Laparoscopic cholecystectomy-related bile duct injuries: a health and financial disaster

Frequency of biliary complications after laparoscopic cholecystectomy detected by ERCP: experience at a large tertiary referral center

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy has a higher incidence of bile-duct injuries than open cholecystectomy. Although a learning curve phenomenon was attributed to biliary injuries early after its introduction, we were interested in trends in biliary injury rates over time as laparoscopic cholecystectomy has become a mature technology.

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the frequency and anatomic distribution of bile-duct injuries referred after laparoscopic cholecystectomy over a 10-year period.

DESIGN

Retrospective, case-series.

SETTING

Tertiary, referral hepatobiliary unit.

PATIENTS

Referrals to ERCP unit for diagnosis and treatment of biliary injuries after laparoscopic cholecystectomy.

INTERVENTION

ERCP to diagnose level and severity of bile duct injury.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

Type and anatomy of bile-duct injury, reason for cholecystectomy, mean time between injury and diagnosis, presenting symptoms, ratio of bile-duct injuries diagnosed over total ERCPs done per year.

RESULTS

There were 87 bile-duct leaks, 28 leaks with stones, 51 strictures, and 17 complete duct transactions. The bile-duct injury rate calculated per 100 ERCPs per year was 0.84 (1994), 0.99 (1995), 1.36 (1996), 1.41 (1997), 1.03 (1998), 1.31 (1999), 0.84 (2000), 0.75 (2001), 1.15 (2002), and 0.94 (2003).

LIMITATIONS

Single institution, retrospective analysis, unknown denominator of cholecystectomies done in referral area per year to calculate true bile-duct injury rate.

CONCLUSIONS

Static incidence in frequency, anatomic distribution, and rate per 100 ERCPs per year of postcholecystectomy bile-duct injuries at a tertiary referral hepatobiliary unit over a 10-year period of observation.

Fluorescent cholangiography in a mouse model: an innovative method for improved laparoscopic identification of the biliary anatomy

BACKGROUND

Real-time imaging of the biliary anatomy may facilitate safe and timely completion of laparoscopic cholecystectomy. This study sought to determine whether the unique autofluorescent properties of bile could facilitate intraoperative identification of the biliary anatomy in mice using fluorescent cholangiography.

METHODS

Fluorimetry was performed on samples of mouse bile to determine excitation and emission spectra. For seven mice, chevron laparotomy was performed, followed by liver retraction to expose the porta hepatis. Using stereomicroscopy, photographs were taken in brightfield and fluorescent modes without a change in depth or focus. Six surgical residents evaluated the pictures and identified the gallbladder, cystic duct, common bile duct, and whether the cystic duct joined the right hepatic duct or the common bile duct.

RESULTS

Fluorimetry demonstrated autofluorescence of bile at an excitation wavelength of 475 nm. Intense emission was observed at 480 nm. At these settings, fluorescent stereomicroscopy easily identified the gallbladder and biliary tree in mice. This technique decreased diagnostic errors of the biliary anatomy 11-fold (2% vs 22%; p < 0.01), as compared with brightfield visualization. Fluorescent stereomicroscopy also was used to diagnose bile leak, obstruction, and complex anatomy. Using a prototype 5-mm laparoscope equipped with fluorescent filters, the results were reproduced.

CONCLUSIONS

Fluorescent cholangiography based solely on the autofluorescence of bile may facilitate real-time identification of the biliary anatomy during laparoscopic procedures, without the need for extraneous dye administration or the use of radiography. This technique has the potential to decrease the rate of iatrogenic biliary tract injuries during laparoscopic cholecystectomy.

[Interventions for benign biliary strictures]

Due to their potential for serious consequences, even including biliary liver cirrhosis, benign biliary strictures pose a considerable diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. In addition to inflammatory disease or an acute liver injury, iatrogenically caused biliary strictures following hepatobiliary surgery represent in 95% of cases the main cause for all benign entities. The diagnosis should be determined noninvasively with magnetic resonance cholangiopancreaticography (MRCP). Invasive techniques such as ERCP or percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography (PTC) should be reserved for unclear cases and first performed before the scheduled intervention. Depending on the site and cause of the stricture, surgical and interventional procedures are employed in the treatment of biliary strictures. The best results are obtained in short-segment strictures of the main bile duct. Interventional methods such as balloon dilation and/or stent application with concomitant drain insertion achieve patency rates of up to 75% after 5 and 55% after 12 years with a total complication rate of 5-8%. Due to the fact that most of the cases involve cicatricial fibroses, predisposition for recurrence of biliary strictures after interventional therapy can be very high, ranging up to 66% depending on the localization.

Early specialist repair of biliary injury

BACKGROUND

Considerable debate surrounds the timing of repair of injury to the common bile duct following cholecystectomy. In the absence of sepsis or significant peritoneal soiling, repair within the first week may be optimal. This study compared the outcome of early (within the first 2 weeks) and delayed (between 2 weeks and 6 months) repair.

METHODS

Data on all patients referred with biliary injuries were recorded prospectively. In the absence of sepsis or significant peritoneal soiling, repair was considered within 2 weeks.

RESULTS

Between November 1988 and November 2003, 123 patients were referred with injury to the biliary tree. Repair of the injury had been attempted in 55 patients (44.7 per cent) before referral. Of the 68 patients with no previous repair, nine were managed without surgery and 59 required subsequent surgical reconstruction of the ductal injury. Within the first 2 weeks after injury, 22 patients underwent primary biliary repair and three had revision of a failed biliary repair. Between 2 weeks and 6 months, a further 22 injuries were repaired. Successful repair was possible in 22 of 25 early repairs compared with 20 of 22 delayed repairs (P = 0.615). The overall operative mortality rate for patients undergoing repair was 4 per cent (two of 47 patients).

CONCLUSION

A successful outcome was achieved in a high proportion of patients (42 of 47) when repair of the bile duct injury was undertaken in a unit experienced in the management of biliary injury. In selected patients, early repair within the first 2 weeks resulted in a similar outcome to that of delayed repair.

Bile duct injury in the era of laparoscopic cholecystectomy

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is the standard of care for symptomatic cholelithiasis, but it is associated with a higher incidence of bile duct injury than the open approach.

METHODS

A review was performed of the English language literature on the management of bile duct injury listed on Medline databases.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

There is consensus that careful dissection and correct interpretation of the anatomy avoids the complication of bile duct injury during cholecystectomy. Routine intraoperative cholangiography is associated with a lower incidence and early recognition of bile duct injury. Early detection and repair is associated with an improved outcome, and the minimum standard of care after the recognition of a bile duct injury is immediate referral to a surgeon experienced in bile duct injury repair. Surgery provides the mainstay of treatment, with proximal hepaticojejunostomy Roux en Y being the operation of choice; a selective role for endoscopic or radiological treatment exists. The outcome after bile duct injury remains poor, especially in relation to the initial expectation of the cholecystectomy. Patients are often committed to a decade of follow-up.

Lesão iatrogênica da via biliar principal em colecistectomia videolaparoscópica

OBJETIVO: Estudar a incidência, mortalidade e morbidez da lesão iatrogênica da via biliar em um Hospital Universitário onde os pacientes foram operados por vários cirurgiões em diferentes fases de treinamento (residentes e "staffs"). MÉTODO: Estudo retrospectivo de pacientes operados no Hospital Universitário Clementino Fraga Filho da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (HUCFF-UFRJ) no período entre janeiro de 1992 e dezembro de 2003. Foram pesquisadas as lesões da via biliar principal, o tempo de reconhecimento das mesmas (per ou pós operatória) e o tipo de reparo utilizado. RESULTADOS: Foram estudados 1589 pacientes com índice de lesão da via biliar de 0.25%, as quais ocorreram principalmente nos últimos anos do uso da técnica no hospital. CONCLUSÕES: A incidência de lesões da via biliar foi semelhante à da literatura e bastante próxima à da cirurgia convencional, e não esteve diretamente relacionada à curva de aprendizado do cirurgião.

Reducing errors in the operating room: surgical proficiency and quality assurance of execution

Technical operative errors cause surgical operative morbidity and adversely affect the clinical outcome of patients. Surgical proficiency thus underpins good and safe practice. In this context, standardization of endoscopic surgical operations and their execution are essential for the procurement and maintenance of quality assurance in endoscopic surgical practice. There is no clash between individual- (surgical proficiency) and system-based defense systems in the prevention of surgical errors--both underpin safe surgical practice. Although more human factors and surgical research are needed, it is possible to formulate and adopt a surgical error reduction system for endoscopic operations based on standardization of operations, surgical operative proficiency, and human reliability assessment and its related clinical counterpart, observational clinical human reliability assessment.

Bile Duct Injuries at Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy: A Single-Institution Prospective Study. Acute Cholecystitis Indicates an Increased Risk

During the last decade laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) has become established as the gold standard. The drawbacks in the form of bile duct (BD) injuries have also come into focus. We present the results of a prospective, consecutive series of 1568 patients with reference to BD injuries regarding risks, management, and preventive measures. The significant complications of all patients operated upon with LC between October 1999 and December 2003 were recorded prospectively. BD injuries were classified according to Strasberg into types A-E. Transected major BDs, injuries of type E, were regarded as "major" injuries and types A, B, C, and D were "minor" injuries. Major BDs were transected in five patients (0.3%), three of whom had acute cholecystitis. In the two patients operated on electively, the BD injuries were detected postoperatively, while they were detected intraoperatively when the operation was performed of necessity. The BDs were all reconstructed with a Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy. Two patients had anastomotic strictures. Minor BD injuries were encountered in 19 patients (1.2%). The 13 patients with leakage from the cystic duct or gallbladder bed, injury type A, were treated by endoscopic (ERC) stenting without sequelae. Five patients sustained a lateral BD injury, type D; they were treated with a simple suture over a T-tube (at LC) or endoscopically (ERC) without further problems. A transected aberrant right hepatic BD, type C injury, was due to its small-caliber sutured. Minor BD injuries could be managed at the primary hospital if the endoscopic expertise were at hand. Acute cholecystitis seems to be a risk factor for BD injuries.

Can bile duct injuries be prevented? "A new technique in laparoscopic cholecystectomy"

BACKGROUND

Over the last decade, laparoscopic cholecystectomy has gained worldwide acceptance and considered to be as "gold standard" in the surgical management of symptomatic cholecystolithiasis. However, the incidence of bile duct injury in laparoscopic cholecystectomy is still two times greater compared to classic open surgery. The development of bile duct injury may result in biliary cirrhosis and increase in mortality rates. The mostly blamed causitive factor is the misidentification of the anatomy, especially by a surgeon who is at the beginning of his learning curve. Biliary tree injuries may be decreased by direct coloration of the cystic duct, ductus choledochus and even the gall bladder.

METHODS

gall bladder fundus was punctured by Veress needle and all the bile was aspirated. The same amount of fifty percent methylene blue diluted by saline solution was injected into the gall bladder for coloration of biliary tree. The dissection of Calot triangle was much more safely performed after obtention of coloration of the gall bladder, cystic duct and choledocus.

RESULTS

Between October 2003 and December 2004, overall 46 patients (of which 9 males) with a mean age of 47 (between 24 and 74) underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy with methylene blue injection technique. The diagnosis of chronic cholecystitis (the thickness of the gall bladder wall was normal) confirmed by pre-operative abdominal ultrasonography in all patients. The diameters of the stones were greater than 1 centimeter in 32 patients and calcula of various sizes being smaller than 1 cm. were documented in 13 cases. One patient was operated for gall bladder polyp (our first case). Successful coloration of the gall bladder, cystic duct and ductus choledochus was possible in 43 patients, whereas only the gall bladder and proximal cystic duct were visualised in 3 cases. In these cases, ductus choledochus visibility was not possible. None of the patients developed bile duct injury.

CONCLUSION

The number of bile duct injuries related to anatomic misidentification can be decreased and even vanished by using intraoperative methylene blue injection technique into the gall bladder fundus intraoperatively.

Surgical management of bile duct injuries sustained during laparoscopic cholecystectomy: perioperative results in 200 patients

OBJECTIVE

A single institution retrospective analysis of 200 patients with major bile duct injuries was completed. Three patients died without surgery due to uncontrolled sepsis. One hundred seventy-five patients underwent surgical repair, with a 1.7% postoperative mortality and a complication rate of 42.9%.

SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA

The widespread application of laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) has led to a rise in the incidence of major bile duct injuries (BDI). Despite the frequency of these injuries and their complex management, the published literature contains few substantial reports regarding the perioperative management of BDI.

METHODS

From January 1990 to April 2003, a prospective database of all patients with a BDI following LC was maintained. Patients' charts were retrospectively reviewed to analyze perioperative surgical management.

RESULTS

Over 13 years, 200 patients were treated for a major BDI following LC. Patient demographics were notable for 150 women (75%) with a mean age of 45.5 years (median 44 years). One hundred eighty-eight sustained their BDI at an outside hospital. The mean interval from the time of BDI to referral was 29.1 weeks (median 3 weeks). One hundred nine patients (58%) were referred within 1 month of their injury for acute complications including bile leak, biloma, or jaundice. Twenty-five patients did not undergo a surgical repair at our institution. Three patients (1.5%) died after delayed referral before an attempt at repair due to uncontrolled sepsis. Twenty-two patients, having intact biliary-enteric continuity, underwent successful balloon dilatation of an anastomotic stricture. A total of 175 patients underwent definitive biliary reconstruction, including 172 hepaticojejunostomies (98%) and 3 end-to-end repairs. There were 3 deaths in the postoperative period (1.7%). Seventy-five patients (42.9%) sustained at least 1 postoperative complication. The most common complications were wound infection (8%), cholangitis (5.7%), and intraabdominal abscess/biloma (2.9%). Minor biliary stent complications occurred in 5.7% of patients. Early postoperative cholangiography revealed an anastomotic leak in 4.6% of patients and extravasation at the liver dome-stent exit site in 10.3% of patients. Postoperative interventions included percutaneous abscess drainage in 9 patients (5.1%) and new percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography and stent placement in 4 patients (2.3%). No patient required reoperation in the postoperative period. The mean postoperative length of stay was 9.5 days (median 9 days). The timing of operation (early, intermediate, delayed), presenting symptoms, and history of prior repair did not affect the incidence of the most common perioperative complications or length of postoperative hospital stay.

CONCLUSIONS

This series represents the largest single institution experience reporting the perioperative management of BDI following LC. Although perioperative complications are frequent, nearly all can be managed nonoperatively. Early referral to a tertiary care center with experienced hepatobiliary surgeons and skilled interventional radiologists would appear to be necessary to assure optimal results.

Surgical management of bile duct injuries sustained during laparoscopic cholecystectomy: perioperative results in 200 patients

OBJECTIVE

A single institution retrospective analysis of 200 patients with major bile duct injuries was completed. Three patients died without surgery due to uncontrolled sepsis. One hundred seventy-five patients underwent surgical repair, with a 1.7% postoperative mortality and a complication rate of 42.9%.

SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA

The widespread application of laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) has led to a rise in the incidence of major bile duct injuries (BDI). Despite the frequency of these injuries and their complex management, the published literature contains few substantial reports regarding the perioperative management of BDI.

METHODS

From January 1990 to April 2003, a prospective database of all patients with a BDI following LC was maintained. Patients' charts were retrospectively reviewed to analyze perioperative surgical management.

RESULTS

Over 13 years, 200 patients were treated for a major BDI following LC. Patient demographics were notable for 150 women (75%) with a mean age of 45.5 years (median 44 years). One hundred eighty-eight sustained their BDI at an outside hospital. The mean interval from the time of BDI to referral was 29.1 weeks (median 3 weeks). One hundred nine patients (58%) were referred within 1 month of their injury for acute complications including bile leak, biloma, or jaundice. Twenty-five patients did not undergo a surgical repair at our institution. Three patients (1.5%) died after delayed referral before an attempt at repair due to uncontrolled sepsis. Twenty-two patients, having intact biliary-enteric continuity, underwent successful balloon dilatation of an anastomotic stricture. A total of 175 patients underwent definitive biliary reconstruction, including 172 hepaticojejunostomies (98%) and 3 end-to-end repairs. There were 3 deaths in the postoperative period (1.7%). Seventy-five patients (42.9%) sustained at least 1 postoperative complication. The most common complications were wound infection (8%), cholangitis (5.7%), and intraabdominal abscess/biloma (2.9%). Minor biliary stent complications occurred in 5.7% of patients. Early postoperative cholangiography revealed an anastomotic leak in 4.6% of patients and extravasation at the liver dome-stent exit site in 10.3% of patients. Postoperative interventions included percutaneous abscess drainage in 9 patients (5.1%) and new percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography and stent placement in 4 patients (2.3%). No patient required reoperation in the postoperative period. The mean postoperative length of stay was 9.5 days (median 9 days). The timing of operation (early, intermediate, delayed), presenting symptoms, and history of prior repair did not affect the incidence of the most common perioperative complications or length of postoperative hospital stay.

CONCLUSIONS

This series represents the largest single institution experience reporting the perioperative management of BDI following LC. Although perioperative complications are frequent, nearly all can be managed nonoperatively. Early referral to a tertiary care center with experienced hepatobiliary surgeons and skilled interventional radiologists would appear to be necessary to assure optimal results.

Ten-year trend in the national volume of bile duct injuries requiring operative repair

BACKGROUND

The objectives of this study were to determine the national proportions and mortality rate for bile duct injuries resulting from laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) that required operative reconstruction for repair over a 10-year period and to investigate the major factors associated with the mortality rate in this group of patients.

METHODS

Using the Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS) of >7 million patient records per year, we extracted and analyzed data for LC during the years 1990-2000. Procedures that involved biliary reconstructions performed as part of another primary procedure were excluded. Using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), we used procedure-specific codes that enabled us to calculate national estimates for LC for the time period under review. We then calculated biliary reconstruction procedures that occurred after LC for this cohort of patients. Finally, we analyzed in-hospital mortality, as well as the patient, institutional, and outcome characteristics associated with biliary reconstructions.

RESULTS

The percentage of cholecystectomies performed laparoscopically has increased over the years for which data are available (from 52% in 1991 to 75% in 2000). Despite this increase, the mortality rate for this group of patients has remained consistently low over the study period (mean, 0.45%; range 0.33-0.58%). Within this group of patients, the average rate of bile duct injuries requiring operative repair was 0.15% for the years under study. The reconstruction rates ranged from 0.25% in 1992 to 0.09% in 1999. For 2000, the most recent year for which data are available, biliary reconstruction was performed in 0.10% of all patients who underwent LC. The average mortality rate for patients undergoing biliary reconstruction for the years 1991 to 2000 was 4.5%. After multivariate analysis, age, African American ethnicity, type of admission, source of admission, and hospital location, and teaching status were all found to correlate significantly with death after-biliary reconstruction.

CONCLUSIONS

These data show an increase in the percentage of cholecystectomies performed laparoscopically over the years under study and an associated low mortality rate. In contrast, although the number of bile duct injuries appears to be decreasing, these procedures continue to be associated with a significant mortality rate.

Does routine intraoperative cholangiography prevent bile duct transection?

BACKGROUND

The role of routine intraoperative cholangiography is controversial. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of routine intraoperative cholangiography on the incidence of common bile duct injuries, and to evaluate the operative outcome of laparoscopic cholecystectomy carried out in a major teaching hospital and review the literature.

METHODS

Prospectively collected data on 3,145 laparoscopic cholecystectomies performed mainly by surgical trainees in the period 1990 to 2002 using routine intraoperative cholangiography with fluoroscopy were reviewed.

RESULTS

The mean age of the study sample (65.6% male, 34.4% female) was 54 years, and 16.9% of the patients had clinical acute cholecystitis. The conversion rate to open cholecystectomy was 4.3%. Intraoperative cholangiography was attempted for 90.7% of the patients with a 95.9% success rate. Five patients (0.16%) had common bile duct injuries. Four injuries had occurred in the first 5 years. One injury (0.06%) had occurred after 1995. This injury was identified intraoperatively and repaired laparoscopically. Routine intraoperative cholangiography prevented one definite common bile duct transection.

CONCLUSIONS

In this series using routine intraoperative cholangiography, there was a low rate and severity of common bile duct injuries, with a high intraoperative recognition rate. There was no bile duct transection or major injury requiring common bile duct reconstruction. Although intraoperative cholangiography helped in the immediate identification of injuries and the institution of appropriate therapy, injury was not completely prevented.

Long-term results and risk factors influencing outcome of major bile duct injuries following cholecystectomy

BACKGROUND

Major bile duct injuries usually need operative repair and remain a challenge even for surgeons who specialize in hepatobiliary surgery. The purpose of this study was to evaluate management and short- and long-term outcomes of patients with major complications after cholecystectomy.

METHODS

Data were analysed for 54 patients who underwent operation for major bile duct injuries after cholecystectomy between January 1990 and January 2002. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to identify risk factors for the development of biliary complications.

RESULTS

Complete follow-up data were available for all 54 patients (median duration 61.9 (range 2.6-154.3) months). All underwent Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy. Three patients (6 per cent) died from biliary tract complications during follow-up. Long-term biliary complications occurred in ten patients (19 per cent). Nine patients developed biliary stricture of whom five developed secondary biliary cirrhosis. A successful long-term result was achieved in 50 (93 per cent) of 54 patients, including those who required subsequent procedures. Biliary reconstruction in the presence of peritonitis (P = 0.002), combined vascular and bile duct injuries (P = 0.029), and injury at or above the level of the biliary bifurcation (P = 0.012) were significant independent predictors of poor outcome.

CONCLUSION

Successful repair of bile duct injuries after cholecystectomy can be achieved in specialized hepatobiliary units.

Value of MR Cholangiography in Patients with Iatrogenic Bile Duct Injury After Cholecystectomy

OBJECTIVE

Our aim was to determine the diagnostic role of MR cholangiography in the evaluation of iatrogenic bile duct injuries after cholecystectomy.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Nineteen patients (14 women and five men; mean age, 47 years; age range, 24-75 years) with suspected bile duct injury as a result of laparoscopic cholecystectomy (17 patients) and open cholecystectomy (two patients) underwent MR cholangiography. MR images were evaluated for bile duct discontinuity, presence or absence of biliary dilation, stricture, excision injury, free fluid, and collections. Bile duct excision and stricture were classified according to the Bismuth classification. Final diagnosis was made on the basis of findings at surgery in 15 patients, on percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography (PTC) in one patient, and on endoscopic retrograde cholangiography (ERC) and at clinical follow-up until hospital discharge in the remaining three patients.

RESULTS

In 16 patients, injury of the bile duct was observed. Two patients had Bismuth type I injury; one patient, type II injury; 11 patients, type III injury; and one patient each, type IV and V injuries. Three patients showed findings suggestive of leakage from the cystic duct remnant, which were confirmed on ERC.

CONCLUSION

MR cholangiography is an accurate diagnostic technique in the identification of postoperative bile duct injuries. This technique allows exploration above and below the level of obstruction, a resource provided by neither ERC nor PTC, and allows the accurate classification of these injuries, which is essential for treatment planning.

Major bile duct injuries after laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a tertiary center experience

Bile duct injury is a severe and potentially life-threatening complication of laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Several series have described a 0.5% to 1.4% incidence of bile duct injuries during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The aim of this study was to report on an institutional experience with the management of complex bile duct injuries and outcome after surgical repair. Data were collected prospectively from 40 patients with bile duct injuries referred for surgical treatment to our center between April 1998 and December 2003. Prior to referral, 35 patients (87.5%) underwent attempts at surgical reconstruction at the primary hospital. In 77.5% of the patients, complex type E1 or type E2 BDI was found. Concomitant with bile duct injury, seven patients had vascular injuries. Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy was carried out in 33 patients. In two patients, Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy and vascular reconstruction were necessary. Five patients, one with primary nondiagnosed Klatskin tumor, required right hepatectomy. Two patients, both with bile duct injuries and vascular damage, died postoperatively. Because of progressive liver insufficiency, one of them was listed for high-urgency liver transplantation but died prior to intervention. At the median follow-up of 589 days, 82.5% of the patients are in excellent general condition. Seven patients have signs of chronic cholangitis. Major bile duct injuries remain a significant cause of morbidity and even death after laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Because they present a considerable surgical challenge, early referral to an experienced hepatobiliary center is recommended.

Three-dimensional virtual cholangioscopy: a reliable tool for the diagnosis of common bile duct stones

OBJECTIVE

Our goal was to evaluate the clinical reliability of a new software system employing 3-dimensional (3D) virtual anatomic reconstruction and intraluminal virtual exploration for detection of choledocholithiasis and preoperative visualization of the biliary anatomy.

SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA

Virtual reality systems have been proposed for gastroscopy, bronchoscopy, and colonoscopy, as well as for the 3D reconstruction of liver anatomy and hepatic lesions. The impact of these systems in preoperative diagnostics has not been established due to the lack of large clinical series evaluating their reliability.

METHODS

From November 2000 to July 2002, all patients presenting to our Institute with suspected choledocholithiasis were prospectively included in the study. All patients underwent conventional magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) and either intraoperative cholangiogram (IOC) or endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). The digital data from MRCP were incorporated into an original virtual reality software system to generate a 3D reconstruction. All 3D reconstructions were evaluated by a surgeon and a computer software engineer who were blind to the results of the IOC or ERCP. Sensitivity and specificity were then calculated based on the results of either the IOC or ERCP.

RESULTS

Sixty-five patients were enrolled in the study. The average time required to reconstruct the images into navigable virtual reality was 7.5 minutes (range, 4-13.5). The 3D virtual cholangioscopy had sensitivity and specificity rates of 71% and 91%, respectively, compared with 61% and 86% of the standard MRCP.

CONCLUSION

: The 3D virtual cholangioscopy provides detailed preoperative reconstruction of biliary anatomy and reliable identification of choledocholithiasis with acceptable sensitivity and specificity in a clinical setting. Newer software developments may further enhance its accuracy, so that virtual cholangioscopy might challenge or replace more invasive diagnostic measures in the near future.

Percutaneous management of bile duct strictures and injuries associated with laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a decade of experience

BACKGROUND

The 1990s were associated with a dramatic increase in bile duct injuries with the widespread use of laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC). Interventional radiology has an integral role in diagnosing and managing these injuries. Definitive percutaneous management with balloon dilatation might be possible in select patients with intact biliary-enteric continuity, but longterm data are limited.

STUDY DESIGN

Data were collected prospectively on 51 consecutive patients with major bile duct stricture or injury associated with LC, treated with percutaneous management, January 1, 1990, to December 31, 1999. Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography and biliary catheter placement were followed by balloon dilatation and stenting. Outcomes were assessed with direct patient contact or hospital records.

RESULTS

All patients completed treatment, and 50 (98%) were stent free at mean followup of 76 months. The success rate of percutaneous management was 58.8%, without need for subsequent intervention. Presenting symptoms, level of injury, and number of stents or dilatations did not predict outcomes. Percutaneous treatment was more likely to fail in patients stented for less than 4 months (p < 0.001). Operative repair at Hopkins before percutaneous management was predictive of a successful outcome (p < 0.05). Including subsequent operations or percutaneous management, successful outcomes were achieved in 98% of patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Major bile duct injuries after LC remain a clinical challenge. Although surgical reconstruction is the treatment cornerstone, selected patients with biliary-enteric continuity can achieve successful long-term results with definitive percutaneous management. The combination of percutaneous management and surgical reconstruction results in successful outcomes in virtually all patients.

Is male gender a risk factor for bile duct injury during laparoscopic cholecystectomy?

BACKGROUND

Since its introduction in the late 1980s laparoscopic cholecystectomy has become the treatment of choice for gallstone disease. Unfortunately, the rate of iatrogenic biliary duct injuries (BDIs) has at least doubled after the adoption of the laparoscopic method. Population-based studies reporting the distribution of laparoscopic BDI patients according to gender and the severity of the BDI are mostly lacking. The purpose of the present study was to analyze the BDIs sustained during laparoscopic cholecystectomy in and around Turku University Central Hospital, with a special reference to the distribution of patients according to gender and the severity of the BDI.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A total of 3,736 laparoscopic cholecystectomies (2,627 female patients, 1,109 male) was performed in and around Turku University Central Hospital from 1995 to 2002 (by the end of April). The number and severity of BDIs and the gender of BDI patients were recorded, and the risk of BDI during laparoscopic cholecystectomy was calculated for the total patient population and for both genders separately.

RESULTS

The risk of BDI was 0.86% for the total patient population, 0.95% for female and 0.63% for male. The most conspicuous finding was that the female gender was predominant in the severe types of BDI. However, the risk of mild BDI seemed to be fairly equal in both genders.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that female gender seems to be a risk factor for severe iatrogenic BDI during laparoscopic cholecystectomy.

Surgeons' anonymous response after bile duct injury during cholecystectomy

BACKGROUND

Bile duct injuries remain one of the most devastating injuries during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Few studies target surgeons who have experienced bile duct injuries for their insight, their perspective, and their suggestions concerning this problem.

METHODS

A confidential questionnaire was sent to all practicing general surgeons under the age of 65 years in British Columbia, Canada.

RESULTS

Seventy-five percent of surgeons responded to the survey. Of the 114 questionnaires completed, more than 97% of respondents had completed formal training in laparoscopic cholecystectomy. One half of surgeons reported experience with laparoscopic bile duct injury. A significant difference in years in practice between surgeons with injury and surgeons without injury was noted. The majority of injuries occurred after the surgeons's first 100 cholecystectomies performed. The first thoughts of surgeons after injury uniformly concerned the patient's well being. The next most common thoughts were in relation to obtaining help or a second opinion from another surgeon. Surgeons cited inflammation and short or anomalous cystic ducts as the most responsible factors contributing to injury. The majority of surgeons felt that these injuries are unavoidable and less than half felt that it was always a surgical error. Fewer than 15% thought injuries could be avoided by performing a cholangiogram. Surgeons suggested meticulous dissection and less haste to divide structures may prevent an injury. Surgeons recommend educating colleagues to remove the stigma of failure associated with conversion to laparotomy.

CONCLUSIONS

General surgeons in British Columbia have a one in two chance of experiencing a bile duct injury in their career. There were more injuries in surgeons who had already been in practice for 10 years at the time of introduction of laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The injuries are likely to occur despite high volumes of procedures and increased experience. The incidence of bile duct injuries does not seem to be different in surgeons who perform routine cholangiography and most surgeons feel that cholangiography would have little effect on injury incidence. Surgeons tend to have patient-centered concerns after injury and little concern for medicolegal issues. The majority of surgeons felt that these injuries could not be anticipated and as such it is an inherent risk of this procedure.

EUS for suspected choledocholithiasis: do benefits outweigh costs? A prospective, controlled study

BACKGROUND

This prospective study of the use of EUS to prevent unnecessary endoscopic retrograde cholangiography in patients with suspected choledocholithiasis has two aims: to evaluate the effectiveness, based on patient outcome, and the potential clinical and economic benefits of EUS.

METHODS

A prospective series of 485 patients (202 men, 283 women; mean age 66.2 years, range 20-94 years) suspected to have choledocholithiasis based on clinical, biochemical, and cross-sectional imaging (US or CT) data underwent EUS. Positive EUS findings were confirmed by endoscopic retrograde cholangiography with sphincterotomy and/or by surgery; negative findings were confirmed by clinical follow-up. An EUS result was considered a true negative if the patient was confirmed symptom-free with normal tests on follow-up of at least 6 months. The costs of EUS (procedure, days of hospitalization, any morbidity) were compared with the estimated costs of the endoscopic retrograde cholangiography avoided in patients with true-negative EUS findings.

RESULTS

EUS findings were verified in 463 patients: EUS diagnosed choledocholithiasis in 239 (51.6%) and the absence of stones in 220 patients. In 4 patients (0.8%), EUS was incomplete. By sphincterotomy (209 patients), surgical bile duct exploration (39), percutaneous cholangiography (1 case in which EUS demonstrated a bile duct tumor), and follow-up (214), EUS diagnoses were confirmed as follows: 237 true-positive, 216 true-negative, 2 false-positive, 4 false-negative, 4 incomplete (sensitivity 98%, specificity 99%, positive predictive value 99%, negative predictive value 98%, accuracy 97%). In 214 (46%) patients, more invasive investigations of the bile duct were avoided. The mean cost for patients managed by the EUS-based strategy was ' 374.50 (-284.72), which was significantly less than the theoretical mean cost of ' 443.80 (p < 0.001) for patients undergoing endoscopic retrograde cholangiography.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study confirm that EUS is highly reliable for the diagnosis of choledocholithiasis. Its use offers considerable clinical and economic advantages by preventing inappropriate and more invasive evaluation of the bile duct.

Management and outcome of major bile duct injuries after laparoscopic cholecystectomy: from therapeutic endoscopy to liver transplantation

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is associated with a higher rate of bile duct injuries than an open cholecystectomy. The annual incidence of bile duct injuries has remained almost constant and these injuries tend to be more serious, making demands on the method of repair. We wanted to report the management and outcome of major bile duct injuries after laparoscopic cholecystectomy in patients referred to a hepatobiliary and liver transplantation unit. Eighteen patients (14 women), with a median age of 53.5 years were referred to the liver surgery unit with a major bile duct injury after laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The injury was identified after a median of 3 days (range, 0 to 25 days) after operation and the median time interval to referral was 79 days (0 to 2270 days). Fourteen patients had undergone surgery before referral. By the time of referral, four patients had developed end-stage cirrhosis, necessitating liver transplantation. Three of them had undergone bilioenteric drainage operations at the referring institute. Of the remaining 14 patients, three were managed by therapeutic endoscopic procedures. Ten patients were managed with Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy. One died of septic complications before the repair. A median time for hospitalization in our unit was 33 days (range, 10 to 164 days). At present, 16 patients are alive. One patient died of Kaposi's sarcoma 7 months after liver transplantation. A long interval between bile duct injury and referral was associated with the development of end-stage liver disease. Surgery of biliary lesions is demanding, and surgical experience with multidisciplinary approach, including therapeutic endoscopy and liver transplantation, is necessary for successful outcome.

Major bile duct injuries associated with laparoscopic cholecystectomy: effect of surgical repair on quality of life

OBJECTIVE

To assess the quality of life (QOL) of patients after surgical reconstruction of a major bile duct injury from laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC).

SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA

The incidence of bile duct injuries has increased dramatically since the introduction and widespread use of LC. Previous reports show that at long-term follow-up, most patients surgically repaired will have a successful outcome as measured by standard clinical parameters. However, there is a general impression that these patients have an impaired QOL. Data addressing QOL of these patients are limited.

METHODS

A standard QOL questionnaire was sent to 89 patients after successful surgical repair of a major bile duct injury from a LC treated at the Johns Hopkins Hospital between 1990 and 2000. The instrument consisted of 30 items on a visual analog scale categorized into physical (15 items), psychological (10 items), and social (5 items) domains. The same questionnaire was sent to age- and sex-matched healthy controls (n = 100) and to patients who underwent uncomplicated LC (n = 100). An additional portion of the questionnaire inquired about outcome measures and legal action undertaken by patients.

RESULTS

Overall QOL scores for bile duct injury patients in the three domains (physical, psychological, and social) were 76%, 77%, and 75%, respectively. QOL scores were comparable to those of patients undergoing uncomplicated LC and healthy controls in the physical and social domains but were significantly different in the psychological domain. Presenting symptoms, prior repair, level of injury, number of stents, length of postoperative stenting, and length of follow-up did not influence QOL scores. Repaired patients reported similar rates of abdominal pain, change in bowel habits, use of pain medications, and recent symptoms of fever or chills as LC controls. Thirty-one percent of responding bile duct injury patients reported having sought legal recourse for their injury. All QOL domain scores were significantly lower in the patients who pursued a lawsuit versus those who did not.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides formal data evaluating QOL after surgical repair of major bile duct injuries from LC. Although there was a significant difference in the QOL as evaluated from a psychological dimension, bile duct injury patients reported QOL scores in the physical and social domains comparable to those of control patients. The decreased QOL assessment in the psychological dimension may be attributable to the prolonged, complicated, and unexpected nature of these injuries. The presence of a lawsuit appears to be associated with a poorer QOL assessment.

Iatrogenic bile duct injury: the scourge of laparoscopic cholecystectomy

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) has become the first-line surgical treatment of calculous gall-bladder disease and the benefits over open cholecystectomy are well known. In the early years of LC, the higher rate of bile duct injuries compared with open cholecystectomy was believed to be due to the 'learning curve' and would dissipate with increased experience. The purpose of the present paper was to review a tertiary referral unit's experience of bile duct injuries induced by LC.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis was performed on all patients referred for management of an iatrogenic bile duct injury from 1981 to 2000. For injuries sustained at LC, details of time between LC and recognition of the injury, time from injury to definitive repair, type of injury, use of intraoperative cholangiography (IOC), definitive repair and postoperative outcome were recorded. The type of injury sustained at open cholecystectomy was similarly classified to allow the severity of injury to be compared.

RESULTS

There were 131 patients referred for management of an iatrogenic bile duct injury that occurred at open cholecystectomy (n = 62), liver resection (n = 5) and at LC (n = 64). Only 39% of bile duct injuries were recognized at the time of LC. Following conversion to open operation, half the subsequent procedures were considered inappropriate. When the injury was not recognized during LC, 70% of patients developed bile leak/peritonitis, almost half of whom were referred, whereas the rest underwent a variety of operative procedures by the referring surgeon. The remainder developed jaundice or abnormal liver function tests and cholangitis. An IOC was performed in 43% of cases, but failed to identify an injury in two-thirds of patients. The bile duct injuries that occurred at LC were of greater severity than with open cholecystectomy. Following definitive repair, there was one death (1.6%). Ninety-two per cent of patients had an uncomplicated recovery and there was one late stricture requiring surgical revision.

CONCLUSIONS

The early prediction that the rate of injury during LC would decline substantially with increased experience has not been fulfilled. Bile duct injury that occurs at LC is of greater severity than with open cholecystectomy. Bile duct injury is recognized during LC in less than half the cases. Evidence is accruing that the use of cholangiography reduces the risk and severity of injury and, when correctly interpreted, increases the chance of recognition of bile duct injury during the procedure. Prevention is the key but, should an injury occur, referral to a specialist in biliary reconstructive surgery is indicated.

[Accessory cystic duct discovered by intraoperative cholangiography during cholecystectomy]

The study aim was to report a rare biliary variation detected with an intraoperative cholangiography during a laparoscopic cholecystectomy. After the ligation of the cystic duct, the gallbladder was opacified via an accessory cystic duct flowing into a branch of the right hepatic duct. This accessory cystic duct was clipped and the postoperative course was uneventful.

Management of major bile duct injury associated with laparoscopic cholecystectomy

BACKGROUND

Bile duct injury is a major complication of laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The purpose of this study was to evaluate our management strategy and outcomes for the treatment of such injuries.

METHODS

We studied 54 consecutive patients who had de novo bile duct injury (n = 20) or prior biliary injury repair (n = 34) associated with laparoscopic cholecystectomy. All patients were managed using a multidisciplinary approach.

RESULTS

Definitive operation, almost always Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy, was required in 85% of patients. We inserted external percutaneous biliary catheters in 98% of cases prior to surgery. There were no operative deaths, and the 30-day complication rate was 20%. Eight patients (15%) were managed nonoperatively. Overall, 96% of patients had no long-term, objectively definable biliary sequelae.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment of bile duct injury associated with laparoscopic cholecystectomy is optimally done using a multidisciplinary approach. Surgical reconstruction is required in most cases and can be safely accomplished with minimal morbidity and excellent long-term outcomes.

Bile duct injury during laparoscopic cholecystectomy: results of a national survey

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether surgical residency training has influenced the occurrence of common bile duct injuries during laparoscopic cholecystectomy, and to asses the anatomic and technical details of bile duct injuries from the practices of surgeons trained in laparoscopic cholecystectomy after residency versus surgeons trained in laparoscopic cholecystectomy during residency.

SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA

Shortly after the introduction of laparoscopic cholecystectomy, the rate of injury to the common bile duct increased to 0.5%, and injuries were more commonly reported early in each surgeon's experience. It is not known whether learning laparoscopic cholecystectomy during surgery residency influences this pattern.

METHODS

An anonymous questionnaire was mailed to 3,657 surgeons across the United States who completed an Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME)-approved residency between 1980 and 1990 (group A) or 1992 and 1998 (group B). All surgeons in group A learned laparoscopic cholecystectomy after residency, and all those in group B learned laparoscopic cholecystectomy during residency. Information obtained included practice description, number of laparoscopic cholecystectomies completed since residency, postgraduate training in laparoscopy, and annual volume of laparoscopic cholecystectomy in the surgeon's hospital. In addition, technical details queried included the completion of a cholangiogram, the interval between injury and identification, the method of repair, and the site of definitive treatment. The primary endpoint was the occurrence of a major bile duct injury during laparoscopic cholecystectomy (bile leaks without a major bile duct injury were not tabulated).

RESULTS

Forty-five percent (n = 1,661) of the questionnaires were completed and returned. Mean practice experience was 13.6 years for group A and 5.4 years for group B. At least one injury occurrence was reported by 422 surgeons (37.6%) in group A and 143 surgeons (26.5%) in group B. Forty percent of the injuries in group A occurred during the first 50 cases compared with 22% in group B. Thirty percent of bile duct injuries in group A and 32.9% of all injuries in group B occurred after a surgeon had performed more than 200 laparoscopic cholecystectomies. Independent of the number of laparoscopic cholecystectomies completed since residency, group A surgeons were 39% more likely to report one or more biliary injuries and 58% more likely to report two or more injuries than their counterparts in group B. Bile duct injuries were more likely to be discovered during surgery if a cholangiogram was completed than if cholangiography was omitted (80.9% vs. 45.1%). Sixty-four percent of all major bile duct injuries required biliary reconstruction, and most injuries were definitively treated at the hospital where the injury occurred. Only 14.7% of injuries were referred to another center for repair.

CONCLUSIONS

Accepting that the survey bias underestimates the true frequency of bile duct injuries, residency training decreases the likelihood of injuring a bile duct, but only by decreasing the frequency of early "learning curve" injuries. If one accepts a liberal definition of the learning curve (200 cases), it appears that at least one third of injuries are not related to inexperience but may reflect fundamental errors in the technique of laparoscopic cholecystectomy as practiced by a broad population of surgeons in the United States. Intraoperative cholangiography is helpful for intraoperative discovery of injuries when they occur. Most injuries are repaired in the hospital where they occur and are not universally referred to tertiary care centers.

Economics of surgery

The time has come to subject surgery to the same rigours of economic assessment that other health-care sectors are already receiving--namely, the comparative assessment of costs and benefits. The surgical management of gallstones provides a good example of the role of economics in surgery. Gallstone disease is common and patients are usually referred to a surgeon, but the threshold for intervention is not agreed and varies widely, with considerable implications for resources. Gallstone removal has been subject to much innovation over the past 10 years, yet economic assessment of laparoscopic and "mini" cholecystectomy and of gallstone lithotripsy is rare, despite the fact that operation rates have increased by up to 50% in some countries. For surgery to compete with other interventions, economic assessment of new surgical techniques will be increasingly important. This assessment should be based on well-conducted clinical trials in which interventions are provided in a routine service setting, and in which benefits are assessed among other things on the basis of the patient's perceived quality of life. Economic assessment often needs data beyond those collected in a clinical trial, however pragmatic the trial design, so modelling will often be required, incorporating a range of sources of evidence. Finally, evidence alone will not be enough to promote cost-effective practices. The take-up of surgical techniques will always be affected by the way hospitals and surgeons are remunerated. Affecting practice requires a realistic system of reimbursement that reflects evidence on cost effectiveness.

Results of a new strategy for reconstruction of biliary injuries having an isolated right-sided component

Poor results after repair of biliary injuries are most common when injuries are above the bifurcation of the left and right hepatic ducts or involve aberrant ducts. We have developed a novel approach to the right-sided component of such injuries. Preoperatively all isolated sections of the biliary tree are intubated percutaneously. At surgery the left duct is found by the Hepp-Couinaud approach. Dissection is continued to the right, staying within the coronal plane of the left hepatic duct, and continuing across the gallbladder plate into segment 5 between the hepatic parenchyma and the Wallerian sheath of the right portal pedicle. Hepatic parenchyma, anterior to the sheath, is resected. After a length of portal pedicle is exposed, right-sided bile ducts are opened on their anterior surface, using the percutaneous transhepatic stents as a guide, and hepaticojejunostomy is performed. Twenty-three patients were treated from May 1993 to February 1999. Injury types and (number of patients) were as follows: B (n = 2), C (n = 5), E4 (n = 10), and E5 (n = 6). There were no perioperative deaths. Follow-up ranged from 8 months to 7 years (median 3 years). There have been no cases of restricture, reoperation, or jaundice, and no interventional procedures. Serum bilirubin is normal in all patients. Alkaline phosphatase is normal or less than two times the normal value in 21 of 22 living patients. This novel approach brings the benefits of the Hepp-Couinaud approach to the right hepatic ducts. Very satisfactory results were obtained in the most severe types of biliary injury.

Bile Duct Injury following Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy: A Cause for Continued Concern

Previous reports suggest that bile duct injuries sustained during laparoscopic cholecystectomy (lap chole) are frequently severe and related to cautery and high clip ligation. We performed a review of patients who sustained bile duct injury from lap chole since 1990 and assessed time to injury recognition, time to referral, Bismuth classification, initial and subsequent repairs, rate of recurrence, and length of follow-up. Seventy-four patients [median age 44 years, 58 of 74 female (78%)] were referred with a bile duct injury after lap chole. The level of injury was evenly divided between the bile duct bifurcation and the common hepatic duct: Bismuth III, IV, and V (40 of 74, 54%) versus Bismuth I and II (34 of 74,46%). Concomitant hepatic arterial injury was identified in nine (12%) patients. Patients referred early after bile duct injury and requiring operative intervention underwent hepaticojejunostomy at a median of 2 days after referral. After surgical reconstruction at our center there has been an overall success rate of 89 per cent with no need for reintervention. Six (10%) of these patients have required one additional balloon dilatation at a mean follow-up of >24 months. One (2%) patient underwent biliary-enteric revision in follow-up. In patients with bile duct injury, stricture repair without delay was successful in the majority of patients treated in this series. Only one of 64 patients reconstructed at our center has required reoperation; six others have required a single balloon dilatation with subsequent good or excellent results. The majority of patients treated with operative repair at an experienced center can expect good long-term results with rare need for reintervention.

Long-term results of surgical repair of bile duct injuries following laparoscopic cholecystectomy

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) is associated with an increased incidence of bile duct injuries when compared with the open surgical technique. Long-term results of repaired injuries and hepatic damage associated with chronic biliary obstruction are lacking.

METHODS

From Aug 1, 1991 until Dec 1, 1999, there were 27 patients referred for management of complex biliary injuries that occurred during LC. Patients underwent percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography and placement of transhepatic catheters with computed tomography-guided biloma drainage when indicated. On the basis of the cholangiography findings, patients underwent Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy (HJ) and liver biopsy or were treated with nonsurgical interventions.

RESULTS

Twenty-one of 27 patients (77. 8%) underwent HJ, and 16 of these 21 patients (76.2%) also underwent hepatic biopsy. In 1 patient, a recurrent stricture developed at 20 months after the initial repair; and, in a second patient, an episode of cholangitis developed in the postoperative period with the transhepatic catheters in place. Five of 16 patients (31.2%) demonstrated marked hepatic fibrosis with 4 (25%) of these patients showing evidence of evolving cirrhosis at the time of HJ.

CONCLUSIONS

In this series with 55 months of follow-up, HJ repair of LC injuries was associated with an initial 95.2% success rate and an ultimate success rate of 100%. Despite this, delayed referral, averaging 12 months, was associated with significant hepatic injury in 5 of 16 (31.3%) patients who underwent biopsy.

Postoperative bile duct strictures: management and outcome in the 1990s

OBJECTIVE

To describe the management and outcome after surgical reconstruction of 156 patients with postoperative bile duct strictures managed in the 1990s.

SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA

The management of postoperative bile duct strictures and major bile duct injuries remains a challenge for even the most skilled biliary tract surgeon. The 1990s saw a dramatic increase in the incidence of bile duct strictures and injuries from the introduction and widespread use of laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Although the management of these injuries and short-term outcome have been reported, long-term follow-up is limited.

METHODS

Data were collected prospectively on 156 patients treated at the Johns Hopkins Hospital with major bile duct injuries or postoperative bile duct strictures between January 1990 and December 1999. With the exception of bile duct injuries discovered and repaired during surgery, all patients underwent preoperative percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography and placement of transhepatic biliary catheters before surgical repair. Follow-up was conducted by medical record review or telephone interview during January 2000.

RESULTS

Of the 156 patients undergoing surgical reconstruction, 142 had completed treatment with a mean follow-up of 57.5 months. Two patients died of reasons unrelated to biliary tract disease before the completion of treatment. Twelve patients (7.9%) had not completed treatment and still had biliary stents in place at the time of this report. Of patients who had completed treatment, 90. 8% were considered to have a successful outcome without the need for follow-up invasive, diagnos tic, or therapeutic interventional procedures. Patients with reconstruction after injury or stricture after laparoscopic cholecystectomy had a better overall outcome than patients whose postoperative stricture developed after other types of surgery. Presenting symptoms, number of stents, interval to referral, prior repair, and length of postoperative stenting were not significant predictors of outcome. Overall, a successful outcome, without the need for biliary stents, was obtained in 98% of patients, including those requiring a secondary procedure for recurrent stricture.

CONCLUSIONS

Major bile duct injuries and postoperative bile duct strictures remain a considerable surgical challenge. Management with preoperative cholangiography to delineate the anatomy and placement of percutaneous biliary catheters, followed by surgical reconstruction with a Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy, is associated with a successful outcome in up to 98% of patients.

Changing referral pattern of biliary injuries sustained during laparoscopic cholecystectomy

SUMMARY

More patients with less severe type biliary injury are being referred earlier to a specialist hepatobiliary unit. Most patients still have ineffective corrective surgery before transfer. Presented in part to the European Congress of the International Hepato-Pancreatico-Biliary Association in Budapest, Hungary, May 1999 and published in abstract form as Digestive Surgery 1999; 16(Suppl 1): 32.

A prospective analysis of staging laparoscopy in patients with primary and secondary hepatobiliary malignancies

Laparoscopy and laparoscopic ultrasound are used widely in cancer staging and are perceived to prevent unnecessary open exploration in many patients. The aim of this study was to analyze the impact of staging laparoscopy in improving resectability in patients with primary and secondary hepatobiliary malignancies. Over a 10-month period (November 1, 1997 to August 31, 1998), 186 patients with primary and secondary hepatobiliary cancers were submitted to operation for potentially curative resection. One hundred four patients staged laparoscopically (LAP) before laparotomy were compared prospectively to 82 patients undergoing exploration without laparoscopy (NO LAP). Assignment to each group was not random but was based on surgeon practice. Demographic data, diagnoses, the extent of preoperative evaluation, and the percentage of patients resected were similar in the two groups. Laparoscopy identified 26 (67%) of 39 patients with unresectable disease. In the NO LAP group, 28 patients (34%) had unresectable disease discovered at laparotomy. In patients with unresectable disease and submitted to biopsy only, the operating times were similar in the two groups (LAP 83 +/- 22 minutes vs. NO LAP 91 +/- 33 minutes; P = 0.4). However, laparoscopic staging significantly reduced the length of hospital stay (LAP 2.2 +/- 2 days vs. NO LAP 8.5 +/- 8.6 days; P = 0.006). Likewise, total hospital charges, normalized to 100 in the NO LAP patients, were significantly lower in the LAP group (LAP 54 +/- 42 vs. NO LAP 100 +/- 84; P = 0.02). Staging laparoscopy identified the majority of patients with unresectable hepatobiliary malignancies, significantly improved resectability, and reduced the number of days in the hospital and the total charges. The yield of laparoscopy was greatest for detecting peritoneal metastases (9 of 10), additional hepatic tumors (10 of 12), and unsuspected advanced cirrhosis (5 of 5) but often failed to identify nonresectability because of lymph node metastases, vascular involvement, or extensive biliary involvement. Eighty-three percent of patients subjected to laparotomy after laparoscopy underwent a potentially curative resection compared to 66% of those who were not staged laparoscopically.

Extrahepatic biliary obstruction due to post-laparoscopic cholecystectomy biloma

BACKGROUND

Jaundice presenting after cholecystectomy may be the initial manifestation of a serious surgical misadventure and requires rigorous diagnostic pursuit and therapeutic intervention. Biloma is a well recognized postcholecystectomy complication that often accompanies biliary ductal injury.

CASE REPORT

A 23-year-old female underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy for symptomatic gallstones and three weeks postoperatively developed painless jaundice. Radiographic and endoscopic studies revealed a subhepatic biloma causing extrinsic compression and obstruction of the common hepatic duct.

RESULTS

Percutaneous catheter drainage of the biloma combined with endoscopic sphincterotomy successfully relieved the extrahepatic biliary obstruction and resolved the intrahepatic ductal leak responsible for the biloma.

CONCLUSION

Although heretofore undescribed, postcholecystectomy jaundice due to extrahepatic bile duct obstruction caused by biloma may occur and can be successfully treated by means of standard radiologic and endoscopic interventions.

Bile duct injuries in laparoscopic cholecystectomy: nursing perspective

The advent of laparoscopic cholecystectomy brought a new approach with many advantages to patients for the treatment of symptomatic gallstones. What was not anticipated was an increase in bile duct injuries as a major complication of this new technique. The advanced practice nurse (APN) must understand the technical aspects of a laparoscopic cholecystectomy and routine perioperative care, because this knowledge provides a basis to recognize signs and symptoms of potential postoperative problems characteristic of a bile duct injury. The APN may be the initial healthcare provider who examines a patient or who is contacted by the patient with reports of symptoms that must be heeded and acted on. The APN responds to the patient by providing symptom management, initiating and coordinating care, and alerting the healthcare team. The APN at a specialty center may also be the consistent member of the healthcare team caring for a patient through nonoperative management and operative repair of the bile duct injury. Knowledge of the spectrum of bile duct injuries, their various manifestations, diagnostic tests, nonoperative management, and complex surgical repair is necessary for the APN to educate patients, coordinate care along the continuum, and support a patient with a bile duct injury. The medicolegal aspect of bile duct injury during laparoscopic cholecystectomy is also a topic the APN may encounter that requires thoughtful consideration and response. The recognition of subtle postoperative symptoms of a laparoscopic cholecystectomy may mean the difference between early diagnosis of and intervention in a minor injury or a major complication.

Biliary tract surgery

The use of the laparoscope in biliary tract surgery continues to play a major role in improving the operative management of patients with biliary diseases. Laparascopic cholecystectomy has been safely performed as a day-case procedure and has lowered the morbidity of cholecystectomy in the setting of acute cholecystitis. Laparoscopic common bile duct exploration allows cholecystectomy and the removal of common bile duct stones to be performed during the same procedure, thereby decreasing hospital stay. Several new noninvasive modalities have been recently developed to image the biliary tract. In addition, laparoscopic ultrasound has led to rapid intraoperative imaging of the extrahepatic biliary tree. The long-term results of laparoscopic bile duct injuries have been better defined during the past several years. Finally, the role of surgical resection for gallbladder cancer detected during or after laparoscopic cholecystectomy has recently been evaluated.

Trends in bile duct injuries from laparoscopic cholecystectomy

Bile duct injuries are a serious complication of cholecystectomy. Laparoscopic cholecystectomies (LC) were originally associated with an increased incidence of injuries. Patients referred to a tertiary center were reviewed to assess the trends in the number, presentation, and management. Seventy-three patients were referred over a 6-year period with a maximum of 17 patients referred in 1992, but the number has not declined substantially over time. The persistent number of referrals is a consequence of ongoing injuries. One third of injuries were diagnosed at LC, and the use of cholangiography has not increased. The number of cystic duct leaks has not decreased and they represent 25% of all cases. The level of injury has remained unchanged with Bismuth types I and II in 37% and types III and IV in 38%. Excluding patients with cystic duct leaks, 58% were referred after a failed ductal repair. Definitive treatment with biliary stenting was successful in 37%, and 34 patients (47%) required a biliary-enteric anastomosis. Complications occurred in 18 patients (25%) including seven with postoperative stricture or cholangitis. No biliary reoperations have been performed at a mean follow-up of 36 months.

Common bile duct injury during laparoscopic cholecystectomy in Ontario: does ICD-9 coding indicate true incidence?

BACKGROUND

Recent reports in the scientific and lay press have suggested that bile duct injuries during laparoscopic cholecystectomy are common in Ontario. The reports were based on administrative data collected by hospital medical records departments and the Canadian Institute for Health Information (CIHI). The current study involved a direct inspection of hospital records to determine if the CIHI data accurately captured the rate of clinically significant bile duct complications.

METHODS

For the period 1991 to 1995, records of bile duct injuries after laparoscopic cholecystectomy were independently evaluated to clarify the clinical significance of the complications. Of 21 Ontario hospitals for which data on complications had been reported in the media, 18 provided detailed information on all patients reported to have suffered bile duct complications classified by the hospital as "major". In addition, each institution provided information on a random sample of one-sixth of the patients who had suffered complications classified as "minor". The reviewer then examined each relevant hospital chart to assess the grade and significance of the reported complications.

RESULTS

All 24 bile duct injuries classified by the hospitals as "major" were confirmed as major (clinically relevant) injuries. Of the 80 bile duct complications classified by the hospitals as "minor", 76 (95%) were irrelevant to patient outcome. The discrepancy between data collected and reported frequency of injury lies in the use of nonspecific coding methods.

INTERPRETATION

The rate of significant bile duct injuries cannot be inferred from nonspecific codes taken from the International Classification of Diseases, ninth revision, and presented in hospital discharge records. Therefore, such data must be interpreted with extreme caution.

The consequences of a major bile duct injury during laparoscopic cholecystectomy

Bile duct injury is perhaps the most feared complication of laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The focus of this study was on the immediate and short-term outcome of patients who have undergone repair of major bile duct injuries with respect to hospital stay, perioperative interventions, and reoperations. The records of patients who underwent surgery at three academic hospitals in Philadelphia (Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, Thomas Jefferson University Hospital, and Graduate Hospital) from 1990 to 1995 for repair of a major biliary injury following laparoscopic cholecystectomy were reviewed. A major biliary injury was defined as any disruption (including ligation, avulsion, or resection) of the extrahepatic biliary system. Small biliary leaks not requiring surgery were excluded. Thirty-two patients sustained major bile duct injuries. The injury was recognized immediately in 10 patients. The remaining 22 patients had pain (59%), jaundice (50%), and/or fever (32%) as the symptom heralding the injury. Bismuth classification was as follows: 13% of patients were class I, 63% were class II, 7% were class III, 7% were class IV, and 10% were class V. Biliary reconstruction included a Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy in 30 patients and two were primary repairs. There was one postoperative death from multiorgan system failure. The mean length of hospital stay after repair was 17 +/- 8 days. Over a mean follow-up period of 11.5 +/- 10.5 months, 11 patients (38%) required 19 emergency readmissions, most commonly for cholangitis. Five patients (17%) required postoperative balloon dilatation for biliary stricture. At follow-up 18 patients (62.0%) remain asymptomatic with normal liver function, eight (28%) are experiencing episodic cholangitis, and three (10%) are asymptomatic with persistently elevated liver function values. The consequences of a major biliary tract injury following laparoscopic cholecystectomy include a complex operative repair resulting in a lengthy postoperative stay with an increased risk of death, an excessive number of perioperative diagnostic and therapeutic studies, frequent readmissions (often as emergencies), and a lifelong risk of restricture. The "cost" to these patients remains enormous.