of their potential adverse impacts on the environment and, inevitably, humans. Once entering the aquatic bodies, pesticides undergo biotic and abiotic processes, resulting in transformation products (TPs) that sometimes are even more toxic than the parent compounds. A substantial shift of the scientific interest in the TPs of pesticides has been observed since their environmental fate, occurrence and toxicity is still in its formative stage. In an ongoing effort to expand the existing knowledge on the topic, several interesting works have been performed mostly in European countries, such as France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Greece, and Spain that counts the highest number of relevant publications. Pesticide TPs have been also studied to a lesser extent in Asia, North and South America. To this end, the main objective of this review is to delineate the global occurrence, fate, toxicity as well as the analytical challenges related to pesticide TPs in surface, ground, and wastewaters, with the view to contribute to a better understanding of the environmental problems related with TPs formation. The concentration levels of the TPs, ranging from the low ng/L to high μg/L scale and distributed worldwide. Ultimately, an attempt to predict the acute and chronic toxicity of TPs has been carried out with the aid of an in-silico approach based on ECOSAR, revealing increased chronic toxicity for the majority of the identified TPs, despite the change they underwent, while a small portion of them presented serious acute toxicity values.