Nanostructured Lipid Carriers: A Groundbreaking Approach for Transdermal Drug Delivery

Naturally-Sourced Antibacterial Polymeric Nanomaterials with Special Reference to Modified Polymer Variants

Despite the recent advancements in treating bacterial infections, antibiotic resistance (AR) is still an emerging issue. However, polymeric nanocarriers have offered unconventional solutions owing to their capability of exposing more functional groups, high encapsulation efficiency (EE) and having sustained delivery. Natural polymeric nanomaterials (NMs) are contemplated one of the most powerful strategies in drug delivery (DD) in terms of their safety, biodegradability with almost no side effects. Every nanostructure is tailored to enhance the system functionality. For example, cost-effective copper NPs could be generated in situ in cellulose sheets, demonstrating powerful antibacterial prospects for food safety sector. Dendrimers also have the capacity for peptide encapsulation, protecting them from proteolytic digestion for prolonged half life span. On the other hand, the demerits of naturally sourced polymers still stand against their capacities in DD. Hence, Post-synthetic modification of natural polymers could play a provital role in yielding new hybrids while retaining their biodegradability, which could be suitable for building novel super structures for DD platforms. This is the first review presenting the contribution of natural polymers in the fabrication of eight polymeric NMs including particulate nanodelivery and nanofabrics with antibacterial and antibiofilm prospects, referring to modified polymer derivatives to explore their full potential for obtaining sustainable DD products.

Safety, efficacy and delivery of multiple nucleoside analogs via drug encapsulated carbon (DECON) based sustained drug release platform

Acyclovir and similar nucleoside analogs form an essential frontline treatment for various herpesvirus infections of the eye. However, these drugs have low ocular retention when delivered topically and need to be administered several times every day. We have previously demonstrated that acyclovir loaded into activated carbon can be used to significantly decrease dosage frequency in a murine model of ocular infection. In this study, we demonstrate that other nucleoside analogs such as ganciclovir, penciclovir and famciclovir have excellent loading and release profile similar to acyclovir. Similarly we also demonstrate that nucleoside analog loaded carbons termed DECON are effective at very low concentrations in treating active viral infection of human corneal epithelial cells. In this study, using a variety of techniques to evaluate corneal dryness, nerve sensitivity, intraocular pressure, corneal thickness, and somatic inflammation, we report that DECON is well tolerated after administration three times daily over the course of four weeks.

Lipid based nanoparticles as a novel treatment modality for hepatocellular carcinoma: a comprehensive review on targeting and recent advances

Liver cancer is considered one of the deadliest diseases with one of the highest disease burdens worldwide. Among the different types of liver cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma is considered to be the most common type. Multiple conventional approaches are being used in treating hepatocellular carcinoma. Focusing on drug treatment, regular agents in conventional forms fail to achieve the intended clinical outcomes. In order to improve the treatment outcomes, utilizing nanoparticles-specifically lipid based nanoparticles-are considered to be one of the most promising approaches being set in motion. Multiple forms of lipid based nanoparticles exist including liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, microemulsion, nanoemulsion, phytosomes, lipid coated nanoparticles, and nanoassemblies. Multiple approaches are used to enhance the tumor uptake as well tumor specificity such as intratumoral injection, passive targeting, active targeting, and stimuli responsive nanoparticles. In this review, the effect of utilizing lipidic nanoparticles is being discussed as well as the different tumor uptake enhancement techniques used.

Tetrahydrocurcumin Lipid Nanoparticle Based Gel Promotes Penetration into Deeper Skin Layers and Alleviates Atopic Dermatitis in 2,4-Dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB) Mouse Model

Treatment of atopic dermatitis (AD) is challenging due to its complex pathophysiology. Tetrahydrocurcumin (THC) a polyphenolic, colorless compound that is more polar than curcumin. It possesses superior anti-inflammatory properties and has a clinical advantage over curcumin. The present study investigated the therapeutic effectiveness of THC solid lipid nanoparticle (THC-SLN)-based gels in AD. THC-SLNs prepared using microemulsification resulted in a particle size of 109.2 nm as determined by nanoparticle tracking, and FTIR confirmed the entrapment of drug within the lipid matrix. THC-SLNs greatly enhanced skin hydration when tested both ex vivo and in vivo in Lacca mice. Deeper skin penetration was clearly established using dermatokinetics and CLSM. The in vivo pharmacodynamics of THC-SLNs gel in 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB)-induced AD mice showed enhanced bioactivity; reduced levels of TNF-α and IL-6; and complete healing, as evident from histopathological studies. Thus, the novel topical THC-SLN gel has potential to emerge as a safe alternative to conventional corticosteroids for AD and other skin disorders with overbearing inflammation.

Medicinal Cannabis Pharmacokinetics and Potential Methods of Delivery

The evidence of cannabis exhibiting polypharmacological properties has been accumulating for the past few decades, particularly for its analgesic and anti-inflammatory abilities. However, inconsistent dosage forms and erratic absorption levels prevent medicinal cannabis products from becoming mainstream recommendations for pain management. Current cannabis products fail to address the undesirable characteristics associated with cannabinoids such as low solubility, poor bioavailability, and lack of specificity, all of which contribute to low therapeutic effect. In this narrative view, the pharmacokinetics of cannabis products and possible methods of drug delivery, in the form of carrier systems, will be explored. The incorporation of cannabinoids into carrier systems provides an opportunity to improve absorption levels, increase bioavailability and reduce adverse events allowing for a greater therapeutic effect.

Lipid Nanomaterials for Targeted Delivery of Dermocosmetic Ingredients: Advances in Photoprotection and Skin Anti-Aging

Despite the health benefits of the sun, overexposure to solar radiation without proper precautions can cause irreversible damage to exposed skin. In the search for balance between the risks and benefits of exposure to solar radiation in human health, a technological alternative was found, the incorporation of photoprotective products in lipid nanoparticulate systems for topical application. These nanometric systems have demonstrated several advantages when used as adjuvants in photoprotection compared to chemical and/or physical sunscreens alone. The increase in the sun protection factor (SPF), photostability and UV action spectrum are parameters that have benefited from the application of these systems in order to increase the effectiveness and safety of photoprotective formulations containing organic and/or inorganic sunscreens.

Lipid-Based Nanoparticles for Targeted Delivery of the Anti-Cancer Drugs: A Review

Abstract:

Cancer is one of the main reasons for mortality worldwide. Chemotherapeutic agents have been effectively designed to increase certain patients' survival rates, but ordinarily designed chemotherapeutic agents necessarily deliver toxic chemotherapeutic drugs to healthy tissues, resulting in serious side effects. Cancer cells can often acquire drug resistance after repeated dosing of current chemotherapeutic agents, restricting their efficacy. Given such obstacles, investigators have attempted to distribute chemotherapeutic agents using targeted drug delivery systems (DDSs), especially nanotechnology-based DDSs. Lipid-Based Nanoparticles (LBNPs) are a large and complex class of substances that have been utilized to manage a variety of diseases, mostly cancer. Liposomes seem to be the most frequently employed LBNPs, owing to their high biocompatibility, bioactivity, stability, and flexibility; howbeit Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) and Non-structured Lipid Carriers (NLCs) have lately received a lot of interest. Besides that, there are several reports that concentrate on novel therapies via LBNPs to manage various forms of cancer. In the present research, the latest improvements in the application of LBNPs have been shown to deliver different therapeutic agents to cancerous cells and have been demonstrated LBNPs also can be a quite successful candidate in cancer therapy for subsequent use.

Formulation and Characterization of Febuxostat Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs) - Gel for Topical Treatment of Gout

BACKGROUND

The aim of the present study was to formulate and characterize Nano- Structured Lipid Carriers (NLCs) of Febuxostat (FB) incorporated in the gel for the treatment of Gout. FB is a Xanthine Oxidase (XO) inhibitor drug used for chronic Gout and hyperuricemia. FB is a BCS class II drug, therefore, water solubility is very poor, and due to its poor solubility and wettability, it leads to poor dissolution. The hot high-pressure homogenization technique was used in this study to improve the physicochemical property of FB.

METHODS

The carbopol 934 was used to prepare NLCs gel of FB. The NLCs of FB was prepared in different drug: polymer ratios w/w (2:1), (1:1), (1:2), (1:3) and (1:4) with solid lipid (Stearic Acid) and liquid lipid (Oleic acid). The preformulation study of FB included FTIR study melting point, standard calibration curves, and drug-polymer interaction study.

RESULTS

The NLCs (1:3) showed high entrapment and drug content. The NLCs gel formulation was 87% released within 6 hours in a controlled manner.

CONCLUSION

NLCs gel modifies the drug release, increases the bioavailability, and reduces side effects of FB. The prepared gel is the efficient formulation for the better treatment of chronic gout and hyperuricemia. The research findings have shown the undesirable side effects associated with the oral route that can be reduced by the use of NLCs formulation through the transdermal route in an effective manner.

Multi-disciplinary Approach for Drug and Gene Delivery Systems to the Brain

Drug delivery into the brain has for long been a huge challenge as the blood–brain barrier (BBB) offers great resistance to entry of foreign substances (with drugs inclusive) into the brain. This barrier in healthy individuals is protective to the brain, disallowing noxious substances present in the blood to get to the brain while allowing for the exchange of small molecules into the brain by diffusion. However, BBB is disrupted under certain disease conditions, such as cerebrovascular diseases including acute ischemic stroke and intracerebral hemorrhage, and neurodegenerative disorders including multiple sclerosis (MS), Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), and cancers. This review aims to provide a broad overview of present-day strategies for brain drug delivery, emphasizing novel delivery systems. Hopefully, this review would inspire scientists and researchers in the field of drug delivery across BBB to uncover new techniques and strategies to optimize drug delivery to the brain. Considering the anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiological functioning of the BBB in health and disease conditions, this review is focused on the controversies drawn from conclusions of recently published studies on issues such as the penetrability of nanoparticles into the brain, and whether active targeted drug delivery into the brain could be achieved with the use of nanoparticles. We also extended the review to cover novel non-nanoparticle strategies such as using viral and peptide vectors and other non-invasive techniques to enhance brain uptake of drugs.

Nano-Drug Delivery Systems: Possible End to the Rising Threats of Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is still one of the deadliest disease across the globe caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Mtb invades host macrophages and other immune cells, modifies their lysosome trafficking proteins, prevents phagolysosomes formation, and inhibits the TNF receptor-dependent apoptosis in macrophages and monocytes. Tuberculosis (TB) killed 1.4 million people worldwide in the year 2019. Despite the advancements in tuberculosis (TB) treatments, multidrugresistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) remains a severe threat to human health. The complications are further compounded by the emergence of MDR/XDR strains and the failure of conventional drug regimens to eradicate the resistant bacterial strains. Thus, new therapeutic approaches aim to ensure cure without relapse, to prevent the occurrence of deaths and emergence of drug-resistant strains. In this context, this review article summarises the essential nanotechnology-related research outcomes in the treatment of tuberculosis (TB), including drug-susceptible and drug-resistant strains of Mtb. The novel anti-tuberculosis drug delivery systems are also being detailed. This article highlights recent advances in tuberculosis (TB) treatments, including the use of novel drug delivery technologies such as solid lipid nanoparticles, liposomes, polymeric micelles, nano-suspensions, nano-emulsion, niosomes, liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles and microparticles for the delivery of anti-TB drugs and hence eradication and control of both drug-susceptible as well as drug-resistant strains of Mtb.

Biocompatibility and Antimicrobial Activity of Nanostructured Lipid Carriers for Topical Applications Are Affected by Type of Oils Used in Their Composition

Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) have gained significant attention as tools for the dermal delivery of therapeutics due to their stability, biocompatibility, and ability to improve drug bioavailability. The use of natural plant oils (NPO) in NLC formulations has numerous benefits for the skin due to their therapeutic potential. This work shows the effect of NLC composition on bioavailability in epidermal cells and antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. Sixteen systems containing fixed (sunflower, olive, corn, peanut, coconut, castor, and sweet almond) and essential (eucalyptus) oils, with different solid lipid (SL): liquid lipid (LL) ratios, were engineered. The structural properties, bioavailability, and antimicrobial action of the particles was studied. The choice of NPO influenced the physicochemical stability by changing the diameter of NLC formulations (between 160 nm and 185 nm) and Z-potential (between −46 mV and −61 mV). All of the systems were characterized by concentration-dependent cytocompatibility with human epidermal keratinocytes (HaCaT) and human dermal fibroblasts (HDFn). The SL:LL ratio in some NLC systems impacted cell cytotoxicity differently. Antimicrobial properties were observed in all 16 systems; however, the type of oil and SL:LL ratio affected the activity of the formulations. Two NLC-NPO systems were found to be non-cytotoxic to human cells lines at concentrations that completely inhibited bacterial growth. These results present a strong argument that the use of natural oils in NLC formulations presents a promising tool for the treatment of skin infections.

Multifunctional lipidic nanocarriers for effective therapy of glioblastoma: recent advances in stimuli-responsive, receptor and subcellular targeted approaches

Background

Glioblastoma, or glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), remains a fatal cancer type despite the remarkable progress in understanding the genesis and propagation of the tumor. Current treatment modalities, comprising mainly of surgery followed by adjuvant chemoradiation, are insufficient for improving patients' survival owing to existing hurdles, including the blood–brain barrier (BBB). In contemporary practice, the prospect of long-term survival or cure continues to be a challenge for patients suffering from GBM. This review provides an insight into the drug delivery strategies and the significant efforts made in lipid-based nanoplatform research to circumvent the challenges in optimal drug delivery in GBM.

Area covered

Owing to the unique properties of lipid-based nanoplatforms and advancements in clinical translation, this article describes the application of various stimuli-responsive lipid nanocarriers and tumor subcellular organelle-targeted therapy to give an idea about the strategies that can be applied to enhance site-specific drug delivery for GBM. Furthermore, active targeting of drugs via surface-modified lipid-based nanostructures and recent findings in alternative therapeutic platforms such as gene therapy, immunotherapy, and multimodal therapy have also been overviewed.

Expert opinion

Lipid-based nanoparticles stand out among the other nanocarriers explored for GBM drug delivery, as they support both passive and active drug targeting by crossing/bypassing the BBB at the same time minimizing toxicity and projects better pharmacological parameters. Although these nanocarriers could be a plausible choice for treating GBM, in-depth research is essential to advance neuro-oncology research and enhance outcomes in patients with brain tumors.

Liposomal nanoparticles based on steroids and isoprenoids for nonviral gene delivery

Natural lipid molecules are an essential part of life as they constitute the membrane of cells and organelle. In most of these cases, the hydrophobicity of natural lipids is contributed by alkyl chains. Although natural lipids with a nonfatty acid hydrophobic backbone are quite rare, steroids and isoprenoids have been strong candidates as part of a lipid. Over the years, these natural molecules (steroid and isoprenoids) have been used to make either lipid-based nanoparticle or functionalize in such a way that it could form nano assembly alone for therapeutic delivery. Here we mainly focus on the synthetic functionalized version of these natural molecules which forms cationic liposomal nanoparticles (LipoNPs). These cationic LipoNPs were further used to deliver various negatively charged genetic materials in the form of pDNA, siRNA, mRNA (nucleic acids), and so on. This article is categorized under: Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Lipid-Based Structures.

Auraptene nanoparticles ameliorate testosterone-induced benign prostatic hyperplasia in rats: Emphasis on antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, proapoptotic and PPARs activation effects

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a disease that commonly strikes the majority of aged men. Developing new therapies to manage BPH with improved efficacy and safety is strongly needed. In this regard, auraptene is a natural compound with multiple pharmacological effects, but with poor oral bioavailability. This investigation aimed to assess the possible protection offered by auraptene-nanostructured lipid carrier (auraptene-NLC) in a BPH model induced by testosterone in rats. Auraptene-NLC had optimum particle size and drug release profile compared to raw auraptene. At doses (5 and 10 mg/kg), it hampered the rise in prostatic weights & indices relative to rats challenged with testosterone. Moreover, auraptene-NLC alleviated histopathological abnormalities in prostate architecture and decreased the glandular epithelial height. Additionally, testosterone-induced oxidative stress was alleviated by auraptene-NLC and inhibited raised lipid peroxidation, catalase and superoxide dismutase exhaustion as well as enhanced glutathione content. Moreover, it significantly reduced the prostate content of nuclear factor κB, Interleukins1β & 6, as well as transforming growth factor β, compared to testosterone group. The proapoptotic activity of auraptene-NLC (10 mg/kg) was confirmed by a significant increase of prostate cleaved caspase-3, boosted Bax/Bcl2 mRNA ratio that was further confirmed by assessing their protein expressions. Furthermore, the beneficial effects of auraptene-NLC against BPH were substantiated by ameliorating testosterone-induced decline of nuclear PPARα & PPARγ and inhibiting the increased expression of cyclin D1 protein. In conclusion, auraptene-NLC offers a protective effect in rats whereby BPH was induced by testosterone, via its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and proapoptotic activities, and PPAR family activation.

Recent advances in nanomedicine-based delivery of histone deacetylase inhibitors for cancer therapy

Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) are cancer therapeutics that operate at the epigenetic level and which have recently gained wide attention. However, the applications of HDACi are generally hindered by their poor physicochemical characteristics and unfavorable pharmacokinetic profile. Inspired by the approved nanomedicine-based drugs in the market, nanocarriers could provide a resort to circumvent the limitations imposed by HDACi. Enhanced tumor targeting, improved cellular uptake and reduced toxicity are major advantages offered by HDACi-loaded nanoparticles. More importantly, site-specific drug delivery can be achieved via engineered stimuli-responsive nanosystems. In this review we elucidate the anticancer mechanisms of HDACi and their structure-activity relationships, with a special focus on their nanomedicine-based delivery, different drug loading concepts and their implications.

Skin Care Formulations and Lipid Carriers as Skin Moisturizing Agents

Skin care formulations have evolved as the interaction of health and beauty products for the skin. Their benefits are based on the combination of cosmetic active ingredients and targeted application. Cosmetic actives have been used in novel formulations for decades (sunscreens, anti-aging treatments, etc.), but the problems with their low solubility, low penetration, and physicochemical instability when applied to the skin have yet to be solved. One way to circumvent these shortcomings is to use lipid carriers, which are known to play an important role in the solubility of poorly soluble compounds by facilitating skin permeation and improving stability. This review addresses recent advances in skin care products that use novel nanotechnology-based lipid systems (liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, etc.) to deliver moisturizing cosmetic actives and improve product efficacy.

Astaxanthin Delivery Systems for Skin Application: A Review

Astaxanthin (AST) is a biomolecule known for its powerful antioxidant effect, which is considered of great importance in biochemical research and has great potential for application in cosmetics, as well as food products that are beneficial to human health and medicines. Unfortunately, its poor solubility in water, chemical instability, and low oral bioavailability make its applications in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical field a major challenge for the development of new products. To favor the search for alternatives to enhance and make possible the use of AST in formulations, this article aimed to review the scientific data on its application in delivery systems. The search was made in databases without time restriction, using keywords such as astaxanthin, delivery systems, skin, cosmetic, topical, and dermal. All delivery systems found, such as liposomes, particulate systems, inclusion complexes, emulsions, and films, presented peculiar advantages able to enhance AST properties, among which are stability, antioxidant potential, biological activities, and drug release. This survey showed that further studies are needed for the industrial development of new AST-containing cosmetics and topical formulations.

Nanosystems in Cosmetic Products: A Brief Overview of Functional, Market, Regulatory and Safety Concerns

Nanosystems exhibit various innovative physico-chemical properties as well as a range of cosmetic functions, including increased skin retention for loaded compounds. The worldwide nano-market has therefore been consistently extensive in recent decades. This review summarizes the most important properties of nanosystems that are employed in cosmetics, including composition, functions and interactions with skin, with particular attention being paid to marketed products. Moreover, the worldwide regulatory landscape of nanomaterials used as cosmetic ingredients is considered, and the main safety concerns are indicated. In general, advanced physico-chemical characterization is preliminarily needed to assess the safety of nanomaterials for human health and the environment. However, there is currently a shortfall in global legislation as a universally accepted and unambiguous definition of a nanomaterial is still lacking. Therefore, each country follows its own regulations. Anyhow, the main safety concerns arise from the European context, which is the most restrictive. Accordingly, the poor dermal permeation of nanomaterials generally limits their potential toxic effects, which should be mainly ascribed to unwanted or accidental exposure routes.

Lipid nanostructures for targeting brain cancer

Advancements in both material science and bionanotechnology are transforming the health care sector. To this end, nanoparticles are increasingly used to improve diagnosis, monitoring, and therapy. Huge research is being carried out to improve the design, efficiency, and performance of these nanoparticles. Nanoparticles are also considered as a major area of research and development to meet the essential requirements for use in nanomedicine where safety, compatibility, biodegradability, biodistribution, stability, and effectiveness are requirements towards the desired application. In this regard, lipids have been used in pharmaceuticals and medical formulations for a long time. The present work focuses on the use of lipid nanostructures to combat brain tumors. In addition, this review summarizes the literature pertaining to solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carriers (LNC), methods of preparation and characterization, developments achieved to overcome blood brain barrier (BBB), and modifications used to increase their effectiveness.

Formulation of Chitosan-Coated Piperine NLCs: Optimization, In Vitro Characterization, and In Vivo Preclinical Assessment

In the present research work, surface-modified nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) with chitosan (CH) were prepared to improve the therapeutic efficacy of piperine (PP). NLCs were developed and optimized (CH-PP-NLCs-opt) by design expert software and the selected NLCs surface was coated with chitosan (0.2% w/v). CH-PP-NLCs-opt have shown a particle size of 149.34 ± 4.54 nm and entrapment efficiency of 80.65 ± 1.23%. The results of the solid-state characterization study exhibited that PP enclosed in lipids and present amorphous form. It might be due to the nanoparticle size of NLCs. The drug release study revealed PP-NLCs-opt and CH-PP-NLCs-opt exhibited significant (P < 0.05) difference in PP release (88.87 ± 5.23% and 76.34 ± 4.54%) as compared to pure PP (19.02 ± 2.87%). CH-PP-NLCs-opt exhibited strong bioadhesion than PP-NLCs-opt which has a positive influence the drug permeation and absorption. CH-PP-NLCs-opt showed higher permeation (1083.34 ± 34.15 μg/ cm2) than pure PP (106.65 ± 15.44 μg/cm²) and PP-NLCs-opt (732.45 ± 28.56 μg/ cm²). The significantly enhanced bioavailability of PP was observed from CH-PP-NLCs-opt (3.76- and 1.21-fold) than PP-dispersion and PP-NLCs-opt. The diabetes was induced in rats by a single intraperitoneal administration of streptozotocin (STZ, 40 mg/kg, citrate buffer pH 4.5), and results revealed that PP-NLCs-opt and CH-PP-NLCs-opt reduce the blood glucose level (28.26% and 36.52% respectively) as compared to PP-dispersion (10.87%). It also helps to maintain the altered biochemical parameters. In conclusion, CH-PP-NLC can be a novel oral nanocarrier for the management of diabetes.

Transdermal Delivery of Macromolecules Using Nano Lipid Carriers

Skin being the largest external organ, offers an appealing procedure for transdermal drug delivery, so the drug needs to reach above the outermost layer of the skin, i.e., stratum corneum. Small molecular drug entities obeying the Lipinski rule, i.e., drugs having a molecular weight less than 500 Da, high lipophilicity, and optimum polarity, are favored enough to be used on the skin as therapeutics. Skin's barrier properties prevent the transport of macromolecules at pre-determined therapeutic rates. Notable advancements in macromolecules' transdermal delivery have occurred in recent years. Scientists have opted for liposomes, the use of electroporation, low-frequency ultrasound techniques, etc. Some of these have shown better delivery of macromolecules at clinically beneficial rates. These physical technologies involve complex mechanisms, which may irreversibly incur skin damage. Majorly, two types of lipid-based formulations, including Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs), are widely investigated as transdermal delivery systems. In this review, the concepts, mechanisms, and applications of nanostructured lipid carriers used to transport macromolecules via transdermal routes are thoroughly reviewed and presented along with their clinical perspective.

Essential Oil-Loaded NLC for Potential Intranasal Administration

Complementary and alternative medicines represent an interesting field of research on which worldwide academics are focusing many efforts. In particular, the possibility to exploit pharmaceutical technology strategies, such as the nanoencapsulation, for the delivery of essential oils is emerging as a promising strategy not only in Italy but also all over the world. The aim of this work was the development of nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) for the delivery of essential oils (Lavandula, Mentha, and Rosmarinus) by intranasal administration, an interesting topic in which Italian contributions have recently increased. Essential oil-loaded NLC, projected as a possible add-on strategy in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, were characterized in comparison to control formulations prepared with Tegosoft CT and Neem oil. Homogeneous (polydispersity index, PDI < 0.2) nanoparticles with a small size (<200 nm) and good stability were obtained. Morphological and physical-chemical studies showed the formation of different structures depending on the nature of the liquid oil component. In particular, NLC prepared with Lavandula or Rosmarinus showed the formation of a more ordered structure with higher cytocompatibility on two cell lines, murine and human fibroblasts. Taken together, our preliminary results show that optimized positively charged NLC containing Lavandula or Rosmarinus can be proposed as a potential add-on strategy in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases through intranasal administration, due to the well-known beneficial effects of essential oils and the mucoadhesive properties of NLC.

Advanced Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery Systems and Their Cellular Evaluation for Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Treatment

Lung cancers, the number one cancer killer, can be broadly divided into small cell lung cancer (SCLC) and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), with NSCLC being the most commonly diagnosed type. Anticancer agents for NSCLC suffer from various limitations that can be partly overcome by the application of nanomedicines. Nanoparticles is a branch within nanomedicine that can improve the delivery of anticancer drugs, whilst ensuring the stability and sufficient bioavailability following administration. There are many publications available in the literature exploring different types of nanoparticles from different materials. The effectiveness of a treatment option needs to be validated in suitable in vitro and/or in vivo models. This includes the developed nanoparticles, to prove their safety and efficacy. Many researchers have turned towards in vitro models that use normal cells or specific cells from diseased tissues. However, in cellular works, the physiological dynamics that is available in the body could not be mimicked entirely, and hence, there is still possible development of false positive or false negative results from the in vitro models. This article provides an overview of NSCLC, the different nanoparticles available to date, and in vitro evaluation of the nanoparticles. Different types of cells suitable for in vitro study and the important precautions to limit the development of false results are also extensively discussed.

Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Evaluation of the Effect of Nano-Formulated Spironolactone and Progesterone on Inflammation and Hormonal Levels for Managing Hirsutism Experimentally Induced in Rats

Hirsutism is a dermatological condition that refers to the excessive growth of hair in androgen-sensitive areas in women. Recently, the enhancement of the visible signs of a hairy female has taken special concern that affected the quality of life. The present study was developed to compare the follicular targeting effect of topical spironolactone (SP) or progesterone (PG)-loaded nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) on the management of hirsutism. Four NLC formulations were prepared using cold homogenization techniques and pharmaceutically evaluated. SP-NLC and PG-NLC topical hydrogels were prepared to explore their pharmacological effect on letrozole induced polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) in rats. Inflammatory mediators, antioxidant, and hormonal parameters were assayed. Additionally, histopathological examination was carried out to confirm the successful induction of PCOS. Results confirmed that all NLC formulations have a spherical shape with particle size ranged from 225.92 ± 0.41 to 447.80 ± 0.66 nm, entrapment efficiency > 75%, and zeta potential (- 31.4 to - 36.5 mV). F1 and F3 NLCs were considered as selected formulations for SP and PG, respectively. Female Wistar rats treated with F1 formulation for 3 weeks displayed better outcomes as manifested by the measured parameters as compared to the other tested groups. A significant reduction in hair follicle diameter and density was observed after topical application of SP or PG nano-gels. Finally, the outcomes pose a strong argument that the development of topically administered SP-NLC can be explored as a promising carrier over PG-NLC for more effectual improvement in the visible sign of hirsutism.

Assessment of a Novel Vitamin D3 Formulation with Nanostructured Lipid Carriers for Transdermal Delivery

OBJECTIVE

Develop and assess a transdermal emulsion loaded with nanostructured lipid carriers for vitamin D3 supplementation.

METHODS

Vitamin D3 loaded nanostructured lipid carriers, produced via high shear homogenization and ultrasonication, were assessed for their particle size, distribution, morphology, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, and cytotoxicity. They were incorporated into a transdermal vehicle, and the stability and ex vivo permeation were evaluated.

RESULTS

Spherical nanoparticles were developed with a particle size of 192.5 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.13, a zeta potential of -29.0 mV, and an entrapment efficiency of 99.75%. They were stable (particle size and distribution) for 15 days when stored in a refrigerator and for 30 days at room temperature and 32 °C. The nanoparticles decreased the drug cytotoxicity against fibroblasts, as shown by IC50 (nanoparticle: 32.48 μg mL-1; vitamin D3: 16.73 μg mL-1). The emulsion loaded with nanoparticles minimized the degradation of vitamin D3 when compared with the nanoparticle dispersion. Additionally, the emulsion provided the skin permeation of vitamin D3 following the recommended daily allowance.

CONCLUSION

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to use nanostructured lipid carriers for transdermal delivery of vitamin D. The developed formulation is a promising strategy to overcome the vitamin D3 variable oral bioavailability. It also represents a comfortable route of administrationd. Thus it could be beneficial for patients and clinicians. However, further studies are needed to allow the permeation of larger amounts of vitamin D3, and the combination of these nanoparticles with microneedles would be interesting.

Light-Activated Biomedical Applications of Chlorophyll Derivatives

Tetrapyrroles are the basis of essential physiological functions in most living organisms. These compounds represent the basic scaffold of porphyrins, chlorophylls, and bacteriochlorophylls, among others. Chlorophyll derivatives, obtained by the natural or artificial degradation of chlorophylls, present unique properties, holding great potential in the scientific and medical fields. Indeed, they can act as cancer-preventing agents, antimutagens, apoptosis inducers, efficient antioxidants, as well as antimicrobial and immunomodulatory molecules. Moreover, thanks to their peculiar optical properties, they can be exploited as photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy and as vision enhancers. Most of these molecules, however, are highly hydrophobic and poorly soluble in biological fluids, and may display undesired toxicity due to accumulation in healthy tissues. The advent of nanomedicine has prompted the development of nanoparticles acting as carriers for chlorophyll derivatives, facilitating their targeted administration with demonstrated applicability in diagnosis and therapy. In this review, the chemical and physical properties of chlorophyll derivatives that justify their usage in the biomedical field, with particular regard to light-activated dynamics are described. Their role as antioxidants and photoactive agents are discussed, introducing the most recent nanomedical applications and focusing on inorganic and organic nanocarriers exploited in vitro and in vivo.

Development, characterization, molecular docking, and in vivo skin penetration of coenzyme Q10 nanostructured lipid carriers using tristearin and stearyl alcohol for dermal delivery

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to develop coenzyme Q10 nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) using tristearin and stearyl alcohol as well as isopropyl palmitate (IPP) as solid and liquid lipid respectively for the dermal delivery system.

METHODS

The coenzyme Q10 NLCs were optimized using tristearin, and stearyl alcohol in different concentrations and further characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS) for particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray diffractometry for crystallinity behavior, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) for drug-lipid interaction, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) for particle shape, viscometer for viscosity, and pH meter for pH value. Furthermore, entrapment efficiency (EE), drug loading (DL), and skin penetration in vivo were also evaluated while molecular docking was conducted to examine the interaction between coenzyme Q10 and the lipids.

RESULTS

The coenzyme Q10 NLCs with tristearin-IPP and stearyl alcohol-IPP as lipid matrix had <1,000 nm particle size, <0.3 PDI, less negative than -30 mV zeta potential, about 41% crystallinity index, and about six as the pH value. Moreover, the EE, DL, viscosity, and in vivo skin penetration of the NLCs using tristearin were higher compared to stearyl alcohol, however, the skin penetration depths for both NLCs were not significantly different. Furthermore, the in silico binding energy of coenzyme Q10-tristearin was lower compared to coenzyme Q10-stearyl alcohol. Both of them showed hydrophobic and van der Waals interaction.

CONCLUSIONS

The NLCs of coenzyme Q10 were formulated successfully using tristearin-IPP and stearyl alcohol-IPP for dermal delivery.

A Recent Update on Drug Delivery Systems for Pain Management

Pain remains a global health challenge affecting approximately 1.5 billion people worldwide. Pain has been an implicit variable in the equation of human life for many centuries considering different types and the magnitude of pain. Therefore, developing an efficacious drug delivery system for pain management remains an open challenge for researchers in the field of medicine. Lack of therapeutic efficacy still persists, despite high throughput studies in the field of pain management. Research scientists have been exploiting different alternatives to curb the adverse side effects of pain medications or attempting a more substantial approach to minimize the prevalence of pain. Various drug delivery systems have been developed such as nanoparticles, microparticles to curb adverse side effects of pain medications or minimize the prevalence of pain. This literature review firstly provides a brief introduction of pain as a sensation and its pharmacological interventions. Second, it highlights the most recent studies in the pharmaceutical field for pain management and serves as a strong base for future developments. Herein, we have classified drug delivery systems based on their sizes such as nano, micro, and macro systems, and for each of the reviewed systems, design, formulation strategies, and drug release performance has been discussed.

Innovative Delivery Systems Loaded with Plant Bioactive Ingredients: Formulation Approaches and Applications

Plants constitute a rich source of diverse classes of valuable phytochemicals (e.g., phenolic acids, flavonoids, carotenoids, alkaloids) with proven biological activity (e.g., antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, etc.). However, factors such as low stability, poor solubility and bioavailability limit their food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical applications. In this regard, a wide range of delivery systems have been developed to increase the stability of plant-derived bioactive compounds upon processing, storage or under gastrointestinal digestion conditions, to enhance their solubility, to mask undesirable flavors as well as to efficiently deliver them to the target tissues where they can exert their biological activity and promote human health. In the present review, the latest advances regarding the design of innovative delivery systems for pure plant bioactive compounds, extracts or essential oils, in order to overcome the above-mentioned challenges, are presented. Moreover, a broad spectrum of applications along with future trends are critically discussed.

Design, Preparation, and Characterization of Effective Dermal and Transdermal Lipid Nanoparticles: A Review

Limited permeability through the stratum corneum (SC) is a major obstacle for numerous skin care products. One promising approach is to use lipid nanoparticles as they not only facilitate penetration across skin but also avoid the drawbacks of conventional skin formulations. This review focuses on solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nanostructured lipid nanocarriers (NLCs), and nanoemulsions (NEs) developed for topical and transdermal delivery of active compounds. A special emphasis in this review is placed on composition, preparation, modifications, structure and characterization, mechanism of penetration, and recent application of these nanoparticles. The presented data demonstrate the potential of these nanoparticles for dermal and transdermal delivery.

Lipidic Matrixes Containing Clove Essential Oil: Biological Activity, Microstructural and Textural Studies

Clove essential oil (CEO) is known for having excellent antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, but the poor stability of its components to light and temperature compromise this activity. The aim of this study is to evaluate the textural, antioxidant, antimicrobial and microstructural properties of matrixes produced with representative natural waxes and CEO. Thus, waxy emulsifiers, such as beeswax, candelilla wax, carnauba wax, and ozokerite wax, were employed to create such matrixes. The thermal, microstructural, textural, wetting, antioxidant, antimicrobial and infrared characteristics of the matrixes were then studied. The diverse chemical composition (long-chain wax esters in carnauba wax and short-chain fatty acids and hydrocarbons in beeswax and ozokerite wax, respectively) explained the differences in wetting, texture, melting, and crystallization characteristics. Crystal forms of these matrix systems varied from grainy, oval, to needle-like shape, but keeping an orthorhombic allomorph. The alignment and reorganization of beeswax and ozokerite wax into needle-like crystals increased the matrix strength and adhesion force compared to those of carnauba and candelilla matrixes, which showed weak strength and grainy morphology. The former two waxes and their matrixes also showed the largest plasticity. These lipidic matrixes show potential use for topical applications having acceptable antioxidant and textural properties.

Systematic Characterization of Nanostructured Lipid Carriers from Cetyl Palmitate/Caprylic Triglyceride/Tween 80 Mixtures in an Aqueous Environment

Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) are gaining attention as the new generation of lipid vehicles. These carriers consist of saturated lipids with small drops of liquid oil dispersed into the inner lipid matrix and are stabilized by a surfactant. Conventionally, NLC-based drug delivery systems have been widely studied, and many researchers are looking into the composition of NLC properties to improve the performance of NLCs. The membrane fluidity and polarity of self-assembling lipids are also essential properties that must be affected by membrane compositions; however, such fundamental characteristics have not been studied yet. In this study, NLCs were prepared from cetyl palmitate (CP), caprylic triglyceride (CaTG), and Tween 80 (T80). Structural properties, such as particle size and ζ-potential of the CP/CaTG/T80 ternary mixtures, were investigated. Then, the systematic characterization of self-assembly properties using fluorescence-based analysis was applied for the first time to the NLC system. As a final step, the ternary diagram was developed based on the self-assembly properties to summarize the possible structures formed at different compositions. The results showed four states: micelle-like, oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion-like, solid lipid nanoparticle-like, and intermediate (solid-liquid coexistence). For the purpose of making the lipid matrix more liquified, the heterogeneous state and the disordered state of the O/W emulsion-like structure might fulfill the criteria of NLCs. Finally, the ternary diagram provides new information about the assembly state of NLC constituents that could become an important reference for developing high-performance NLCs.

Dense nanolipid fluid dispersions comprising ibuprofen: Single step extrusion process and drug properties

Dense nanolipid fluid (DNLF) dispersions are highly concentrated aqueous dispersions of lipid nanocarriers (LNCs) with more than 10¹⁵ lipid particles per cubic centimeter. Descriptions of dense nanolipid fluid dispersions in the scientific literature are rare, and they have not been used to encapsulate drugs. In this paper we describe the synthesis of DNLF dispersions comprising ibuprofen using a recently described twin-screw extrusion process. We report that such dispersions are stable, bind ibuprofen tightly and yet provide high transdermal drug permeation. Ibuprofen DNLF dispersions prepared according to the present study provide up to five times greater flux of the pharmacologically active S-ibuprofen isomer through human skin than a commercially available racemic ibuprofen emulsion product. We demonstrate scaling up the twin-screw extrusion method to pilot production for a stable, highly permeating ibuprofen DNLF composition based on excipients approved by the US FDA for use in topical products as a key step towards development of a commercially viable, FDA approvable topical ibuprofen medicine to treat osteoarthritis, which has never before been accomplished.

Fabrication of Mupirocin-Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carrier and Its In Vitro Characterization

In the present study, mupirocin (MP), an antimicrobial agent, was formulated as a nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) by using a novel method named as melt emulsion ultrafiltration method. For the formulation of NLC, glyceryl monostearate and watermelon seed oil were used as solid and liquid lipids, respectively. The method was optimized for various parameters by Taguchi design of experiment and prepared NLCs were characterized for particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), shape, zeta potential, % drug loading, and in vitro release profile. The optimized NLCs were found to be smooth, monodisperse with PDI 0.229 ± 0.093. NLCs were found to have an average particle size of 139 ± 0.75 nm and +21.9 ± 0.98 mV as zeta potential. The % drug loading of optimized NLCs was found to be 59% ± 0.13%. The optimized NLCs were able to release the drug up to 24 h. The release kinetic study revealed mixed-order kinetics. Hence, it was concluded that the novel method is simple and able to fabricate MP-loaded NLCs with sustained release property and being stable in terms of particle size, PDI, and % drug loading.

The Evaluation of Drug Delivery Nanocarrier Development and Pharmacological Briefing for Metabolic-Associated Fatty Liver Disease (MAFLD): An Update

Current research indicates that the next silent epidemic will be linked to chronic liver diseases, specifically non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), which was renamed as metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) in 2020. Globally, MAFLD mortality is on the rise. The etiology of MAFLD is multifactorial and still incompletely understood, but includes the accumulation of intrahepatic lipids, alterations in energy metabolism, insulin resistance, and inflammatory processes. The available MAFLD treatment, therefore, relies on improving the patient's lifestyle and multidisciplinary pharmacotherapeutic options, whereas the option of surgery is useless without managing the comorbidities of the MAFLD. Nanotechnology is an emerging approach addressing MAFLD, where nanoformulations are suggested to improve the safety and physicochemical properties of conventional drugs/herbal medicines, physical, chemical, and physiological stability, and liver-targeting properties. A wide variety of liver nanosystems were constructed and delivered to the liver, only those that addressed the MAFLD were discussed in this review in terms of the nanocarrier classes, particle size, shape, zeta potential and offered dissolution rate(s), the suitable preparation method(s), excipients (with synergistic effects), and the suitable drug/compound for loading. The advantages and challenges of each nanocarrier and the focus on potential promising perspectives in the production of MAFLD nanomedicine were also highlighted.

Biomaterials in the treatment of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disease, the treatment of which is mainly centred around supplementation of dopamine. Additional targets have been identified and newer chemotherapeutic agents have been introduced but their clinical efficacy is limited due to solubility, bioavailability issues and inability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). A wide range of biomaterials ranging from biomolecules, polymers, inorganic metal and metal oxide nanoparticles have been employed to assist the delivery of these therapeutic agents into the brain. Additionally, strategies to deliver cells to restore the dopaminergic neurons also have shown promise due to the integration of biocompatible materials that aid neurogenesis through a combination of topographical, chemical and mechanical cues. Neuroprosthetics is an area that may become significant in treatment of motor deficits associated with Parkinson's disease, and involves development of highly conductive and robust electrode materials with excellent cytocompatibility. This review summarizes the major role played by biomaterials in design of novel strategies and in the improvement of existing therapeutic methods as well as the emerging trends in this domain.

Comprehensive Study of Atorvastatin Nanostructured Lipid Carriers through Multivariate Conceptualization and Optimization

The aim of the current study is to establish a comprehensive experimental design for the screening and optimization of Atorvastatin-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (AT-NLCs). Initially, combined D-optimal screening design was applied to find the most significant factors affecting AT-NLCs properties. The studied variables included mixtures of solid and liquid lipids, the solid/liquid lipid ratio, surfactant type and concentration, homogenization speed as well as sonication time. Then, the variables homogenization speed (A), the ratio of solid lipid/liquid lipid (B), and concentration of the surfactant (C) were optimized using a central composite design. Particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency were chosen as dependent responses. The optimized AT-NLCs demonstrated a nanometric size (83.80 ± 1.13 nm), Polydispersity Index (0.38 ± 0.02), surface charge (-29.65 ± 0.65 mV), and high drug incorporation (93.1 ± 0.04%). Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis showed no chemical interaction between Atorvastatin and the lipid mixture. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) analysis of the AT-NLCs suggested the transformation of Atorvastatin crystal into an amorphous state. Administration of the optimized AT-NLCs led to a significant reduction (p < 0.001) in serum levels of rats' total cholesterol, triglycerides, and low-density lipoproteins. This change was histologically validated by reducing the relevant steatosis of the liver.

Nanostructured Lipid Carriers Engineered as Topical Delivery of Etodolac: Optimization and Cytotoxicity Studies

Etodolac (ETD), a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, exhibits antinflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic activity. The main type of ETD administration is oral route, which is associated with significant systemic side effects. Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), a modern lipid formulation, are non-toxic, biocompatible, can improve the solubility and stability of drugs. Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) containing etodolac were prepared by a melt-emulsification and ultrasonication technique. Full factorial design (FFD) was applied to optimize the composition of NLC and their properties such as zeta potential, polidyspersity index, and entrapment efficiency. Formulations consisting of Capryol 90, glicerol monostearate, and Tween 20 displayed particle size below 300 nm, encapsulated drug with efficiency of approximately 87% and prolonged drug release up to 24 h. Stable formulations displayed moderately negative surface charge suggesting their limited ability to interact with skin surface but simultaneously presenting their lower risk to cause cell-membrane disruption. In fact, cytotoxicity assessment using human dermal fibroblasts and human epidermal keratinocytes revealed that etodolac-loaded NLC had no important impact on skin cells viability evaluated in vitro, which might evidence that NLC formulations are safe for dermal delivery. The studies developed were relatively fast and simple, requiring no specialized equipment method to prepare NLC as ETD carriers ensuring better solubility and prolonged drug release.

Investigating natural antibiofilm components: a new therapeutic perspective against candidal vulvovaginitis

The rampant emergence of Candida albicans in the vagina and its ability to thrive as a biofilm has outstood the prevalence of candidal vulvovaginitis (CVV), a gender-based fungal infection approximately affecting 75% of the global female population. The biofilm represents a multidimensional microbial population, which often dictates prominent caveats of CVV such as increased fungal virulence, drug resistance and infection relapse/recurrence. Additionally, the conjugated issues of the ineffectiveness of conventional antifungals (azoles), prolonged treatment durations, compromised patient compliance, economic and social burden, exacerbates CVV complications as well. Henceforth, the current hypothesis narrates an investigational proposal for exploration and combination of naturally derived antibiofilm components with luliconazole (imidazole antifungal agent) as a new therapeutic paradigm against CVV. The purported hypothesis unravels a synergistic approach for fabricating Nanostructured Lipid Carriers, NLCs loaded transvaginal gel with dual APIs of natural (antibiofilm) as well as the synthetic (antifungal) origin to target high therapeutic efficacy, delivery, retention, controlled release and bioadhesion in a vaginal milieu. The multipronged effect of antibiofilm and antifungal agents will expectably enhance drug susceptibility thus, maintaining Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) against cells of C. albicans and targeting its biofilm in planktonic, adherent, and sessile phases. The effective disruption of a biofilm could further lower infection resistance and recurrence as well. In conclusion, the purported hypothesis could speed up the emergence of novel drug combinations and accelerates new product development with solid, synergistic, and complementary activities against C. albicans and its biofilm, making it amenable for generating pre-clinical and clinical results therebycreating a suitableroadmap for commercialization.

Emerging Nanomedicines for the Treatment of Atopic Dermatitis

Globally, the prevalence of Atopic dermatitis (AD) is significantly increasing and affecting around 20% of population including children. Complex interactions amongst abnormality in epidermal barrier function, environment, infectious agents and immunological defects are considered as key factors in the pathogenesis of AD. Although the role of oxidative stress has been studied in some skin diseases, investigation of the same in AD is intermittent. Calcineurin inhibitors and/or topical corticosteroids are currently available; however, it causes atrophy of the skin, burning sensation, and systemic side effects which leads to poor patient compliance. These limitations provoke the strong need to develop an innovative approach in managing AD. Nanomaterials for effective drug delivery to skin conditions such as AD have attracted a lot of attention owing to its ability to encapsulate, protect, and release the cargo at the diseased skin site. However, there are lots of unmet challenges especially in terms of development of non-toxic formulations and clinical translation of established nanomedicines in the form of accessible products. Numerous formulations have emerged as carrier for poorly soluble and permeable drugs, viz., lipidic, polymeric, metal, silica, liposomes, hydrocarbon gels and this field is evolving. This review is intended to provide an insight incidences associated with pathophysiology of AD and challenges with existing treatments of AD. Focus is kept on reviewing current development and emerging nanomedicines for effective treatment of AD. The review also inculcates merits of several nanomedicines in overcoming challenges of existing products and its future implications.

Nanostructured Lipid Carrier-Mediated Transdermal Delivery of Aceclofenac Hydrogel Present an Effective Therapeutic Approach for Inflammatory Diseases

Aceclofenac (ACE), a cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, is the derivative of the diclofenac group that has been in use for the symptomatic treatment of systemic inflammatory autoimmune disease, rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Partial solubility, high lipophilic nature, and stability challenge its use in developing topical formulations. Hence, we developed and characterized nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC)-based ACE (ACE-NLC) hydrogel for an efficient transdermal delivery. NLC microemulsion was prepared using different lipids by various methods and was characterized with respect to particle size, zeta potential, surface morphology, and drug encapsulation efficiency. The optimized NLC formulation was incorporated into Carbopol^® 940 gel, and this arrangement was characterized and compared with the existing marketed gel (Mkt-gel) formulation to assess in vitro drug release, rheology, texture profile, in vivo skin retention and permeation, and stability. Furthermore, prepared and characterized ACE-loaded NLC formulation was evaluated for skin integrity and fitted in a dermatokinetic model. The results of this study confirmed the spherical shape; smooth morphology and nanometric size attested by Zetasizer and scanning and transmission electron microcopy; and stability of the ACE-NLC formulation. The ACE-NLC-gel formulation showed good rheological and texture characteristics, and better skin distribution in the epidermis and dermis. Moreover, ACE-NLC permeated deeper in the skin layers and kept the skin integrity intact. Overall, NLC-based gel formulation of ACE might be a promising nanoscale lipid carrier for topical application when compared with the conventional Mkt-gel formulation.

A New 3D Cultured Liver Chip and Real-Time Monitoring System Based on Microfluidic Technology

In vitro models of the liver have a good simulation of the micro-liquid environment inside the human liver and the communication between cell tissues, which provides an important research tool for drug research and liver disease treatment. In this paper, we designed a 3D liver chip and real-time monitoring system based on microfluidic technology. The in vitro model of the liver on the chip was established by the three-dimensional microfluidic chip pipeline and the corresponding microwell array. Meanwhile, the culture medium is continuously injected on the chip, and the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and near-infrared spectroscopy of the liver chip are recorded and analyzed from day one to day five. When the 3D cultured liver chip in vitro model reached a certain period and stabilized, paracetamol with varying gradients of concentration was applied to the cultured cells for drug resistance testing. The experimental results show that the liver chip and its monitoring system designed in this paper can maintain 100% cell viability of hepatocytes in vitro for a long time. Furthermore, it can meet the requirements of measurement technologies such as electrical impedance measurement and near-infrared spectroscopy in real-time, providing a stable culture platform for the further study of organ chips.