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McCullumsmith RE, Meador-Woodruff JH. Novel approaches to the study of postmortem brain in psychiatric illness: old limitations and new challenges. Biol Psychiatry 2011; 69:127-33. [PMID: 21094488 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.09.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2010] [Revised: 09/14/2010] [Accepted: 09/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Biological psychiatry has made significant advances through the development of postmortem studies, animal models, and studies with living humans. Although these approaches each have advantages and disadvantages, the postmortem field is undergoing a significant shift toward more complex and informative methodologies. In the first part of this review, we summarize the long-standing methodologic challenges facing this field. In the second part of the article, we discuss the innovative approaches being used for postmortem studies, including laser capture microdissection and subcellular fractionization. These techniques will permit scientists working in the postmortem field to ask and answer the largest possible questions, providing new targets for drug discovery and improved treatments for severe mental illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert E McCullumsmith
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, Universityof Alabama at Birmingham School of Medicine, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, USA.
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Baharnoori M, Bartholomeusz C, Boucher AA, Buchy L, Chaddock C, Chiliza B, Föcking M, Fornito A, Gallego JA, Hori H, Huf G, Jabbar GA, Kang SH, El Kissi Y, Merchán-Naranjo J, Modinos G, Abdel-Fadeel NA, Neubeck AK, Ng HP, Novak G, Owolabi O, Prata DP, Rao NP, Riecansky I, Smith DC, Souza RP, Thienel R, Trotman HD, Uchida H, Woodberry KA, O'Shea A, DeLisi LE. The 2nd Schizophrenia International Research Society Conference, 10-14 April 2010, Florence, Italy: summaries of oral sessions. Schizophr Res 2010; 124:e1-62. [PMID: 20934307 PMCID: PMC4182935 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2010.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2010] [Revised: 08/30/2010] [Accepted: 09/01/2010] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The 2nd Schizophrenia International Research Society Conference, was held in Florence, Italy, April 10-15, 2010. Student travel awardees served as rapporteurs of each oral session and focused their summaries on the most significant findings that emerged from each session and the discussions that followed. The following report is a composite of these reviews. It is hoped that it will provide an overview for those who were present, but could not participate in all sessions, and those who did not have the opportunity to attend, but who would be interested in an update on current investigations ongoing in the field of schizophrenia research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moogeh Baharnoori
- Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, 6875 LaSalle Blvd, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H4H 1R3, phone (514) 761-6131 ext 3346,
| | - Cali Bartholomeusz
- Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne, Level 2-3, Alan Gilbert Building, 161 Barry St, Carlton South, Victoria 3053, Australia, phone +61 3 8344 1878, fax +61 3 9348 0469,
| | - Aurelie A. Boucher
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, 100 Mallett Street, Camperdown NSW 2050, Australia, phone +61 (0)2 9351 0948, fax +61 (0)2 9351 0652,
| | - Lisa Buchy
- Douglas Hospital Research Centre, 6875 LaSalle Blvd, Verdun, Québec, Canada, H4H 1R3 phone: 514-761-6131 x 3386, fax: 514-888-4064,
| | - Christopher Chaddock
- PO67, Section of Neuroimaging, Division of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, De Crespigny Park, London, SE5 8AF, phone 020 7848 0919, mobile 07734 867854 fax 020 7848 0976,
| | - Bonga Chiliza
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Stellenbosch, Tygerberg, 7505, South Africa, phone: +27 (0)21 9389227, fax +27 (0)21 9389738,
| | - Melanie Föcking
- Department of Psychiatry, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Education and Research Centre, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin 9, Ireland, phone +353 1 809 3857, fax +353 1 809 3741,
| | - Alex Fornito
- Brain Mapping Unit, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Downing St, Cambridge, UK, CB2 3EB, phone +44 (0) 1223 764670, fax +44 (0) 1223 336581,
| | - Juan A. Gallego
- The Zucker Hillside Hospital, Psychiatry Research, 75-59 263rd St, Glen Oaks, NY 11004, phone 718-470-8177, fax 718-343-1659,
| | - Hiroaki Hori
- Department of Mental Disorder Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, NCNP, 4-1-1, Ogawahigashi, Kodaira, Tokyo, 187-8502, JAPAN, phone: +81 42 341 2711; fax: +81 42 346 1744,
| | - Gisele Huf
- National Institute of Quality Control in Health - Oswaldo Cruz Foundation.Av. Brasil 4365 Manguinhos Rio de Janeiro RJ BRAZIL 21045-900, phone + 55 21 38655112, fax + 55 21 38655139,
| | - Gul A. Jabbar
- Clinical Research Coordinator, Harvard Medical School Department of Psychiatry, 940 Belmont Street 2-B, Brockton, MA 02301, office (774) 826-1624, cell (845) 981-9514, fax (774) 286-1076,
| | - Shi Hyun Kang
- Seoul National Hospital, 30-1 Junggok3-dong Gwangjin-gu, Seoul, 143-711, Korea, phone +82-2-2204-0326, fax +82-2-2204-0394,
| | - Yousri El Kissi
- Psychiatry department, Farhat Hached Hospital. Ibn Jazzar Street, 4002 Sousse. Tunisia. phone + 216 98468626, fax + 216 73226702,
| | - Jessica Merchán-Naranjo
- Adolescent Unit. Department of Psychiatry. Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón. Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Spain. C/Ibiza 43, C.P:28009, phone +34 914265005, fax +34 914265004,
| | - Gemma Modinos
- Department of Psychosis Studies (PO67), Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, King's Health Partners, De Crespigny Park, SE5 8AF London, United Kingdo, phone +44 (0)20 78480917, fax +44 (0)20 78480976,
| | - Nashaat A.M. Abdel-Fadeel
- Minia University, Egypt, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, phone 617 953 0414, fax 617-998-5007, ,
| | - Anna-Karin Neubeck
- Project Manager at Karolinska Institute, Skinnarviksringen 12, 117 27 Stockholm, Sweden, phone +46708777908,
| | - Hsiao Piau Ng
- Singapore Bioimaging Consortium, A*STAR, Singapore; Department of Psychiatry, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, phone 857-544-0192, fax 617-525-6150,
| | - Gabriela Novak
- University of Toronto, Medical Sciences Building, Room 4345, 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1A8, phone (416) 946-8219, fax (416) 971-2868,
| | - Olasunmbo.O. Owolabi
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Science University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria, phone +2348030764811,
| | - Diana P. Prata
- Department of Psychosis Studies, King’s College London, King’s Health Partners, Institute of Psychiatry, De Crespigny Park, London, SE5 8AF, UK, phone +44(0)2078480917, fax +44(0)2078480976,
| | - Naren P. Rao
- Department of Psychiatry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Hosur Road, Bangalore, 560029 Karnataka, India, phone +91 9448342379,
| | - Igor Riecansky
- Address: Institute of Normal and Pathological Physiology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewiczova 1, 813 71 Bratislava, Slovakia, phone +421-2-52 92 62 76, fax +421-2-52 96 85 16,
| | - Darryl C. Smith
- 3336 Mt Pleasant St. NW #2, Washington, DC 20010, phone 202.494.3892,
| | - Renan P. Souza
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health 250 College St R31 Toronto - Ontario - Canada M5T1R8, phone +14165358501 x4883, fax +14169794666,
| | - Renate Thienel
- Postdoctoral Research Fellow, PRC Brain and Mental Health, University of Newcastle, Mc Auley Centre Level 5, Mater Hospital, Edith Street, Waratah NSW 2298, phone +61 (2) 40335636,
| | - Hanan D. Trotman
- 36 Eagle Row, Atlanta, GA 30322, phone 404-727-8384, fax 404-727-1284,
| | - Hiroyuki Uchida
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Keio University School of Medicine, Psychopharmacology Research Program, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan, phone +81.3.3353.1211(x62454), fax +81.3.5379.0187,
| | - Kristen A. Woodberry
- Landmark Center 2 East, 401 Park Drive, Boston, MA 02215, phone 617-998-5022, fax 617-998-5007,
| | - Anne O'Shea
- Coordinator of reports. Harvard Medical School, VA Boston Healthcare System, 940 Belmont Street, Brockton, MA 02301, phone 774-826-1374, anne_o’
| | - Lynn E. DeLisi
- VA Boston Healthcare System and Harvard Medical School, 940 Belmont Street, Brockton, MA 02301, phone 774-826-1355, fax 774-826-2721
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103
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O'Connell G, Lawrie SM, McIntosh AM, Hall J. Schizophrenia risk genes: Implications for future drug development and discovery. Biochem Pharmacol 2010; 81:1367-73. [PMID: 21093417 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2010.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2010] [Revised: 11/07/2010] [Accepted: 11/08/2010] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Present-day development of improved treatments for schizophrenia is hindered by uncertain models of disease, inter-individual response variability in clinical trials and a paucity of sensitive measures of treatment effects. Findings from genetic research emphasize the potential for schizophrenia risk genes to help develop focused treatments, discover new drug targets and provide markers of clinical subtypes. Advances in genetic technologies also provide novel modes of drug discovery in schizophrenia such as transcriptomics, epigenetics and transgenic animal models. In this review, we discuss proven and proposed ways risk genes can be used to enhance the development and discovery of treatments for schizophrenia and highlight key studies in these approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garret O'Connell
- Division of Psychiatry, University of Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom.
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104
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Epigenetic GABAergic targets in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Neuropharmacology 2010; 60:1007-16. [PMID: 21074545 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2010.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2010] [Revised: 10/18/2010] [Accepted: 10/21/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
It is becoming increasingly clear that a dysfunction of the GABAergic/glutamatergic network in telencephalic brain structures may be the pathogenetic mechanism underlying psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia (SZ) and bipolar (BP) disorder patients. Data obtained in Costa's laboratory (1996-2009) suggest that this dysfunction may be mediated primarily by a downregulation in the expression of GABAergic genes (e.g., glutamic acid decarboxylase₆₇[GAD₆₇] and reelin) associated with DNA methyltransferase (DNMT)-dependent hypermethylation of their promoters. A pharmacological strategy to reduce the hypermethylation of GABAergic promoters is to administer drugs, such as the histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor valproate (VPA), that induce DNA-demethylation when administered at doses that facilitate chromatin remodeling. The benefits elicited by combining VPA with antipsychotics in the treatment of BP disorder suggest that an investigation of the epigenetic interaction of these drugs is warranted. Our studies in mice suggest that when associated with VPA, clinically relevant doses of clozapine elicit a synergistic potentiation of VPA-induced GABAergic promoter demethylation. Olanzapine and quetiapine (two clozapine congeners) also facilitate chromatin remodeling but at doses higher than used clinically, whereas haloperidol and risperidone are inactive. Hence, the synergistic potentiation of VPA's action on chromatin remodeling by clozapine appears to be a unique property of the dibenzepines and is independent of their action on catecholamine or serotonin receptors. By activating DNA-demethylation, the association of clozapine or its derivatives with VPA or other more potent and selective HDAC inhibitors may be considered a promising treatment strategy for normalizing GABAergic promoter hypermethylation and the GABAergic gene expression downregulation detected in the postmortem brain of SZ and BP disorder patients. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Trends in neuropharmacology: in memory of Erminio Costa'.
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105
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Maternal care and DNA methylation of a glutamic acid decarboxylase 1 promoter in rat hippocampus. J Neurosci 2010; 30:13130-7. [PMID: 20881131 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1039-10.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Parenting and the early environment influence the risk for various psychopathologies. Studies in the rat suggest that variations in maternal care stably influence DNA methylation, gene expression, and neural function in the offspring. Maternal care affects neural development, including the GABAergic system, the function of which is linked to the pathophysiology of diseases including schizophrenia and depression. Postmortem studies of human schizophrenic brains have revealed decreased forebrain expression of glutamic acid decarboxylase 1 (GAD1) accompanied by increased methylation of a GAD1 promoter. We examined whether maternal care affects GAD1 promoter methylation in the hippocampus of adult male offspring of high and low pup licking/grooming (high-LG and low-LG) mothers. Compared with the offspring of low-LG mothers, those reared by high-LG dams showed enhanced hippocampal GAD1 mRNA expression, decreased cytosine methylation, and increased histone 3-lysine 9 acetylation (H3K9ac) of the GAD1 promoter. DNA methyltransferase 1 expression was significantly higher in the offspring of low- compared with high-LG mothers. Pup LG increases hippocampal serotonin (5-HT) and nerve growth factor-inducible factor A (NGFI-A) expression. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays revealed enhanced NGFI-A association with and H3K9ac of the GAD1 promoter in the hippocampus of high-LG pups after a nursing bout. Treatment of hippocampal neuronal cultures with either 5-HT or an NGFI-A expression plasmid significantly increased GAD1 mRNA levels. The effect of 5-HT was blocked by a short interfering RNA targeting NGFI-A. These results suggest that maternal care influences the development of the GABA system by altering GAD1 promoter methylation levels through the maternally induced activation of NGFI-A and its association with the GAD1 promoter.
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106
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Qin L, Tu W, Sun X, Zhang J, Chen Y, Zhao H. Retardation of neurobehavioral development and reelin down-regulation regulated by further DNA methylation in the hippocampus of the rat pups are associated with maternal deprivation. Behav Brain Res 2010; 217:142-7. [PMID: 20974192 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2010.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2010] [Revised: 10/12/2010] [Accepted: 10/13/2010] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
It is known that early life stress has profound effects in early developing hippocampus. Reelin is a large protein that regulates neuronal migration during embryonic development. The expression of reelin persists in brain, but its function is little known. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of maternal deprivation (MD) on early neurobehavioral development of rats, and the role of reelin and the potential mechanism underlying regulation of its expression in hippocampus. Rat pups were removed from mothers during the postnatal day (PND) 2-15 for 3h a day. Reflex developments including grasping, gait, righting, cliff avoidance, auditory startle, hot-plate test and negative geotaxis, were tested during the first 3 weeks. The level of reelin mRNA and reelin gene methylation in the hippocampal formation were determined using real-time PCR analysis. As expected, some differences appeared in the measure of neurobehavior and expression of reelin in rat pups. Several significant deficiencies were observed in bodyweight, auditory startle and grasping reflex while a great enhancement in hot-plate test in rat pups suffering from MD. On PND 22, the expression of reelin mRNA reduced in the hippocampus followed by MD. Meanwhile, the changes of DNA methylation showed an opposite trend compared with the reelin expression. The results suggest that MD in early life has harmful effects on neurobehavioral development, and causes the down-regulation of reelin mRNA by further DNA methylation in postnatal hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Qin
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
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107
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Abstract
Schizophrenia postmortem brain is characterized by gamma aminobutyric acid downregulation and by decreased dendritic spine density in frontal cortex. Protracted L-methionine treatment exacerbates schizophrenia symptoms, and our earlier work (Tremolizzo et al. and Dong et al.) has shown that L-methionine decreases reelin and GAD67 transcription in mice which is prevented by co-administration of valproate. In this study, we observed a decrease in spine density following L-methionine treatment, which was prevented by co-administration of valproate. Together with our earlier findings conducted under the same experimental conditions, we suggest that downregulation of spine density in L-methionine-treated mice may be because of the decreased expression of reelin and that valproate may prevent spine downregulation by inhibiting the methylation induced decrease in reelin.
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108
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Bredy TW, Sun YE, Kobor MS. How the epigenome contributes to the development of psychiatric disorders. Dev Psychobiol 2010; 52:331-42. [PMID: 20127889 DOI: 10.1002/dev.20424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Epigenetics commonly refers to the developmental process by which cellular traits are established and inherited without a change in DNA sequence. These mechanisms of cellular memory also orchestrate gene expression in the adult brain and recent evidence suggests that the "epigenome" represents a critical interface between environmental signals, activation, repression and maintenance of genomic responses, and persistent behavior. We here review the current state of knowledge regarding the contribution of the epigenome toward the development of psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy W Bredy
- Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QC 4072, Australia.
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109
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Smith RC, Zhubi A, Maloku E, Sershen H, Lajtha A, Davis JM, Costa E, Guidotti A. Varenicline treatment decreases DNMT1 mRNA expression in lymphocytes of schizophrenic patients who are cigarette smokers. Schizophr Res 2010; 119:269-70. [PMID: 20335008 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2010.02.1064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2009] [Revised: 02/17/2010] [Accepted: 02/19/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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110
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Identification of a Smad4/YY1-recognized and BMP2-responsive transcriptional regulatory module in the promoter of mouse GABA transporter subtype I (Gat1) gene. J Neurosci 2010; 30:4062-71. [PMID: 20237276 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2964-09.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
GABAergic dysfunction is implicated in a variety of neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders. The mechanisms underlying GABAergic differentiation, however, are not well understood. GABA transporter 1 (Gat1; Slc6a1) is an essential component of the GABAergic system, and its ectopic mRNA expression may be responsible for GABAergic malfunction under different pathological conditions. Thus, monitoring the transcriptional regulation of gat1 may help to elucidate the mechanisms that govern the differentiation of GABAergic neurons. In this study, we identified a promoter region that is sufficient to recapitulate endogenous gat1 expression in transgenic mice. A 46 bp cis-regulator in the promoter sequence was responsible for the stimulation of bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP2) on gat1 expression in cortical cortex. Furthermore, our study demonstrated that Smad4 and YY1 are physically bound to the element and mediate both the negative and positive regulatory effects in which BMP2 can affect the balance. In summary, we have identified a Smad4/YY1-based bidirectional regulation model for GABAergic gene transcription and demonstrated a molecular cue important for the differentiation of GABAergic neurons.
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111
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Matricon J, Bellon A, Frieling H, Kebir O, Le Pen G, Beuvon F, Daumas-Duport C, Jay TM, Krebs MO. Neuropathological and Reelin deficiencies in the hippocampal formation of rats exposed to MAM; differences and similarities with schizophrenia. PLoS One 2010; 5:e10291. [PMID: 20421980 PMCID: PMC2858661 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2009] [Accepted: 03/15/2010] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Adult rats exposed to methylazoxymethanol (MAM) at embryonic day 17 (E17) consistently display behavioral characteristics similar to that observed in patients with schizophrenia and replicate neuropathological findings from the prefrontal cortex of psychotic individuals. However, a systematic neuropathological analysis of the hippocampal formation and the thalamus in these rats is lacking. It is also unclear if reelin, a protein consistently associated with schizophrenia and potentially involved in the mechanism of action of MAM, participates in the neuropathological effects of this compound. Therefore, a thorough assessment including cytoarchitectural and neuromorphometric measurements of eleven brain regions was conducted. Numbers of reelin positive cells and reelin expression and methylation levels were also studied. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Compared to untreated rats, MAM-exposed animals showed a reduction in the volume of entorhinal cortex, hippocampus and mediodorsal thalamus associated with decreased neuronal soma. The entorhinal cortex also showed laminar disorganization and neuronal clusters. Reelin methylation in the hippocampus was decreased whereas reelin positive neurons and reelin expression were unchanged. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that E17-MAM exposure reproduces findings from the hippocampal formation and the mediodorsal thalamus of patients with schizophrenia while providing little support for reelin's involvement. Moreover, these results strongly suggest MAM-treated animals have a diminished neuropil, which likely arises from abnormal neurite formation; this supports a recently proposed pathophysiological hypothesis for schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Matricon
- INSERM U894, Laboratoire de Physiopathologie des Maladies Psychiatriques, Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes, Faculté de Médecine Paris Descartes, Hôpital Sainte-Anne, Paris, France
| | - Alfredo Bellon
- INSERM U894, Laboratoire de Physiopathologie des Maladies Psychiatriques, Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes, Faculté de Médecine Paris Descartes, Hôpital Sainte-Anne, Paris, France
- * E-mail: (AB); (MOK)
| | - Helge Frieling
- INSERM U894, Laboratoire de Physiopathologie des Maladies Psychiatriques, Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences, Paris, France
- Department of Psychiatry, Socialpsychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Oussama Kebir
- INSERM U894, Laboratoire de Physiopathologie des Maladies Psychiatriques, Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes, Faculté de Médecine Paris Descartes, Hôpital Sainte-Anne, Paris, France
| | - Gwenaëlle Le Pen
- INSERM U894, Laboratoire de Physiopathologie des Maladies Psychiatriques, Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes, Faculté de Médecine Paris Descartes, Hôpital Sainte-Anne, Paris, France
| | - Frédéric Beuvon
- Neuropathology unit, Université Paris Descartes, Faculté de Médecine Paris Descartes, Hôpital Sainte-Anne, Paris, France
- INSERM U894, Laboratoire de Plasticité gliale et tumeurs cérébrales, Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences, Paris, France
| | - Catherine Daumas-Duport
- Neuropathology unit, Université Paris Descartes, Faculté de Médecine Paris Descartes, Hôpital Sainte-Anne, Paris, France
- INSERM U894, Laboratoire de Plasticité gliale et tumeurs cérébrales, Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences, Paris, France
| | - Thérèse M. Jay
- INSERM U894, Laboratoire de Physiopathologie des Maladies Psychiatriques, Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes, Faculté de Médecine Paris Descartes, Hôpital Sainte-Anne, Paris, France
| | - Marie-Odile Krebs
- INSERM U894, Laboratoire de Physiopathologie des Maladies Psychiatriques, Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes, Faculté de Médecine Paris Descartes, Hôpital Sainte-Anne, Paris, France
- * E-mail: (AB); (MOK)
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112
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Qiang M, Denny A, Chen J, Ticku MK, Yan B, Henderson G. The site specific demethylation in the 5'-regulatory area of NMDA receptor 2B subunit gene associated with CIE-induced up-regulation of transcription. PLoS One 2010; 5:e8798. [PMID: 20098704 PMCID: PMC2808353 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0008798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2009] [Accepted: 12/18/2009] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The NMDA receptor represents a particularly important site of ethanol action in the CNS. We recently reported that NMDA receptor 2B (NR2B) gene expression was persistently up-regulated following chronic intermittent ethanol (CIE) treatment. Increasing evidence that epigenetic mechanisms are involved in dynamic and long-lasting regulation of gene expression in multiple neuroadaptive processes prompted us to investigate the role of DNA methylation in mediating CIE-induced up-regulation of NR2B gene transcription. To dissect the changes of DNA methylation in the NR2B gene, we have screened a large number of CpG sites within its 5′-regulatory area following CIE treatment. Methods Primary cortical cultured neurons were subjected to ethanol treatment in a CIE paradigm. Bisulfite conversion followed by pyrosequencing was used for quantitative measurement and analysis of CpG methylation status within the 5′-regulatory area of the NR2B gene; chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay was used to examine DNA levels associated with methylation and transcription factor binding. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) and in vitro DNA methylation assays were performed to determine the direct impact of DNA methylation on the interaction between DNA and transcription factor and promoter activity. Results Analysis of individual CpG methylation sites within the NR2B 5′regulatory area revealed three regions with clusters of site-specific CpG demethylation following CIE treatment and withdrawal. This was confirmed by ChIP showing similar decreases of methylated DNA in the same regions. The CIE-induced demethylation is characterized by being located near certain transcription factor binding sequences, AP-1 and CRE, and occurred during treatment as well as after ethanol withdrawal. Furthermore, the increase in vitro of methylated DNA decreased transcription factor binding activity and promoter activity. An additional ChIP assay indicated that the CIE-induced DNA demethylation is accompanied by increased occupation by transcription factors. Conclusions These results suggest an important role of DNA demethylation in mediating CIE-induced NR2B gene up-regulation, thus implicating a novel molecular site of alcohol action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Qiang
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America.
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113
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One-carbon metabolism and schizophrenia: current challenges and future directions. Trends Mol Med 2009; 15:562-70. [PMID: 19896901 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2009.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2009] [Revised: 10/05/2009] [Accepted: 10/05/2009] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a heterogeneous disease generally considered to result from a combination of heritable and environmental factors. Although its pathophysiology has not been fully determined, biological studies support the involvement of several possible components including altered DNA methylation, abnormal glutamatergic transmission, altered mitochondrial function, folate deficiency and high maternal homocysteine levels. Although these factors have been explored separately, they all involve one-carbon (C1) metabolism. Furthermore, C1 metabolism is well positioned to integrate gene-environment interactions by influencing epigenetic regulation. Here, we discuss the potential roles of C1 metabolism in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Understanding the contribution of these mechanisms could yield new therapeutic approaches aiming to counteract disease onset or progression.
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Dong E, Grayson DR, Guidotti A, Costa E. Antipsychotic subtypes can be characterized by differences in their ability to modify GABAergic promoter methylation. Epigenomics 2009; 1:201-11. [DOI: 10.2217/epi.09.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder research suggest that a dysfunction of GABAergic neurotransmission that is operative in telencephalic structures may be an important dynamic mechanism associated with psychosis. We propose that this dysfunction is probably mediated by the hypermethylation of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD67), reelin and other gene promoters expressed in GABAergic neurons. A pharmacological strategy that reduces the hypermethylation of GABAergic promoters is to administer drugs (i.e., valproate [VPA]) that induce DNA demethylation by facilitating chromatin remodeling. The enhanced clinical efficacy of atypical antipsychotics when co-administered with VPA prompted us to investigate whether this increased drug efficacy is related to a modification of GABAergic promoter methylation via chromatin remodeling. Our previous and present results strongly suggest that when associated with VPA, clozapine or sulpiride, but not haloperidol or olanzapine, facilitate chromatin remodeling. This molecular remodeling may contribute to the induction of reelin (RELN) and GAD67 (GAD1) promoter demethylation, and may reverse the downregulation of various GABAergic mRNAs and proteins detected in the telencephalon of patients with schizophrenia or bipolar disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erbo Dong
- University of Illinois at Chicago, College of Medicine, Psychiatric Institute, 1601 Taylor, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Dennis R Grayson
- University of Illinois at Chicago, College of Medicine, Psychiatric Institute, 1601 Taylor, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Alessandro Guidotti
- University of Illinois at Chicago, College of Medicine, Psychiatric Institute, 1601 Taylor, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Erminio Costa
- University of Illinois at Chicago, College of Medicine, Psychiatric Institute, 1601 Taylor, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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115
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Charych EI, Liu F, Moss SJ, Brandon NJ. GABA(A) receptors and their associated proteins: implications in the etiology and treatment of schizophrenia and related disorders. Neuropharmacology 2009; 57:481-95. [PMID: 19631671 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2009.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2009] [Revised: 07/02/2009] [Accepted: 07/13/2009] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABA(A)) receptors play an important role in mediating fast synaptic inhibition in the brain. They are ubiquitously expressed in the CNS and also represent a major site of action for clinically relevant drugs. Recent technological advances have greatly clarified the molecular and cellular roles played by distinct GABA(A) receptor subunit classes and isoforms in normal brain function. At the same time, postmortem and genetic studies have linked neuropsychiatric disorders including schizophrenia and bipolar disorder with GABAergic neurotransmission and various specific GABA(A) receptor subunits, while evidence implicating GABA(A)R-associated proteins is beginning to emerge. In this review we discuss the mounting genetic, molecular, and cellular evidence pointing toward a role for GABA(A) receptor heterogeneity in both schizophrenia etiology and therapeutic development. Finally, we speculate on the relationship between schizophrenia-related disorders and selected GABA(A) receptor associated proteins, key regulators of GABA(A) receptor trafficking, targeting, clustering, and anchoring that often carry out these functions in a subtype-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik I Charych
- Wyeth Research, Neuroscience Discovery, Princeton NJ 08852, USA.
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116
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Roth TL, Lubin FD, Sodhi M, Kleinman JE. Epigenetic mechanisms in schizophrenia. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2009; 1790:869-77. [PMID: 19559755 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2009.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2009] [Revised: 06/16/2009] [Accepted: 06/16/2009] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Epidemiological research suggests that both an individual's genes and the environment underlie the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Molecular mechanisms mediating the interplay between genes and the environment are likely to have a significant role in the onset of the disorder. Recent work indicates that epigenetic mechanisms, or the chemical markings of the DNA and the surrounding histone proteins, remain labile through the lifespan and can be altered by environmental factors. Thus, epigenetic mechanisms are an attractive molecular hypothesis for environmental contributions to schizophrenia. In this review, we first present an overview of schizophrenia and discuss the role of nature versus nurture in its pathology, where 'nature' is considered to be inherited or genetic vulnerability to schizophrenia, and 'nurture' is proposed to exert its effects through epigenetic mechanisms. Second, we define DNA methylation and discuss the evidence for its role in schizophrenia. Third, we define posttranslational histone modifications and discuss their place in schizophrenia. This research is likely to lead to the development of epigenetic therapy, which holds the promise of alleviating cognitive deficits associated with schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tania L Roth
- Department of Neurobiology and Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 35294, USA
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117
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Zhubi A, Veldic M, Puri N, Kadriu B, Caruncho H, Loza, Sershen H, Lajtha A, Smith R, Guidotti A, Davis J, Costa E. An upregulation of DNA-methyltransferase 1 and 3a expressed in telencephalic GABAergic neurons of schizophrenia patients is also detected in peripheral blood lymphocytes. Schizophr Res 2009; 111:115-22. [PMID: 19386473 PMCID: PMC3031301 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2009.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2009] [Revised: 03/09/2009] [Accepted: 03/11/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Several lines of schizophrenia (SZ) research suggest that a functional downregulation of the prefrontal cortex GABAergic neuronal system is mediated by a promoter hypermethylation, presumably catalyzed by an increase in DNA-methyltransferase-1 (DNMT-1) expression. This promoter hypermethylation may be mediated not only by DNMT-1 but also by an entire family of de novo DNA-methyltransferases, such as DNA-methyltransferase-3a (DNMT-3a) and -3b (DNMT-3b). To verify the existence of an overexpression of DNMT-3a and DNMT-3b in the brain of schizophrenia patients (SZP), we compared their mRNA expression in Brodmann's area 10 (BA10) and in the caudate nucleus and putamen obtained from the Harvard Brain Tissue Resource Center (Belmont, MA) from both nonpsychiatric subjects (NPS) and SZP. Our results demonstrate that DNMT-3a and DNMT-1 are expressed and co-localize in distinct GABAergic neuron populations whereas DNMT-3b mRNA is virtually undetectable. We also found that unlike DNMT-1, which is frequently overexpressed in telencephalic GABAergic neurons of SZP, DNMT-3a mRNA is overexpressed only in layer I and II GABAergic interneurons of BA10. To ascertain whether these DNMT expression differences observed in brain tissue could also be detected in peripheral tissues, we studied whether DNMT-1 and DNMT-3a mRNAs were overexpressed in peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) of SZP. Both DNMT-1 and DNMT-3a mRNAs are expressed in the PBL and although DNMT-3a mRNA levels in the PBL are approximately 1/10 of those of DNMT-1, the comparison of the PBL content in NPS and SZP showed a highly significant 2-fold increase of both DNMT-1 and DNMT-3a mRNA in SZP. These changes were unaffected by the dose, the duration, or the type of antipsychotic treatment. The upregulation of DNMT-1 and to a lesser extent that of DNMT-3a mRNA in PBL of SZP supports the concept that this readily available peripheral cell type can express an epigenetic variation of specific biomarkers relevant to SZ morbidity. Hence, PBL studies may become useful to investigate a diagnostic epigenetic marker of SZ morbidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Zhubi
- Psychiatric Institute, Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago
| | - M. Veldic
- Psychiatric Institute, Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago
| | - N.V. Puri
- Psychiatric Institute, Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago
| | - B. Kadriu
- Psychiatric Institute, Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago
| | - H. Caruncho
- Department of Cell Biology and Pharmacology, University of Santiago de Compostela, Galicia, Spain
| | - Loza
- Department of Cell Biology and Pharmacology, University of Santiago de Compostela, Galicia, Spain
| | - H. Sershen
- Department of Psychiatry NYU Medical School, Manhattan Psychiatric Center, NY
| | - A. Lajtha
- Department of Psychiatry NYU Medical School, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, NY
| | - R. Smith
- Department of Psychiatry NYU Medical School
| | - A Guidotti
- Psychiatric Institute, Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago
| | - J. Davis
- Psychiatric Institute, Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago
| | - E. Costa
- Psychiatric Institute, Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago
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118
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Costa E, Chen Y, Dong E, Grayson DR, Kundakovic M, Maloku E, Ruzicka W, Satta R, Veldic M, Zhubi A, Guidotti A. GABAergic promoter hypermethylation as a model to study the neurochemistry of schizophrenia vulnerability. Expert Rev Neurother 2009; 9:87-98. [PMID: 19102671 DOI: 10.1586/14737175.9.1.87] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The neuronal GABAergic mechanisms that mediate the symptomatic beneficial effects elicited by a combination of antipsychotics with valproate (a histone deacetylase inhibitor) in the treatment of psychosis (expressed by schizophrenia or bipolar disorder patients) are unknown. This prompted us to investigate whether the beneficial action of this combination results from a modification of histone tail covalent esterification or is secondary to specific chromatin remodeling. The results suggest that clozapine, or sulpiride associated with valproate, by increasing DNA demethylation with an unknown mechanism, causes a chromatin remodeling that brings about a beneficial change in the epigenetic GABAergic dysfunction typical of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erminio Costa
- Psychiatric Institute, Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1601 Taylor, Chicago, IL 60612, USA.
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119
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This is a review examining recent data from the study of the postmortem central nervous system (CNS) of patients with schizophrenia. RECENT FINDINGS Studies on the human CNS transcriptome suggest changes in pro-inflammatory pathways and myelination in schizophrenia, whereas changes in the proteome suggest that pathways involved in energy and metabolism may be particularly stressed. There appear to be complex changes in the expression of proposed candidate genes for schizophrenia such as NRG1, DISC1, RGS4 and DTNB1, and there are continued reports of alterations in central gamma-aminobutyric acidergic, dopaminergic, glutamatergic and cholinergic pathways in patients with the disorder. Data on epigenetic mechanisms and transcriptome regulation suggest that at least some changes in gene expression may be due to changes in levels of gene promoter methylation or microRNAs in the CNS of patients with schizophrenia. SUMMARY Postmortem CNS studies have begun to unravel changes in the epigenetic regulation of gene expression that may be central to how gene-environment interactions contribute to the onset of schizophrenia. In addition, a recent study indicates that it is possible to use biomarkers to segregate the syndrome of schizophrenia into more biologically homogeneous populations, which should decrease the biological complexity observed within that group within the schizophrenia syndrome.
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120
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Kundakovic M, Chen Y, Guidotti A, Grayson DR. The reelin and GAD67 promoters are activated by epigenetic drugs that facilitate the disruption of local repressor complexes. Mol Pharmacol 2009; 75:342-54. [PMID: 19029285 PMCID: PMC2684898 DOI: 10.1124/mol.108.051763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2008] [Accepted: 11/24/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The epigenetic down-regulation of genes is emerging as a possible underlying mechanism of the GABAergic neuron dysfunction in schizophrenia. For example, evidence has been presented to show that the promoters associated with reelin and GAD67 are down-regulated as a consequence of DNA methyltransferase (DNMT)-mediated hypermethylation. Using neuronal progenitor cells to study this regulation, we have previously demonstrated that DNMT inhibitors coordinately increase reelin and GAD67 mRNAs. Here, we report that another group of epigenetic drugs, histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors, activate these two genes with dose and time dependence comparable with that of DNMT inhibitors. In parallel, both groups of drugs decrease DNMT1, DNMT3A, and DNMT3B protein levels and reduce DNMT enzyme activity. Furthermore, induction of the reelin and GAD67 mRNAs is accompanied by the dissociation of repressor complexes containing all three DNMTs, MeCP2, and HDAC1 from the corresponding promoters and by increased local histone acetylation. Our data imply that drug-induced promoter demethylation is relevant for maximal activation of reelin and GAD67 transcription. The results suggest that HDAC and DNMT inhibitors activate reelin and GAD67 expression through similar mechanisms. Both classes of drugs attenuate, directly or indirectly, the enzymatic and transcriptional repressor activities of DNMTs and HDACs. These data provide a mechanistic rationale for the use of epigenetic drugs, individually or in combination, as a potential novel therapeutic strategy to alleviate deficits associated with schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marija Kundakovic
- Department of Psychiatry, The Psychiatric Institute, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60612, USA
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121
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Characterization of the action of antipsychotic subtypes on valproate-induced chromatin remodeling. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2009; 30:55-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2008.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2008] [Revised: 10/29/2008] [Accepted: 10/31/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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122
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Xi D, Keeler B, Zhang W, Houle JD, Gao WJ. NMDA receptor subunit expression in GABAergic interneurons in the prefrontal cortex: application of laser microdissection technique. J Neurosci Methods 2009; 176:172-81. [PMID: 18845188 PMCID: PMC2740488 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2008.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2008] [Revised: 08/28/2008] [Accepted: 09/09/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The selective involvement of a subset of neurons in many psychiatric disorders, such as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic interneurons in schizophrenia, creates a significant need for in-depth analysis of these cells. Here we introduce a combination of techniques to examine the relative gene expression of N-methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor subtypes in GABAergic interneurons from the rat prefrontal cortex. Neurons were identified by immunostaining, isolated by laser microdissection and RNA was prepared for reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and real-time PCR. These experimental procedures have been described individually; however, we found that this combination of techniques is powerful for the analysis of gene expression in individual identified neurons. This approach provides the means to analyze relevant molecular mechanisms that are involved in the neuropathological process of a devastating brain disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Xi
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Drexel University College of Medicine, 2900 Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA 19129, United States
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123
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The cerebral microvasculature in schizophrenia: a laser capture microdissection study. PLoS One 2008; 3:e3964. [PMID: 19088852 PMCID: PMC2597747 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2008] [Accepted: 11/17/2008] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Previous studies of brain and peripheral tissues in schizophrenia patients have indicated impaired energy supply to the brain. A number of studies have also demonstrated dysfunction of the microvasculature in schizophrenia patients. Together these findings are consistent with a hypothesis of blood-brain barrier dysfunction in schizophrenia. In this study, we have investigated the cerebral vascular endothelium of schizophrenia patients at the level of transcriptomics. Methodology/Principal Findings We used laser capture microdissection to isolate both microvascular endothelial cells and neurons from post mortem brain tissue from schizophrenia patients and healthy controls. RNA was isolated from these cell populations, amplified, and analysed using two independent microarray platforms, Affymetrix HG133plus2.0 GeneChips and CodeLink Whole Human Genome arrays. In the first instance, we used the dataset to compare the neuronal and endothelial data, in order to demonstrate that the predicted differences between cell types could be detected using this methodology. We then compared neuronal and endothelial data separately between schizophrenic subjects and controls. Analysis of the endothelial samples showed differences in gene expression between schizophrenics and controls which were reproducible in a second microarray platform. Functional profiling revealed that these changes were primarily found in genes relating to inflammatory processes. Conclusions/Significance This study provides preliminary evidence of molecular alterations of the cerebral microvasculature in schizophrenia patients, suggestive of a hypo-inflammatory state in this tissue type. Further investigation of the blood-brain barrier in schizophrenia is warranted.
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Pennington K, Dicker P, Dunn MJ, Cotter DR. Proteomic analysis reveals protein changes within layer 2 of the insular cortex in schizophrenia. Proteomics 2008; 8:5097-107. [DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200800415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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125
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Abdolmaleky HM, Zhou JR, Thiagalingam S, Smith CL. Epigenetic and pharmacoepigenomic studies of major psychoses and potentials for therapeutics. Pharmacogenomics 2008; 9:1809-23. [DOI: 10.2217/14622416.9.12.1809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Individuals with neuropsychiatric diseases have epigenetic programming disturbances, both in the brain, which is the primary affected organ, and in secondary tissues. Epigenetic modulations are molecular modifications made to DNA, RNA and proteins that fine-tune genotype into phenotype and do not include DNA base changes. For instance, gene-expression modulation is linked to epigenetic codes in chromatin that consist of post-replication DNA methylation and histone protein modifications (e.g., methylation, acetylation and so on), particularly in gene-promoter regions. Epigenetic coding is modulated globally, and in a gene-specific manner by environmental exposures that include nutrition, toxins, drugs and so on. Analysis of epigenetic aberrations in diseases helps to identify dysfunctional genes and pathways, establish more robust cause–effect relationships than genetic studies alone, and identify new pharmaceutical targets and drugs, including nucleic acid reagents such as inhibitory RNAs. The emerging science of pharmacoepigenomics can impact the treatment of psychiatric and other complex diseases. In fact, some therapeutics now in use target epigenetic programming. In the near future, epigenetic interventions should help stabilize affected individuals and lead to prevention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamid Mostafavi Abdolmaleky
- Laboratory of Nutrition and Metabolism at BIDMC, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Biomedical Engineering Department, Boston University, USA
- Department of Medicine, Genetics & Genomics, Boston University School of Medicine, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Tehran Psychiatric Institute, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Jin-Rong Zhou
- Laboratory of Nutrition and Metabolism at BIDMC, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Sam Thiagalingam
- Department of Medicine, Genetics & Genomics, Boston University School of Medicine, USA
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Nicotine decreases DNA methyltransferase 1 expression and glutamic acid decarboxylase 67 promoter methylation in GABAergic interneurons. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105:16356-61. [PMID: 18852456 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0808699105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Tobacco smoking is frequently abused by schizophrenia patients (SZP). The major synaptically active component inhaled from cigarettes is nicotine, hence the smoking habit of SZP may represent an attempt to use nicotine self-medication to correct (i) a central nervous system nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) dysfunction, (ii) DNA-methyltransferase 1 (DMT1) overexpression in GABAergic neurons, and (iii) the down-regulation of reelin and GAD(67) expression caused by the increase of DNMT1-mediated hypermethylation of promoters in GABAergic interneurons of the telencephalon. Nicotine (4.5-22 micromol/kg s.c., 4 injections during the 12-h light cycle for 4 days) decreases DNMT1 mRNA and protein and increases GAD(67) expression in the mouse frontal cortex (FC). This nicotine-induced decrease of DNMT1 mRNA expression is greater (80%) in laser microdissected FC layer I GABAergic neurons than in the whole FC (40%), suggesting selectivity differences for the specific nicotinic receptor populations expressed in GABAergic neurons of different cortical layers. The down-regulation of DNMT1 expression induced by nicotine in the FC is also observed in the hippocampus but not in striatal GABAergic neurons. Furthermore, these data show that in the FC, the same doses of nicotine that decrease DNMT1 expression also (i) diminished the level of cytosine-5-methylation in the GAD(67) promoter and (ii) prevented the methionine-induced hypermethylation of the same promoter. Pretreatment with mecamylamine (6 micromol/kg s.c.), an nAChR blocker that penetrates the blood-brain barrier, prevents the nicotine-induced decrease of FC DNMT1 expression. Taken together, these results suggest that nicotine, by activating nAChRs located on cortical or hippocampal GABAergic interneurons, can up-regulate GAD(67) expression via an epigenetic mechanism. Nicotine is not effective in striatal medium spiny GABAergic neurons that primarily express muscarinic receptors.
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Clozapine and sulpiride but not haloperidol or olanzapine activate brain DNA demethylation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105:13614-9. [PMID: 18757738 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0805493105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cortical GABAergic dysfunction, a hallmark of both schizophrenia (SZ) and bipolar (BP) disorder pathophysiologies may relate to the hypermethylation of GABAergic gene promoters (i.e., reelin and GAD67). Benefits elicited by a combination of atypical antipsychotics with valproate (VPA) (a histone deacetylase inhibitor that may also activate brain DNA demethylation) in SZ or BP disorder treatment prompted us to investigate whether the beneficial action of this association depends on induction of a putative DNA demethylase activity. To monitor this activity, we measured the ratio of 5-methyl cytosine to unmethylated cytosine in reelin and GAD67 promoters in the mouse frontal cortex and striatum. We compared normal mice with mice pretreated with l-methionine (5.2 mmol/kg s.c. twice a day for 7 days) to hypermethylate promoters, including reelin and GAD67. Clinically relevant doses of clozapine (CLZ) (3.8 to 15 micromol/kg twice a day s.c. for 3 days) and sulpiride (SULP) (12.5 to 50 micromol/kg twice a day for 3 days) but not clinically relevant doses of haloperidol (HAL) (1.3 to 4 micromol/kg twice a day s.c. for 3 days) or olanzapine (OLZ) (4 to 15 micromol/kg twice a day for 3 days) exhibited dose-related increases in the cortical and striatal demethylation of hypermethylated reelin and GAD67 promoters. These effects of CLZ and SULP were dramatically potentiated by a clinically relevant VPA dose (0.5 mmol/kg twice a day for 3 days). By activating a DNA demethylase, the association of CLZ or SULP with VPA may facilitate a chromatin remodeling that normalizes the GABAergic gene expression down-regulation detected in the telencephalic regions of SZ and BP patients.
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128
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Levenson JM, Qiu S, Weeber EJ. The role of reelin in adult synaptic function and the genetic and epigenetic regulation of the reelin gene. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-GENE REGULATORY MECHANISMS 2008; 1779:422-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagrm.2008.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2007] [Revised: 01/01/2008] [Accepted: 01/03/2008] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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129
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Tochigi M, Iwamoto K, Bundo M, Komori A, Sasaki T, Kato N, Kato T. Methylation status of the reelin promoter region in the brain of schizophrenic patients. Biol Psychiatry 2008; 63:530-3. [PMID: 17870056 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2006] [Revised: 07/03/2007] [Accepted: 07/05/2007] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hypermethylation of the reelin (RELN) promoter region and the reduced levels of its messenger RNA and protein have been implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. We intended a technical replication of recent studies that observed hypermethylation of CpG or CpNpG sites in the RELN promoter region in the brain of schizophrenic patients. METHODS The DNA methylation status of the promoter region of RELN was examined by using the pyrosequencing method in the prefrontal cortices of 14 patients with schizophrenia and 13 control subjects. RESULTS All of the CpG and two proposed CpNpG sites analyzed showed no detectable DNA methylation (< 5%) in both control subjects and patients with schizophrenia. No detectable DNA methylation was observed in both gray and white matter, excluding the possibility of cellular heterogeneity of start materials. CONCLUSIONS We did not confirm the hypermethylation of the RELN promoter region in the brains of schizophrenic patients, suggested in the previous studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mamoru Tochigi
- Laboratory for Molecular Dynamics of Mental Disorders, RIKEN Brain Science Institute, Saitama, Japan
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130
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Sharma RP, Grayson DR, Gavin DP. Histone deactylase 1 expression is increased in the prefrontal cortex of schizophrenia subjects: analysis of the National Brain Databank microarray collection. Schizophr Res 2008; 98:111-7. [PMID: 17961987 PMCID: PMC2254186 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2007.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2007] [Revised: 09/10/2007] [Accepted: 09/14/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Histone deactylase enzymes are responsible for the deacetylation of histone tails, and consequently influence gene regulation through their ability to modify chromatin structure surrounding promoter regions. We analyzed the microarray collection of the National Brain Databank to investigate differential expression of these enzymes in the prefrontal cortices of control, schizophrenia and bipolar subjects. HDAC1 expression levels were significantly higher in schizophrenia versus normal subjects. The mRNA expression level of an epigenetically regulated schizophrenia candidate gene GAD67 was strongly and negatively correlated with the mRNA expression levels of HDAC1, HDAC3 and HDAC4 levels. These findings provide additional support for the proposal that epigenetic factors are operative in the brain pathology of patients with schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajiv P. Sharma
- The Psychiatric Institute, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1601 W. Taylor St. Chicago, IL 60612,Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois at Chicago-College of Medicine, 912 S. Wood St. Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Dennis R. Grayson
- The Psychiatric Institute, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1601 W. Taylor St. Chicago, IL 60612,Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois at Chicago-College of Medicine, 912 S. Wood St. Chicago, IL 60612
| | - David P. Gavin
- The Psychiatric Institute, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1601 W. Taylor St. Chicago, IL 60612,Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois at Chicago-College of Medicine, 912 S. Wood St. Chicago, IL 60612
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Veldic M, Kadriu B, Maloku E, Agis-Balboa RC, Guidotti A, Davis JM, Costa E. Epigenetic mechanisms expressed in basal ganglia GABAergic neurons differentiate schizophrenia from bipolar disorder. Schizophr Res 2007; 91:51-61. [PMID: 17270400 PMCID: PMC1876737 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2006.11.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2006] [Revised: 11/17/2006] [Accepted: 11/26/2006] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
In the cerebral prefrontal cortex (PFC), DNA-methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1), the enzyme that catalyzes the methylation of cytosine at carbon atoms in position 5 in CpG dinucleotides, is expressed selectively in GABAergic neurons and is upregulated in layers I and II of schizophrenia (SZ) and bipolar disorder patients with psychosis (BDP). To replicate these earlier findings and to verify whether overexpression of DNMT1 and the consequent epigenetic decrease of reelin and glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) 67 mRNA expression also occur in GABAergic medium spiny neurons of the caudate nucleus (CN) and putamen (PT) of SZ and BDP, we studied the entire McLean 66 Cohort (Harvard Brain Tissue Resource Center, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA) including SZ and BDP, which were matched with nonpsychiatric subjects. The data demonstrate that in GABAergic medium spiny neurons of CN and PT, unlike in GABAergic neurons of layer I and II PFC, the increased expression of DNMT1 and the decrease of reelin and GAD67 occur in SZ but not in BDP. This suggests that different epigenetic mechanisms must exist in the pathogenesis underlying SZ and BDP and implies that these disorders might involve two separate entities that are characterized by a well-defined neuropathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marin Veldic
- Psychiatric Institute, Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Illinois, 1601 West Taylor Street, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Bashkim Kadriu
- Psychiatric Institute, Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Illinois, 1601 West Taylor Street, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Ekrem Maloku
- Psychiatric Institute, Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Illinois, 1601 West Taylor Street, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Roberto C. Agis-Balboa
- Psychiatric Institute, Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Illinois, 1601 West Taylor Street, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Alessandro Guidotti
- Psychiatric Institute, Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Illinois, 1601 West Taylor Street, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - John M. Davis
- Psychiatric Institute, Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Illinois, 1601 West Taylor Street, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Erminio Costa
- Psychiatric Institute, Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Illinois, 1601 West Taylor Street, Chicago, IL 60612
- *Corresponding author. Psychiatric Institute, Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Illinois, 1601 West Taylor Street, Chicago, IL 60612 Tel.: +1 312 413 4591; fax: +1 312 413 4569
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