Plasma Membranes Are Subcompartmentalized into a Plethora of Coexisting and Diverse Microdomains in Arabidopsis and Nicotiana benthamiana

The IQD Family of Calmodulin-Binding Proteins Links Calcium Signaling to Microtubules, Membrane Subdomains, and the Nucleus

Calcium (Ca2+) signaling and dynamic reorganization of the cytoskeleton are essential processes for the coordination and control of plant cell shape and cell growth. Calmodulin (CaM) and closely related calmodulin-like (CML) polypeptides are principal sensors of Ca2+ signals. CaM/CMLs decode and relay information encrypted by the second messenger via differential interactions with a wide spectrum of targets to modulate their diverse biochemical activities. The plant-specific IQ67 DOMAIN (IQD) family emerged as possibly the largest class of CaM-interacting proteins with undefined molecular functions and biological roles. Here, we show that the 33 members of the IQD family in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) differentially localize, using green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged proteins, to multiple and distinct subcellular sites, including microtubule (MT) arrays, plasma membrane subdomains, and nuclear compartments. Intriguingly, the various IQD-specific localization patterns coincide with the subcellular patterns of IQD-dependent recruitment of CaM, suggesting that the diverse IQD members sequester Ca2+-CaM signaling modules to specific subcellular sites for precise regulation of Ca2+-dependent processes. Because MT localization is a hallmark of most IQD family members, we quantitatively analyzed GFP-labeled MT arrays in Nicotiana benthamiana cells transiently expressing GFP-IQD fusions and observed IQD-specific MT patterns, which point to a role of IQDs in MT organization and dynamics. Indeed, stable overexpression of select IQD proteins in Arabidopsis altered cellular MT orientation, cell shape, and organ morphology. Because IQDs share biochemical properties with scaffold proteins, we propose that IQD families provide an assortment of platform proteins for integrating CaM-dependent Ca2+ signaling at multiple cellular sites to regulate cell function, shape, and growth.

Interface Symbiotic Membrane Formation in Root Nodules of Medicago truncatula: the Role of Synaptotagmins MtSyt1, MtSyt2 and MtSyt3

Symbiotic bacteria (rhizobia) are maintained and conditioned to fix atmospheric nitrogen in infected cells of legume root nodules. Rhizobia are confined to the asymmetrical protrusions of plasma membrane (PM): infection threads (IT), cell wall-free unwalled droplets and symbiosomes. These compartments rapidly increase in surface and volume due to the microsymbiont expansion, and remarkably, the membrane resources of the host cells are targeted to interface membrane quite precisely. We hypothesized that the change in the membrane tension around the expanding microsymbionts creates a vector for membrane traffic toward the symbiotic interface. To test this hypothesis, we selected calcium sensors from the group of synaptotagmins: MtSyt1, Medicago truncatula homolog of AtSYT1 from Arabidopsis thaliana known to be involved in membrane repair, and two other homologs expressed in root nodules: MtSyt2 and MtSyt3. Here we show that MtSyt1, MtSyt2, and MtSyt3 are expressed in the expanding cells of the meristem, zone of infection and proximal cell layers of zone of nitrogen fixation (MtSyt1, MtSyt3). All three GFP-tagged proteins delineate the interface membrane of IT and unwalled droplets and create a subcompartments of PM surrounding these structures. The localization of MtSyt1 by EM immunogold labeling has shown the signal on symbiosome membrane and endoplasmic reticulum (ER). To specify the role of synaptotagmins in interface membrane formation, we compared the localization of MtSyt1, MtSyt3 and exocyst subunit EXO70i, involved in the tethering of post-Golgi secretory vesicles and operational in tip growth. The localization of EXO70i in root nodules and arbusculated roots was strictly associated with the tips of IT and the tips of arbuscular fine branches, but the distribution of synaptotagmins on membrane subcompartments was broader and includes lateral parts of IT, the membrane of unwalled droplets as well as the symbiosomes. The double silencing of synaptotagmins caused a delay in rhizobia release and blocks symbiosome maturation confirming the functional role of synaptotagmins.

IN CONCLUSION

synaptotagmin-dependent membrane fusion along with tip-targeted exocytosis is operational in the formation of symbiotic interface.

Visualization of BRI1 and SERK3/BAK1 Nanoclusters in Arabidopsis Roots

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are plant hormones that are perceived at the plasma membrane (PM) by the ligand binding receptor BRASSINOSTEROID-INSENSITIVE1 (BRI1) and the co-receptor SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS RECEPTOR LIKE KINASE 3/BRI1 ASSOCIATED KINASE 1 (SERK3/BAK1). To visualize BRI1-GFP and SERK3/BAK1-mCherry in the plane of the PM, variable-angle epifluorescence microscopy (VAEM) was employed, which allows selective illumination of a thin surface layer. VAEM revealed an inhomogeneous distribution of BRI1-GFP and SERK3/BAK1-mCherry at the PM, which we attribute to the presence of distinct nanoclusters. Neither the BRI1 nor the SERK3/BAK1 nanocluster density is affected by depletion of endogenous ligands or application of exogenous ligands. To reveal interacting populations of receptor complexes, we utilized selective-surface observation—fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (SSO-FLIM) for the detection of Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET). Using this approach, we observed hetero-oligomerisation of BRI1 and SERK3 in the nanoclusters, which did not change upon depletion of endogenous ligand or signal activation. Upon ligand application, however, the number of BRI1-SERK3 /BAK1 hetero-oligomers was reduced, possibly due to endocytosis of active signalling units of BRI1-SERK3/BAK1 residing in the PM. We propose that formation of nanoclusters in the plant PM is subjected to biophysical restraints, while the stoichiometry of receptors inside these nanoclusters is variable and important for signal transduction.

Tomato UDP-Glucose Sterol Glycosyltransferases: A Family of Developmental and Stress Regulated Genes that Encode Cytosolic and Membrane-Associated Forms of the Enzyme

Sterol glycosyltransferases (SGTs) catalyze the glycosylation of the free hydroxyl group at C-3 position of sterols to produce sterol glycosides. Glycosylated sterols and free sterols are primarily located in cell membranes where in combination with other membrane-bound lipids play a key role in modulating their properties and functioning. In contrast to most plant species, those of the genus Solanum contain very high levels of glycosylated sterols, which in the case of tomato may account for more than 85% of the total sterol content. In this study, we report the identification and functional characterization of the four members of the tomato (Solanum lycopersicum cv. Micro-Tom) SGT gene family. Expression of recombinant SlSGT proteins in E. coli cells and N. benthamiana leaves demonstrated the ability of the four enzymes to glycosylate different sterol species including cholesterol, brassicasterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, and β-sitosterol, which is consistent with the occurrence in their primary structure of the putative steroid-binding domain found in steroid UDP-glucuronosyltransferases and the UDP-sugar binding domain characteristic for a superfamily of nucleoside diphosphosugar glycosyltransferases. Subcellular localization studies based on fluorescence recovery after photobleaching and cell fractionation analyses revealed that the four tomato SGTs, like the Arabidopsis SGTs UGT80A2 and UGT80B1, localize into the cytosol and the PM, although there are clear differences in their relative distribution between these two cell fractions. The SlSGT genes have specialized but still largely overlapping expression patterns in different organs of tomato plants and throughout the different stages of fruit development and ripening. Moreover, they are differentially regulated in response to biotic and abiotic stress conditions. SlSGT4 expression increases markedly in response to osmotic, salt, and cold stress, as well as upon treatment with abscisic acid and methyl jasmonate. Stress-induced SlSGT2 expression largely parallels that of SlSGT4. On the contrary, SlSGT1 and SlSGT3 expression remains almost unaltered under the tested stress conditions. Overall, this study contributes to broaden the current knowledge on plant SGTs and provides support to the view that tomato SGTs play overlapping but not completely redundant biological functions involved in mediating developmental and stress responses.

The right motifs for plant cell adhesion: what makes an adhesive site?

Cells of multicellular organisms are surrounded by and attached to a matrix of fibrous polysaccharides and proteins known as the extracellular matrix. This fibrous network not only serves as a structural support to cells and tissues but also plays an integral part in the process as important as proliferation, differentiation, or defense. While at first sight, the extracellular matrices of plant and animals do not have much in common, a closer look reveals remarkable similarities. In particular, the proteins involved in the adhesion of the cell to the extracellular matrix share many functional properties. At the sequence level, however, a surprising lack of homology is found between adhesion-related proteins of plants and animals. Both protein machineries only reveal similarities between small subdomains and motifs, which further underlines their functional relationship. In this review, we provide an overview on the similarities between motifs in proteins known to be located at the plant cell wall-plasma membrane-cytoskeleton interface to proteins of the animal adhesome. We also show that by comparing the proteome of both adhesion machineries at the level of motifs, we are also able to identify potentially new candidate proteins that functionally contribute to the adhesion of the plant plasma membrane to the cell wall.

The plant secretory pathway seen through the lens of the cell wall

Secretion in plant cells is often studied by looking at well-characterised, evolutionarily conserved membrane proteins associated with particular endomembrane compartments. Studies using live cell microscopy and fluorescent proteins have illuminated the highly dynamic nature of trafficking, and electron microscopy studies have resolved the ultrastructure of many compartments. Biochemical and molecular analyses have further informed about the function of particular proteins and endomembrane compartments. In plants, there are over 40 cell types, each with highly specialised functions, and hence potential variations in cell biological processes and cell wall structure. As the primary function of secretion in plant cells is for the biosynthesis of cell wall polysaccharides and apoplastic transport complexes, it follows that utilising our knowledge of cell wall glycosyltransferases (GTs) and their polysaccharide products will inform us about secretion. Indeed, this knowledge has led to novel insights into the secretory pathway, including previously unseen post-TGN secretory compartments. Conversely, our knowledge of trafficking routes of secretion will inform us about polarised and localised deposition of cell walls and their constituent polysaccharides/glycoproteins. In this review, we look at what is known about cell wall biosynthesis and the secretory pathway and how the different approaches can be used in a complementary manner to study secretion and provide novel insights into these processes.

Glycosylation of inositol phosphorylceramide sphingolipids is required for normal growth and reproduction in Arabidopsis

Sphingolipids are a major component of plant plasma membranes and endomembranes, and mediate a diverse range of biological processes. Study of the highly glycosylated glycosyl inositol phosphorylceramide (GIPC) sphingolipids has been slow as a result of challenges associated with the extractability of GIPCs, and their functions in the plant remain poorly characterized. We recently discovered an Arabidopsis GIPC glucuronosyltransferase, INOSITOL PHOSPHORYLCERAMIDE GLUCURONOSYLTRANSFERASE 1 (IPUT1), which is the first enzyme in the GIPC glycosylation pathway. Plants homozygous for the iput1 loss-of-function mutation were unobtainable, and so the developmental effects of reduced GIPC glucuronosylation could not be analyzed in planta. Using a pollen-specific rescue construct, we have here isolated homozygous iput1 mutants. The iput1 mutants show severe dwarfism, compromised pollen tube guidance, and constitutive activation of salicyclic acid-mediated defense pathways. The mutants also possess reduced GIPCs, increased ceramides, and an increased incorporation of short-chain fatty acids and dihydroxylated bases into inositol phosphorylceramides and GIPCs. The assignment of a direct role for GIPC glycan head groups in the impaired processes in iput1 mutants is complicated by the vast compensatory changes in the sphingolipidome; however, our results reveal that the glycosylation steps of GIPC biosynthesis are important regulated components of sphingolipid metabolism. This study corroborates previously suggested roles for GIPC glycans in plant growth and defense, suggests important roles for them in reproduction and demonstrates that the entire sphingolipidome is sensitive to their status.

Physical mechanisms of micro- and nanodomain formation in multicomponent lipid membranes

This article summarizes a variety of physical mechanisms proposed in the literature, which can generate micro- and nanodomains in multicomponent lipid bilayers and biomembranes. It mainly focusses on lipid-driven mechanisms that do not involve direct protein-protein interactions. Specifically, it considers (i) equilibrium mechanisms based on lipid-lipid phase separation such as critical cluster formation close to critical points, and multiple domain formation in curved geometries, (ii) equilibrium mechanisms that stabilize two-dimensional microemulsions, such as the effect of linactants and the effect of curvature-composition coupling in bilayers and monolayers, and (iii) non-equilibrium mechanisms induced by the interaction of a biomembrane with the cellular environment, such as membrane recycling and the pinning effects of the cytoplasm. Theoretical predictions are discussed together with simulations and experiments. The presentation is guided by the theory of phase transitions and critical phenomena, and the appendix summarizes the mathematical background in a concise way within the framework of the Ginzburg-Landau theory. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Lipid order/lipid defects and lipid-control of protein activity edited by Dirk Schneider.

Novel Aquaporin Regulatory Mechanisms Revealed by Interactomics

PIP1;2 and PIP2;1 are aquaporins that are highly expressed in roots and bring a major contribution to root water transport and its regulation by hormonal and abiotic factors. Interactions between cellular proteins or with other macromolecules contribute to forming molecular machines. Proteins that molecularly interact with PIP1;2 and PIP2;1 were searched to get new insights into regulatory mechanisms of root water transport. For that, a immuno-purification strategy coupled to protein identification and quantification by mass spectrometry (IP-MS) of PIPs was combined with data from the literature, to build thorough PIP1;2 and PIP2;1 interactomes, sharing about 400 interacting proteins. Such interactome revealed PIPs to behave as a platform for recruitment of a wide range of transport activities and provided novel insights into regulation of PIP cellular trafficking by osmotic and oxidative treatments. This work also pointed a role of lipid signaling in PIP function and enhanced our knowledge of protein kinases involved in PIP regulation. In particular we show that 2 members of the receptor-like kinase (RLK) family (RKL1 (At1g48480) and Feronia (At3g51550)) differentially modulate PIP activity through distinct molecular mechanisms. The overall work opens novel perspectives in understanding PIP regulatory mechanisms and their role in adjustment of plant water status.

New Insight Into the Roles of Membrane Microdomains in Physiological Activities of Fungal Cells

The organization of biological membranes into structurally and functionally distinct lateral microdomains is generally accepted. From bacteria to mammals, laterally compartmentalized membranes seem to be a vital attribute of life. The crucial fraction of our current knowledge about the membrane microdomains has been gained from studies on fungi. In this review we summarize the evidence of the microdomain organization of membranes from fungal cells, with accent on their enormous diversity in composition, temporal dynamics, modes of formation, and recognized engagement in the cell physiology. A special emphasis is laid on the fact that in addition to their other biological functions, membrane microdomains also mediate the communication among different membranes within a eukaryotic cell and coordinate their functions. Involvement of fungal membrane microdomains in stress sensing, regulation of lipid homeostasis, and cell differentiation is discussed more in detail.

Revisiting Plant Plasma Membrane Lipids in Tobacco: A Focus on Sphingolipids

The lipid composition of plasma membrane (PM) and the corresponding detergent-insoluble membrane (DIM) fraction were analyzed with a specific focus on highly polar sphingolipids, so-called glycosyl inositol phosphorylceramides (GIPCs). Using tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) 'Bright Yellow 2' cell suspension and leaves, evidence is provided that GIPCs represent up to 40 mol % of the PM lipids. Comparative analysis of DIMs with the PM showed an enrichment of 2-hydroxylated very-long-chain fatty acid-containing GIPCs and polyglycosylated GIPCs in the DIMs. Purified antibodies raised against these GIPCs were further used for immunogold-electron microscopy strategy, revealing the distribution of polyglycosylated GIPCs in domains of 35 ± 7 nm in the plane of the PM. Biophysical studies also showed strong interactions between GIPCs and sterols and suggested a role for very-long-chain fatty acids in the interdigitation between the two PM-composing monolayers. The ins and outs of lipid asymmetry, raft formation, and interdigitation in plant membrane biology are finally discussed.

Should I stay or should I go? Traffic control for plant pattern recognition receptors

Plants employ cell surface-localised receptors to recognise potential invaders via perception of microbe-derived molecules. This is mediated by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that bind microbe-associated or damage-associated molecular patterns or perceive apoplastic effector proteins secreted by microorganisms. In either case, effective recognition and initiation of appropriate defence responses rely on a signalling competent pool of receptors at the cell surface. Maintenance of this pool of receptors at the plasma membrane is guaranteed by sorting of properly folded ligand-unbound and ligand-bound receptors via the secretory-endosomal network in an activation-dependent manner. Recent findings highlight that ligand-induced endocytosis is found across members of distinct PRR families suggesting a conserved mechanism by which PRRs and immunity is regulated.

Convoluted Plasma Membrane Domains in the Green Alga Chara are Depleted of Microtubules and Actin Filaments

Charasomes are convoluted plasma membrane domains in the green alga Chara australis. They harbor H(+)-ATPases involved in acidification of the medium, which facilitates carbon uptake required for photosynthesis. In this study we investigated the distribution of cortical microtubules and cortical actin filaments in relation to the distribution of charasomes. We found that microtubules and actin filaments were largely lacking beneath the charasomes, suggesting the absence of nucleating and/or anchoring complexes or an inhibitory effect on polymerization. We also investigated the influence of cytoskeleton inhibitors on the light-dependent growth and the darkness-induced degradation of charasomes. Inhibition of cytoplasmic streaming by cytochalasin D significantly inhibited charasome growth and delayed charasome degradation, whereas depolymerization of microtubules by oryzalin or stabilization of microtubules by paclitaxel had no effect. Our data indicate that the membrane at the cytoplasmic surface of charasomes has different properties in comparison with the smooth plasma membrane. We show further that the actin cytoskeleton is necessary for charasome growth and facilitates charasome degradation presumably via trafficking of secretory and endocytic vesicles, respectively. However, microtubules are required neither for charasome growth nor for charasome degradation.

Cytoskeletal Components Define Protein Location to Membrane Microdomains

The plasma membrane is an important compartment that undergoes dynamic changes in composition upon external or internal stimuli. The dynamic subcompartmentation of proteins in ordered low-density (DRM) and disordered high-density (DSM) membrane phases is hypothesized to require interactions with cytoskeletal components. Here, we systematically analyzed the effects of actin or tubulin disruption on the distribution of proteins between membrane density phases. We used a proteomic screen to identify candidate proteins with altered submembrane location, followed by biochemical or cell biological characterization in Arabidopsis thaliana. We found that several proteins, such as plasma membrane ATPases, receptor kinases, or remorins resulted in a differential distribution between membrane density phases upon cytoskeletal disruption. Moreover, in most cases, contrasting effects were observed: Disruption of actin filaments largely led to a redistribution of proteins from DRM to DSM membrane fractions while disruption of tubulins resulted in general depletion of proteins from the membranes. We conclude that actin filaments are necessary for dynamic movement of proteins between different membrane phases and that microtubules are not necessarily important for formation of microdomains as such, but rather they may control the protein amount present in the membrane phases.

Photosynthesis-dependent formation of convoluted plasma membrane domains in Chara internodal cells is independent of chloroplast position

The characean green alga Chara australis forms complex plasma membrane convolutions called charasomes when exposed to light. Charasomes are involved in local acidification of the surrounding medium which facilitates carbon uptake required for photosynthesis. They have hitherto been only described in the internodal cells and in close contact with the stationary chloroplasts. Here, we show that charasomes are not only present in the internodal cells of the main axis, side branches, and branchlets but that the plasma membranes of chloroplast-containing nodal cells, protonemata, and rhizoids are also able to invaginate into complex domains. Removal of chloroplasts by local irradiation with intense light revealed that charasomes can develop at chloroplast-free "windows" and that the resulting pH banding pattern is independent of chloroplast or window position. Charasomes were not detected along cell walls containing functional plasmodesmata. However, charasomes formed next to a smooth wound wall which was deposited onto the plasmodesmata-containing wall when the neighboring cell was damaged. In contrast, charasomes were rarely found at uneven, bulged wound walls which protrude into the streaming endoplasm and which were induced by ligation or puncturing. The results of this study show that charasome formation, although dependent on photosynthesis, does not require intimate contact with chloroplasts. Our data suggest further that the presence of plasmodesmata inhibits charasome formation and/or that exposure to the outer medium is a prerequisite for charasome formation. Finally, we hypothesize that the absence of charasomes at bulged wound walls is due to the disturbance of uniform laminar mass streaming.

Novel approach to measure the size of plasma-membrane nanodomains in single molecule localization microscopy

Many membrane proteins are not evenly distributed over the plasma membrane, but gathered in domains assumed to have a particular lipid composition. Using single molecule localization microscopy (SMLM) we have immunolocalized a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchor protein that labels nanodomains in a specialized plant cell type, and compared the suitability of three methods to estimate their size. As conventional methods full width at half maximum (FWHM) and the full diameter (FWMin) of domains were used. A boundary detection method of the domain area (DA) was performed in order to take irregular shapes into account. In order to compare the influence of the chosen measurement methods, we have developed a MatLab program that allows for automated analysis of domain sizes from multiple SMLM images and provides the statistics of three key features of domains: FWHM and FWMin along their long and short axes as well as the DA, derived from the molecular density. Domains formed by the GPI-anchor protein are approximating elliptical shapes. Direct and indirect immunolabeling resulted in a statistically significant difference in apparent domain size, reflecting the fact that the secondary antibody molecules extend the uncertainty along the nanodomain border. FWMin values along the long and short axis give good estimates of regular, geometrically centred domain shapes, while the DA value matches regular as well as irregular shapes best, as derived from computer-generated, irregular point clusters.

Molecular principles of membrane microdomain targeting in plants

Plasma membranes (PMs) are heterogeneous lipid bilayers comprising diverse subdomains. These sites can be labeled by various proteins in vivo and may serve as hotspots for signal transduction. They are found at apical, basal, and lateral membranes of polarized cells, at cell equatorial planes, or almost isotropically distributed throughout the PM. Recent advances in imaging technologies and understanding of mechanisms that allow proteins to target specific sites in PMs have provided insights into the dynamics and complexity of their specific segregation. Here we present a comprehensive overview of the different types of membrane microdomain and describe the molecular modes that determine site-directed targeting of membrane-resident proteins at the PM.

Novel disease susceptibility factors for fungal necrotrophic pathogens in Arabidopsis

Host cells use an intricate signaling system to respond to invasions by pathogenic microorganisms. Although several signaling components of disease resistance against necrotrophic fungal pathogens have been identified, our understanding for how molecular components and host processes contribute to plant disease susceptibility is rather sparse. Here, we identified four transcription factors (TFs) from Arabidopsis that limit pathogen spread. Arabidopsis mutants defective in any of these TFs displayed increased disease susceptibility to Botrytis cinerea and Plectosphaerella cucumerina, and a general activation of non-immune host processes that contribute to plant disease susceptibility. Transcriptome analyses revealed that the mutants share a common transcriptional signature of 77 up-regulated genes. We characterized several of the up-regulated genes that encode peptides with a secretion signal, which we named PROVIR (for provirulence) factors. Forward and reverse genetic analyses revealed that many of the PROVIRs are important for disease susceptibility of the host to fungal necrotrophs. The TFs and PROVIRs identified in our work thus represent novel genetic determinants for plant disease susceptibility to necrotrophic fungal pathogens.

Specific membrane lipid composition is important for plasmodesmata function in Arabidopsis

Plasmodesmata (PD) are nano-sized membrane-lined channels controlling intercellular communication in plants. Although progress has been made in identifying PD proteins, the role played by major membrane constituents, such as the lipids, in defining specialized membrane domains in PD remains unknown. Through a rigorous isolation of "native" PD membrane fractions and comparative mass spectrometry-based analysis, we demonstrate that lipids are laterally segregated along the plasma membrane (PM) at the PD cell-to-cell junction in Arabidopsis thaliana. Remarkably, our results show that PD membranes display enrichment in sterols and sphingolipids with very long chain saturated fatty acids when compared with the bulk of the PM. Intriguingly, this lipid profile is reminiscent of detergent-insoluble membrane microdomains, although our approach is valuably detergent-free. Modulation of the overall sterol composition of young dividing cells reversibly impaired the PD localization of the glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins Plasmodesmata Callose Binding 1 and the β-1,3-glucanase PdBG2 and altered callose-mediated PD permeability. Altogether, this study not only provides a comprehensive analysis of the lipid constituents of PD but also identifies a role for sterols in modulating cell-to-cell connectivity, possibly by establishing and maintaining the positional specificity of callose-modifying glycosylphosphatidylinositol proteins at PD. Our work emphasizes the importance of lipids in defining PD membranes.

The song of lipids and proteins: dynamic lipid-protein interfaces in the regulation of plant cell polarity at different scales

Successful establishment and maintenance of cell polarity is crucial for many aspects of plant development, cellular morphogenesis, response to pathogen attack, and reproduction. Polar cell growth depends on integrating membrane and cell-wall dynamics with signal transduction pathways, changes in ion membrane transport, and regulation of vectorial vesicle trafficking and the dynamic actin cytoskeleton. In this review, we address the critical importance of protein-membrane crosstalk in the determination of plant cell polarity and summarize the role of membrane lipids, particularly minor acidic phospholipids, in regulation of the membrane traffic. We focus on the protein-membrane interface dynamics and discuss the current state of knowledge on three partially overlapping levels of descriptions. Finally, due to their multiscale and interdisciplinary nature, we stress the crucial importance of combining different strategies ranging from microscopic methods to computational modelling in protein-membrane studies.

Current perspective on protein S-acylation in plants: more than just a fatty anchor?

Membranes are an important signalling platform in plants. The plasma membrane is the point where information about the external environment must be converted into intracellular signals, while endomembranes are important sites of protein trafficking, organization, compartmentalization, and intracellular signalling. This requires co-ordinating the spatial distribution of proteins, their activation state, and their interacting partners. This regulation frequently occurs through post-translational modification of proteins. Proteins that associate with the cell membrane do so through transmembrane domains, protein-protein interactions, lipid binding motifs/domains or use the post-translational addition of lipid groups as prosthetic membrane anchors. S-acylation is one such lipid modification capable of anchoring proteins to the membrane. Our current knowledge of S-acylation function in plants is fairly limited compared with other post-translational modifications and S-acylation in other organisms. However, it is becoming increasingly clear that S-acylation can act as more than just a simple membrane anchor: it can also act as a regulatory mechanism in signalling pathways in plants. S-acylation is, therefore, an ideal mechanism for regulating protein function at membranes. This review discusses our current knowledge of S-acylated proteins in plants, the interaction of different lipid modifications, and the general effects of S-acylation on cellular function.

Membrane nanodomains in plants: capturing form, function, and movement

The plasma membrane is the interface between the cell and the external environment. Plasma membrane lipids provide scaffolds for proteins and protein complexes that are involved in cell to cell communication, signal transduction, immune responses, and transport of small molecules. In animals, fungi, and plants, a substantial subset of these plasma membrane proteins function within ordered sterol- and sphingolipid-rich nanodomains. High-resolution microscopy, lipid dyes, pharmacological inhibitors of lipid biosynthesis, and lipid biosynthetic mutants have been employed to examine the relationship between the lipid environment and protein activity in plants. They have also been used to identify proteins associated with nanodomains and the pathways by which nanodomain-associated proteins are trafficked to their plasma membrane destinations. These studies suggest that plant membrane nanodomains function in a context-specific manner, analogous to similar structures in animals and fungi. In addition to the highly conserved flotillin and remorin markers, some members of the B and G subclasses of ATP binding cassette transporters have emerged as functional markers for plant nanodomains. Further, the glycophosphatidylinositol-anchored fasciclin-like arabinogalactan proteins, that are often associated with detergent-resistant membranes, appear also to have a functional role in membrane nanodomains.

Roles of membrane trafficking in plant cell wall dynamics

The cell wall is one of the characteristic components of plant cells. The cell wall composition differs among cell types and is modified in response to various environmental conditions. To properly generate and modify the cell wall, many proteins are transported to the plasma membrane or extracellular space through membrane trafficking, which is one of the key protein transport mechanisms in eukaryotic cells. Given the diverse composition and functions of the cell wall in plants, the transport of the cell wall components and proteins that are involved in cell wall-related events could be specialized for each cell type, i.e., the machinery for cell wall biogenesis, modification, and maintenance could be transported via different trafficking pathways. In this review, we summarize the recent progress in the current understanding of the roles and mechanisms of membrane trafficking in plant cells and focus on the biogenesis and regulation of the cell wall.

Grain setting defect1 (GSD1) function in rice depends on S-acylation and interacts with actin 1 (OsACT1) at its C-terminal

Grain setting defect1 (GSD1), a plant-specific remorin protein specifically localized at the plasma membrane (PM) and plasmodesmata of phloem companion cells, affects grain setting in rice through regulating the transport of photoassimilates. Here, we show new evidence demonstrating that GSD1 is localized at the cytoplasmic face of the PM and a stretch of 45 amino acid residues at its C-terminal is required for its localization. Association with the PM is mediated by S-acylation of cysteine residues Cys-524 and Cys-527, in a sequence of 45 amino acid residues essential for GSD1 function in rice. Furthermore, the coiled-coil domain in GSD1 is necessary for sufficient interaction with OsACT1. Together, these results reveal that GSD1 attaches to the PM through S-acylation and interacts with OsACT1 through its coiled-coil domain structure to regulate plasmodesmata conductance for photoassimilate transport in rice.

Lipochitooligosaccharides modulate plant host immunity to enable endosymbioses

Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing rhizobium bacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi use lipochitooligosaccharide (LCO) signals to communicate with potential host plants. Upon a compatible match, an intimate relation is established during which the microsymbiont is allowed to enter root (-derived) cells. Plants perceive microbial LCO molecules by specific LysM-domain-containing receptor-like kinases. These do not only activate a common symbiosis signaling pathway that is shared in both symbioses but also modulate innate immune responses. Recent studies revealed that symbiotic LCO receptors are closely related to chitin innate immune receptors, and some of these receptors even function in symbiosis as well as immunity. This raises questions about how plants manage to translate structurally very similar microbial signals into different outputs. Here, we describe the current view on chitin and LCO perception in innate immunity and endosymbiosis and question how LCOs might modulate the immune system. Furthermore, we discuss what it takes to become an endosymbiont.

The importance of lipid modified proteins in plants

Membranes have long been known to act as more than physical barriers within and between plant cells. Trafficking of membrane proteins, signalling from and across membranes, organisation of membranes and transport through membranes are all essential processes for plant cellular function. These processes rely on a myriad array of proteins regulated in a variety of manners and are frequently required to be directly associated with membranes. For integral membrane proteins, the mode of membrane association is readily apparent, but many peripherally associated membrane proteins are outwardly soluble proteins. In these cases the proteins are frequently modified by the addition of lipids allowing direct interaction with the hydrophobic core of membranes. These modifications include N-myristoylation, S-acylation (palmitoylation), prenylation and GPI anchors but until recently little was truly known about their function in plants. New data suggest that these modifications are able to act as more than just membrane anchors, and dynamic S-acylation in particular is emerging as a means of regulating protein function in a similar manner to phosphorylation. This review discusses how these modifications occur, their impact on protein function, how they are regulated, recent advances in the field and technical approaches for studying these modifications.

Change your TPLATE, change your fate: plant CME and beyond

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) is the predominant and evolutionarily conserved pathway by which eukaryotes internalize cargoes (i.e., plasma membrane proteins, lipids, and extracellular material) that are engaged in a variety of processes. Initiation of CME relies on adaptor proteins, which precisely select the cargoes for internalization, recruit the clathrin cage, and start membrane curvature. The recently identified CME early adaptor complex, the TPLATE complex (TPC), is essential for CME in plants. Phylogenetic analyses suggest that the TPC evolved from an ancient protein complex involved in vesicle trafficking in early eukaryotes, which raises questions about CME evolution and adaptation within the eukaryotic Kingdoms. In this review, we focus on the early events of plant CME and explore evolutionary aspects related to CME in other eukaryotes.

A moving view: subcellular trafficking processes in pattern recognition receptor-triggered plant immunity

A significant challenge for plants is to induce localized defense responses at sites of pathogen attack. Therefore, host subcellular trafficking processes enable accumulation and exchange of defense compounds, which contributes to the plant on-site defenses in response to pathogen perception. This review summarizes our current understanding of the transport processes that facilitate immunity, the significance of which is highlighted by pathogens reprogramming membrane trafficking through host cell translocated effectors. Prominent immune-related cargos of plant trafficking pathways are the pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which must be present at the plasma membrane to sense microbes in the apoplast. We focus on the dynamic localization of the FLS2 receptor and discuss the pathways that regulate receptor transport within the cell and their link to FLS2-mediated immunity. One emerging theme is that ligand-induced late endocytic trafficking is conserved across different PRR protein families as well as across different plant species.

Across the great divide: the plant cell surface continuum

The plant cell wall, plasma membrane and cytoskeleton exist as a cell surface continuum. This interconnection of organelles forms the interface between the plant cell and the external environment and is important for detecting the presence of a diverse range of stimuli. A plethora of plasma membrane microdomains with putative roles in membrane localized enzymatic or signalling processes have been described. While regulation of cell wall composition is defined by proteins within the plasma membrane, the cell wall has been shown to have an anchoring role on plasma membrane proteins which affects their lateral mobility. This interplay between plasma membrane and cell wall components is necessary for plasma membrane microdomain function. Actin and microtubule cytoskeletons are also involved in maintenance and function of the cell surface continuum. Investigation of the interactions between organellar components of this mechanism are important if we are to understand how cells respond to external signals.

S-acylation anchors remorin proteins to the plasma membrane but does not primarily determine their localization in membrane microdomains

Remorins are well-established marker proteins for plasma membrane microdomains. They specifically localize to the inner membrane leaflet despite an overall hydrophilic amino acid composition. Here, we determined amino acids and post-translational lipidations that are required for membrane association of remorin proteins. We used a combination of cell biological and biochemical approaches to localize remorin proteins and truncated variants of those in living cells and determined S-acylation on defined residues in these proteins. S-acylation of cysteine residues in a C-terminal hydrophobic core contributes to membrane association of most remorin proteins. While S-acylation patterns differ between members of this multi-gene family, initial membrane association is mediated by protein-protein or protein-lipid interactions. However, S-acylation is not a key determinant for the localization of remorins in membrane microdomains. Although remorins bind via a conserved mechanism to the plasma membrane, other membrane-resident proteins may be involved in the recruitment of remorins into membrane domains. S-acylation probably occurs after an initial targeting of the proteins to the plasma membrane and locks remorins in this compartment. As S-acylation is a reversible post-translational modification, stimulus-dependent intracellular trafficking of these proteins can be envisioned.