Identification and nomenclature of the genus Penicillium

First report of green mold disease caused by Penicillium citrinum on Dictyophora rubrovalvata in China

Dictyophora rubrovolvata is a saprophytic mushroom widely cultivated in China, including Guizhou Province for its high nutritional, medicinal, and economical values (Chen et al. 2021). In May 2021, green mold disease was observed on the fruiting bodies of D. rubrovolvata, causing its death or preventing it from forming a sporocarp, in an indoor-production facility at Asuo village, Baiyun District Guiyang city, Guizhou Province, China (26°73'51" N, 106°72'88" E). The disease incidence was 60%-70% in the affected 1.33-ha growing area, causing a serious economic loss. To identify the causal agent, a total of 15 samples with symptomatic symptoms were collected. Small pieces (5 mm × 5 mm) were cut from the diseased tissues, surface sterilized in 0.4% NaClO for 5 min, washed three times with sterilized water, placed on potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium, and incubated at 24 °C for 7 days. Twenty-one pure cultures were obtained by single-spore isolation method. The colonies were initially white but after seven days as conidia developed they turned green. Hyphae were hyaline and guttulate. Conidiophores were verrucose stipes, triverticulate, and phialides flask shaped. Conidia were smooth and pale green, with subglobose to globose shape measuring 2.0-2.5 × 1.8-2.5 µm (n=50). Based on these morphological characteristics, the isolates matched the description of the genus Penicillium (Visagie et al. 2014). To confirm the identity, DNA of five representative isolates (QS001, QS005, QS008, QS015, QS017) was extracted according to the manufacturer's instructions (Biomiga Fungal DNA Extraction Kit; CA, USA). Afterwards, PCR was performed to amplify ITS region, calmodulin and β-tubulin genes using primer pairs ITS1/ITS4 (White et al. 1990), CMD5/CMD6 (Glass et al. 1995), and Bt2a/Bt2b (Hong et al. 2006), respectively. BLASTN analysis of these sequences showed the best matches with Penicillium citrinum CBS 139.45 (ITS region: 98.60% (493/500 bp) identity to accession MH856132.1; CMD: 99.79% (469/470 bp) identity to accession MN969245.1; β-tubulin:100% (407/407 bp) identity to accession GU944545.1). Representative sequences of the sequenced DNA regions were deposited in GenBank (ITS region: OK446552; CMD: OK492612; β-tubulin: OK482677). Furthermore, a phylogenetic tree was constructed with MEGA 7 based on the concatenated sequences. Koch's postulates were met to confirm the pathogenicity of the representative isolate (QS001) on D. rubrovolvata. Six discs (5mm×5mm) from actively growing P. citrinum QS001 colonies (5-day-old) were placed on six fruiting bodies of D. rubrovolvata (5-month-old). Mock inoculations were performed using PDA discs only without any fungus. The inoculation sites were wrapped with a sterilized 200-μm nylon mesh. All fruiting bodies were incubated at 23°C ± 2°C under a 0-h/24-h photoperiod and 80% relative humidity (RH) after inoculation. After 14 days, green mold was observed on all P. citrinum QS001 inoculated mushrooms. In contrast, no disease was observed in mock inoculated group. The disease assays were repeated three times. P. citrinum QS001 was isolated from all inoculated D. rubrovolvata and verified via the molecular analysis mentioned above. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report that P. citrinum causes green mold on D. rubrovalvata in China and further studies should focus on managing this disease to prevent any disease outbreaks.

Penicillium vietnamense sp. nov., the First Novel Marine Fungi Species Described from Vietnam with a Unique Conidiophore Structure and Molecular Phylogeny of Penicillium Section Charlesia

Penicillium vietnamense sp. nov. was isolated from Nha Trang Bay, Vietnam in June 2017. It is phylogenetically distinct from the sister species of Penicillium section Charlesia series Indica based on multi-locus sequence typing results using internal transcribed spacer, large subunit ribosomal RNA, β-tubulin, calmodulin, and RNA polymerase II second largest subunit regions. It showed strong growth on Czapek yeast autolysate agar at 37 °C, a strong acid production on Creatine sucrose agar, and produced short stipes, small vesicles, and subglobose to globose conidia delicately roughened with very short ridges. As the first novel marine fungi species described from Vietnam and discovered in a unique environment, the data could be significant for understanding the taxonomy and geographical distribution of marine fungi in tropical coastal systems such as Vietnam.

Production, Bioprocessing and Anti-Proliferative Activity of Camptothecin from Penicillium chrysogenum, "An Endozoic of Marine Sponge, Cliona sp.", as a Metabolically Stable Camptothecin Producing Isolate

Exploring the metabolic potency of fungi as camptothecin producers raises the hope of their usage as an industrial source of camptothecin, due to their short-life span and the feasibility of metabolic engineering. However, the tiny yield and loss of camptothecin productivity of fungi during storage and sub-culturing are challenges that counteract this approach. Marine fungi could be a novel source for camptothecin production, with higher yield and reliable metabolic sustainability. The marine fungal isolate Penicillium chrysogenum EFBL # OL597937.1 derived from the sponge "Cliona sp." has been morphologically identified and molecularly confirmed, based on the Internal Transcribed Spacer sequence, exhibiting the highest yield of camptothecin (110 μg/L). The molecular structure and chemical identity of P. chrysogenum derived camptothecin has been resolved by HPLC, FTIR and LC-MS/MS analyses, giving the same spectroscopic profiles and mass fragmentation patterns as authentic camptothecin. The extracted camptothecin displayed a strong anti-proliferative activity towards HEP-2 and HCT-116 (IC₅₀ values 0.33-0.35 µM). The yield of camptothecin was maximized by nutritional optimization of P. chrysogenum with a Plackett-Burman design, and the productivity of camptothecin increased by 1.8 fold (200 µg/L), compared to control fungal cultures. Upon storage at 4 °C as slope culture for 8 months, the productivity of camptothecin for P. chrysogenum was reduced by 40% compared to the initial culture. Visual fading of the mycelial pigmentation of P. chrysogenum was observed during fungal storage, matched with loss of camptothecin productivity. Methylene chloride extracts of Cliona sp. had the potency to completely restore the camptothecin productivity of P. chrysogenum, ensuring the partial dependence of the expression of the camptothecin biosynthetic machinery of P. chrysogenum on the chemical signals derived from the sponge, or the associated microbial flora. This is the first report describing the feasibility of P. chrysogenum, endozoic of Cliona sp., for camptothecin production, along with reliable metabolic biosynthetic stability, which could be a new platform for scaling-up camptothecin production.

Three new Penicillium species isolated from the tidal flats of China

During a survey of culturable fungi in the coastal areas of China, three new species of Penicillium sect. Lanata-Divaricata were discovered and studied with a polyphasic taxonomic approach, and then named as P. donggangicum sp. nov. (ex-type AS3.15900^T = LN5H1-4), P. hepuense sp. nov. (ex-type AS3.16039^T = TT2-4X3, AS3.16040 = TT2-6X3) and P. jiaozhouwanicum sp. nov. (ex-type AS3.16038^T = 0801H2-2, AS3.16207 = ZZ2-9-3). In morphology, P. donggangicum is unique in showing light yellow sclerotia and mycelium, sparse sporulation, restricted growth at 37 °C, irregular conidiophores, intercalary phialides and metulae, and pyriform to subspherical conidia. P. hepuense is distinguished by the fast growth on CYA and YES and slow growth on MEA at 25 °C, weak or absence of growth at 37 °C, biverticillate and monoverticillate penicilli, and ellipsoidal conidia. P. jiaozhouwanicum is characterized by abundant grayish-green conidia en masse and moderate growth at 37 °C, the appressed biverticillate penicilli and fusiform, smooth-walled conidia. These three novelties were further confirmed by the phylogenetic analyses based on either the combined BenA-CaM-Rpb2 or the individual BenA, CaM, Rpb2 and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences.

Ecofriendly Synthesis of Biosynthesized Copper Nanoparticles with Starch-Based Nanocomposite: Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, and Anticancer Activities

In recent years, polysaccharides-based nanocomposites have been used for biomedical applications. In the current study, a nanocomposite based on myco-synthesized copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) and starch was prepared. The prepared nanocomposite was fully characterized using UV-visible spectroscopy (UV-vis), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), mapping, transmission electron microscope (TEM), and dynamic light scattering (DLS). Results revealed that this nanocomposite is characterized by nano spherical shape ranged around 200 nm as well as doped with CuNPs with size about 9 nm. Antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer activities of the prepared nanocomposite were evaluated. Results revealed that CuNPs-based nanocomposite exhibited outstanding antibacterial and antifungal activity toward Escherichia coli ATCC25922, Bacillus subtilis ATCC605, Candida albicans ATCC90028, Cryptococcus neoformance ATCC 14,116, Aspergillus niger RCMB 02,724, A. terreus RCMB 02,574, and A. fumigatus RCMB 02,568. Moreover, CuNPs-based nanocomposite has a strong antioxidant activity as compared to ascorbic acid, where IC₅₀ was 18 µg/mL. Cytotoxicity test of CuNPs-based nanocomposite revealed that this nanocomposite is safe in use, where IC₅₀ was 185.1 µg/mL. Furthermore, CuNPs-based nanocomposite exhibited potential anticancer activity against MCF7 cancerous cell line where IC₅₀ was 62.8 µg/mL which was better than CuNPs alone. In conclusion, the prepared CuNPs with starch-based nanocomposite is promising for different biomedical applications as antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer activities.

How do Time, Tannin, and Moisture Content Influence Toxicogenic Fungal Populations during the Storage of Sorghum Grains?

ABSTRACT

Cereal grains are usually ensiled to improve their nutritional value and are one of the main sources of feed for dairy cattle. However, during storage, grains can be contaminated with toxicogenic fungi. Sorghum is one of the most economically important cereals in the world. Therefore, the aim of this work was to evaluate the influence of storage duration and tannin and moisture content (MC) on toxicogenic fungal populations in sorghum grain storage. Samples that were prepared with varieties high in tannins (genotypes Morgan 108 and ACA 558, >5 g/kg dry matter) and with varieties low in tannin content (genotypes Flash 10 and ACA 546, <1 g/kg dry matter) were collected and manually compacted in experimental laboratory silos where they received different MC treatments: low (15 to 25%), medium (26 to 32%), and high (33 to 42%). Freshly harvested grains were analyzed at time 0, and stored grains were analyzed at 30, 90, and 180 days. Fungal isolation and identification were performed following conventional mycological methods. Penicillium citrinum (34%), Aspergillus flavus (60%), and Fusarium nygamai (68%) were the most abundant species. Rapid detection of aflatoxins and fumonisins in each sample was performed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay according to the AOAC method, and the quantification of aflatoxin B1 was performed using high-performance liquid chromatography. In four samples of pre- and poststorage grains, aflatoxins were detected with levels of 6.7 to 28.8 μg/kg and aflatoxin B1 with a level of 2 to 14 μg/kg. Fumonisins were only detected in two freshly harvested samples, with levels of 500 to 900 μg/kg. In general, storage time favored the increase of Penicillium populations and reduced Aspergillus and Fusarium. Conversely the abundance of the three populations was not affected by the MC. The results of this study show that fungal populations must be analyzed at different times.

HIGHLIGHTS

Potential of Halophilic Penicillium chrysogenum Isolated from Algerian Saline Soil to Produce Laccase on Olive Oil Wastes

Enzymes from halophilic fungi offer interesting biotechnological applications, which lead us to explore novel producing strains. 23 fungi were isolated from Algerian saline soil. Among the three strains presenting laccase activities, one exhibited the high decolourising capacity of olive mill wastewaters. Identification showed that the efficient isolate GS15 belongs to Penicillium chrysogenum. This strain achieves optimal growth at 15% NaCl, 25 °C, pH 5, dark, aerobic and static conditions. The selected fungus is capable of producing extracellular enzymes as follows: caseinase, tannase, esterase and lipase. The laccase activities produced by P. chrysogenum on raw olive wastes are being reported here for the first time. GS15 produced 183.0 and 203.0 U/L of laccase activities in 10% and 20% unsupplemented olive mill wastewaters, respectively. The significant enzymatic activities can be correlated to the high ability of GS15 to decolourise industrial wastewater from the olive oil extraction. In these conditions no pre-treatment of olive wastewaters was needed. On the untreated grinded and non-grinded olive pomace, the laccase activity was 5.78 U/g and 5.36 U/g, respectively. Because the halophilic fungus has basic requirement for growth, this fungal strain is promising for saline biotechnological applications.

Postharvest Rot of Pomegranate Fruit in Southern Italy: Characterization of the Main Pathogens

Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is an emerging crop in Italy and particularly in southern regions, such as Apulia, Basilicata, and Sicily, due to favorable climatic conditions. The crop is affected by several pathogenic fungi, primarily in the field, but also during postharvest phases. The most important postharvest fungal diseases in pomegranate are gray and blue molds, black heart and black spot, anthracnose, dry rot, and various soft rots. The limited number of fungicides allowed for treatment in the field and the lack of postharvest fungicides make it difficult to control latent, quiescent, and incipient fungal infections. Symptomatic pomegranates from southern Italy were sampled and isolated fungi were morphologically and molecularly characterized. The data obtained revealed that various species of Penicillium sensu lato (including Talaromyces genus), Alternaria spp., Coniella granati, and Botrytis cinerea were the principal etiological agents of postharvest pomegranate fruit diseases; other relevant pathogens, although less represented, were ascribable to Aspergillus sect. nigri, Colletotrichum acutatum sensu stricto, and Cytospora punicae. About two thirds of the isolated pathogens were responsible for latent infections. The results obtained may be useful in planning phytosanitary control strategies from the field to storage, so as to reduce yield losses.

Symbiosis and pathogenicity of Geosmithia and Talaromyces spp. associated with the cypress bark beetles Phloeosinus spp. and their parasitoids

Fungi associated with cypress bark beetles are practically unknown in the Eastern Mediterranean. Our study focused on the fungi associated with the body parts and galleries of two indigenous cypress bark beetles, Phloeosinus armatus and P. bicolor, sampled from Cupressus sempervirens trees in different regions in Israel. Arbitrarily primed PCR, performed on genomic DNA of 302 isolates, clustered the fungal population into five distinct groups. Multilocus phylogeny, split‐network analyses and morphological characterization identified the isolates as Geosmithia omnicola, Geosmithia langdonii, Geosmithia sp. 708b, Geosmithia cupressina sp. nov. CBS147103 and Talaromyces cupressi sp. nov. CBS147104. Of these fungal isolates, G. cupressina and T. cupressi are newly described, and their morphological features and phylogenetic designations are presented. Inoculation of intact cypress saplings in an outdoor net‐house revealed that only the representative isolate T. cupressi sp. nov. CBS147104 causes 100% disease incidence, whereas Geosmithia spp. isolates are not pathogenic. A number of these fungi were isolated from parasitoids that emerged from branch and stem sections colonized by P. armatus. This study suggests a long and stable association between Phloeosinus and Geosmithia species, and a possible role for additional associated fungal species as pathogens or endophytes of C. sempervirens trees in Israel.

Fungal Community Investigation from Propolis Natural Products: Diversity and Antibacterial Activities Evaluation

Discovering new species and interesting bioactive metabolites from customary sources is becoming progressively laborious. Propolis constitutes the largest diversified reserve of microbial constituents in the beehive. However, fungal communities associated with these environments remain insufficiently established. We present the first detailed investigation of the cultivable fungal community associated with Tunisian propolis, and we evaluate its antibacterial properties against pathogenic bacteria. A total of 80 fungal strains were isolated from propolis samples derived from seven different Tunisian locations. The majority of the isolated fungi were classified as Ascomycota (97.5%), and only 2.5% belonged to Basidiomycota. Our collection was clustered into 15 genera, among which Coniochaeta (36.25%), Aspergillus (15%), Penicillium (13.75%), Cladosporium (10%), Fusarium (7.5%), Didymella (5%), and Alternaria (3.75%) were the most common. Evaluation of the antibacterial activity revealed that 25.6% of the total community showed a broad range of antibacterial activity. Particularly, the Penicillium griseofulvum CC8 strain has manifested the strongest inhibitory effects against all the tested bacteria.

Antifungal Activity of Endophytic Aspergillus terreus Extract Against Some Fungi Causing Mucormycosis: Ultrastructural Study

Endophytes fungi are applied as favorable safe antifungal agents as well as natural bioactive compounds reservoir. In the current study, the inhibitory effect of endophytic fungus was explained by direct antifungal activity against fungi causing mucormycosis, ultrastructural, and determination of active compounds in fungal extract. Endophytic Aspergillus terreus was isolated from healthy Moringa oleifera leaves and identified morphologically and genetically, and was recorded in gene bank with accession number MW444551.1. Phytochemical analysis and gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC–MS) of ethyl acetate crude extract (EACE) of A. terreus were performed. GC–MS results of EACE of A. terreus revealed that fungal extract contains 16 major bioactive compounds with extensive pharmaceutical activities. Furthermore, EACE of A. terreus revealed a promising antifungal activity against fungi causing mucormycosis as Rhizopus oryzae, Mucor racemosus, and Syncephalastrum racemosum, where inhibition zones of EACE (10 mg/ml) were 20, 37, and 18 mm, respectively. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of EACE was 0.3125 toward M. racemosus, while 1.25 and 2.5 mg/ml against R. oryzae and S. racemosum, respectively. In the same context, treated R. oryzae, M. racemosus, and S. racemosum with EACE of A. terreus revealed elevation of membrane lipid peroxidation which approves membrane leakage. Furthermore, ultrastructure changes were observed which established alteration in both sporangium and hyphal structures; cell membrane and cytoplasm leakage. In conclusion, endophytic A. terreus has an outstanding antifungal activity against fungi causing mucormycosis.

Impact of Therapeutics on Unified Immunity During Allergic Asthma and Respiratory Infections

Asthma is a common chronic respiratory disease that affects millions of people worldwide. Patients with allergic asthma, the most prevalent asthma endotype, are widely considered to possess a defective immune response against some respiratory infectious agents, including viruses, bacteria and fungi. Furthermore, respiratory pathogens are associated with asthma development and exacerbations. However, growing data suggest that the immune milieu in allergic asthma may be beneficial during certain respiratory infections. Immunomodulatory asthma treatments, although beneficial, should then be carefully prescribed to avoid misuse and overuse as they can also alter the host microbiome. In this review, we summarize and discuss recent evidence of the correlations between allergic asthma and the most significant respiratory infectious agents that have a role in asthma pathogenesis. We also discuss the implications of current asthma therapeutics beyond symptom prevention.

Fungi Affecting Wall Paintings of Historical Value: A Worldwide Meta-Analysis of Their Detected Diversity

Wall paintings have been a cultural expression of human creativity throughout history. Their degradation or destruction represents a loss to the world’s cultural heritage, and fungi have been identified as a major contributor to their decay. We provide a critical review of fungi isolated from worldwide wall paintings between 1961–2021. One-hundred three scientific papers were reviewed focusing on fungal diversity, isolation protocols, and spatial distribution of data. The study sites were grouped into five environmental categories on the basis of the expected major microclimatic conditions (temperature, relative humidity, ventilation), and the possible relationship with the species found was investigated. The highest number of records were localized in Europe, with 38 sites on a total of 74, 20 of which were from Italy. A total of 378 fungal entries were obtained, consisting of 1209 records, belonging to 260 different species and 173 genera. The accuracy level in taxa determination was highly variable among different papers analyzed. Data showed a dominance of Ascomycota, mainly of orders Eurotiales and Hypocreales probably due to their wide distribution and easily air dispersed spores and due to the possible pitfalls linked to the isolation methods, favoring rapidly growing taxa. Statistical analyses revealed that fungal communities were not strictly linked to environmental categories with different ventilation, temperature, and humidity. Such findings may be due to the wide geographical area, the wide heterogeneity of the data, and/or the absence of standardized sampling and analyses protocols. They could also be the result of the dominance of some prevailing factors in the various sites that mask the influence one of each other.

Genome Sequence of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Hypovirulence-Associated DNA Virus 1 Found in the Fungus Penicillium olsonii Isolated from Washington State, USA

We report the discovery of a Sclerotinia sclerotiorum hypovirulence-associated DNA virus 1 (SsHADV-1) isolate, named SsHADV1_PO, from the fungus Penicillium olsonii isolated from Washington state, USA. The genome of SsHADV1_PO is 2,166 bp and contains two open reading frames, with more than 98% nucleotide identity with respect to reported SsHADV-1 isolates.

New Species of Aspergillus (Aspergillaceae) from Tropical Islands of China

Aspergillus species are cosmopolitan and ubiquitous, closely related to human daily life. They are also of food, industrial and medical importance. From the examination of cultures isolated from soil samples collected on tropical islands of China, four new species of the genus were discovered based on phylogenetic analyses and morphological comparisons. Aspergillus xishaensis sp. nov. and A. neoterreus sp. nov. belong to sections Flavipedes and Terrei of subgenus Circumdati, and A. hainanicus sp. nov. and A. qilianyuensis sp. nov. are in sections Cavernicolarum and Nidulantes of subgenus Nidulantes. To accommodate A. hainanicus, a new series Hainanici was proposed. Detailed descriptions and illustrations of the new taxa were provided.

Larvicidal activity against Aedes aegypti and molecular docking studies of compounds extracted from the endophytic fungus Aspergillus sp. isolated from Bertholletia excelsa Humn. & Bonpl

Endophytic fungi are microorganisms capable of colonizing the interior of plant tissues without causing damage to them. The study of the secondary metabolites produced by their vast biodiversity fungal is relevant for the discovery of new products for biotechnological and agrochemical applications. In addition, extract of the endophytic fungus Aspergillus sp., isolated from the almonds of Bertholletia excelsa Humn & Bonlp collected in the Brazilian Amazon, oviposition deterrent, and larvicidal activity of against Aedes aegypti. In the oviposition deterrence test was observed that females able to lay eggs preferred the control oviposition sites (46.6%). Furthermore, the extract showed larvicidal activity with LC50 26.86 µg/mL at 24 h and 18.75 µg/mL at 48 h. Molecular docking studies showed the compound Aspergillol B a potent larvicide by to inhibit the acetylcholinesterase enzyme (- 7.74 kcal/mol). These results indicate that compounds from secondary metabolites of Aspergillus sp., isolated from almonds of B. excelsa, are useful biological potential against vectors A. aegypti.

Characterization and phylogeny of fungi isolated from industrial wastewater using multiple genes

The aim of this study was the isolation and molecular characterization of fungi from untreated refinery effluent by using multiple conserved genes. The Fungi isolated were characterized based on PCR amplification and genomic sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS), partial β-tubulin (BenA), calmodulin (CaM), and RNA polymerase second large subunit (RPB2) genes, along with morphological characterization. The obtained sequences were subjected to BLAST analysis and the corresponding fungal isolates were assigned species names after comparison with representative sequences available in GenBank. Fifteen (15) Fungi species belonging to four genera of Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Trichoderma with Aspergillus as the predominant genus were identified. Therefore these genes should be used as molecular markers for species level identification of fungi (especially Aspergillus and Penicillium as proven in this study.

Fine Identification and Classification of a Novel Beneficial Talaromyces Fungal Species from Masson Pine Rhizosphere Soil

Rhizosphere fungi have the beneficial functions of promoting plant growth and protecting plants from pests and pathogens. In our preliminary study, rhizosphere fungus JP-NJ4 was obtained from the soil rhizosphere of Pinus massoniana and selected for further analyses to confirm its functions of phosphate solubilization and plant growth promotion. In order to comprehensively investigate the function of this strain, it is necessary to ascertain its taxonomic position. With the help of genealogical concordance phylogenetic species recognition (GCPSR) using five genes/regions (ITS, BenA, CaM, RPB1, and RPB2) as well as macro-morphological and micro-morphological characters, we accurately determined the classification status of strain JP-NJ4. The concatenated phylogenies of five (or four) gene regions and single gene phylogenetic trees (ITS, BenA, CaM, RPB1, and RPB2 genes) all show that strain JP-NJ4 clustered together with Talaromyces brevis and Talaromyces liani, but differ markedly in the genetic distance (in BenA gene) from type strain and multiple collections of T. brevis and T. liani. The morphology of JP-NJ4 largely matches the characteristics of genes Talaromyces, and the rich and specific morphological information provided by its colonies was different from that of T. brevis and T. liani. In addition, strain JP-NJ4 could produce reduced conidiophores consisting of solitary phialides. From molecular and phenotypic data, strain JP-NJ4 was identified as a putative novel Talaromyces fungal species, designated T. nanjingensis.

Rapid Enzymatically Reduction of Zincum Gluconicum for the Biomanufacturing of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles by Mycoextracellular Filtrate of Penicillium Digitatum (Pdig-B3) as a Soft Green Technique

Molds have been used as micro-biofactories for biomanufacturing of metal oxide nanoparticles (MetNps) since they are effortless, immaculate, safe, non-poisonous, vital-biocompatible, and environmentally acceptable. The present study aimed to explore the bioindustry, mold screening protocol, and characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs) using a diverse filamentous Green mold (FiGM) isolated from spoiled citrus fruits. Eight filamentous Penicillium Digitatum mold strains had been obtained and subjected to investigate the capability of ZnONPs biosynthesis by fungal extracellular free-cell filtrate. P. digitatum (P-digB3) obtained the peak of ZnONps (379 nm) detected by the UV-visible spectrophotometry and was found as a significantly optimum strain in the highest quantity (mean±SD: 0.0138±0.001 gm/100 ml) and the smallest average NPs size. The ZnONPs were characterized by UV-visible scanning spectrophotometry, Atomic Force Microscopy, X-RD, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). The final average size of ZnONPs was obtained at 65.46 nm with diversified shapes and dimensions. The present study concluded the high capabilities of fungi (FiGMs) as eco-friendly and cheap bio-nano factories to manufacture ZnONPs with great nano-level average size, which may consider new boost sources for use in many nano-sectors and applications.

Isolation and Identification of Penicillium rubens from the Local Strain in Mosul, Iraq, and Investigation of Potassium Phosphate Effect on its Growth

Penicillium species is one of the most common microscopic filamentous fungi that have been isolated from widespread substrates. In this study, soil samples from different areas of Mosul, Iraq, were examined by morphological and molecular methods. Fungi were isolated and grown in diagnostic culture media, including Czapek Yeast Extract Agar, Malt Extract Agar, and 25% Glycerol nitrate agar at different temperatures of 15, 20, 25, and 30°C. The growth rate of the fungus was also evaluated in the culture containing K₂HPO₄. In the molecular method, the obtained fragment was sequenced using the Internal Transcribed Spacer region primers after replication. Morphological evaluation of both macroscopic and microscopic features revealed that strains were Penicillium rubens, and molecular methods used have confirmed the isolated strain. The results of this study showed a decrease in the diameters of the colonies at different growth temperatures when doubling the amount of K₂HPO₄. In addition, the findings revealed that compared to growth inhibition in the control groups, the maximum growth inhibition was 16 and 29 mm on Czapek Dox Agar (modified) medium at incubation temperatures of 20°C and 25°C, respectively. As a result, K₂HPO₄ has an important role in inhibiting growth; therefore, it can be used as Fungicide.

New and interesting species of Penicillium (Eurotiomycetes, Aspergillaceae) in freshwater sediments from Spain

Penicillium species are common fungi found worldwide from diverse substrates, including soil, plant debris, food products and air. Their diversity in aquatic environments is still underexplored. With the aim to explore the fungal diversity in Spanish freshwater sediments, numerous Penicillium strains were isolated using various culture-dependent techniques. A preliminary sequence analysis of the β-tubulin (tub2) gene marker allowed us to identify several interesting species of Penicillium, which were later characterized phylogenetically with the barcodes recommended for species delimitation in the genus. Based on the multi-locus phylogeny of the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) of the ribosomal DNA, and partial fragments of tub2, calmodulin (cmdA), and the RNA polymerase II largest subunit (rpb2) genes, in combination with phenotypic analyses, five novel species are described. These are P.ausonanum in sectionLanata-Divaricata, P.guarroi in sect.Gracilenta, P.irregulare in sect.Canescentia, P.sicoris in sect.Paradoxa and P.submersum in sect.Robsamsonia. The study of several isolates from samples collected in different locations resulted in the reinstatement of P.vaccaeorum into sectionCitrina. Finally, P.heteromorphum (sect.Exilicaulis) and P.tardochrysogenum (sect.Chrysogena) are reported, previously only known from Antarctica and China, respectively.

Keratinophilic and Keratinolytic Fungi in Cave Ecosystems: A Culture-Based Study of Brestovská Cave and Demänovská Ľadová and Slobody Caves (Slovakia)

Despite speleomycological research going back to the 1960s, the biodiversity of many specific groups of micromycetes in underground sites still remains unknown, including keratinolytic and keratinophilic fungi. These fungi are a frequent cause of infections in humans and animals. Since subterranean ecosystems are inhabited by various animals and are a great tourist attraction, the goal of our research was to provide the first report of keratinophilic and keratinolytic fungal species isolated from three caves in Tatra Mts., Slovakia (Brestovská, Demänovská Ľadová and Demänovská Slobody). Speleomycological investigation was carried out inside and outside the explored caves by combining culture-based techniques with genetic and phenotypic identifications. A total of 67 fungal isolates were isolated from 24 samples of soil and sediment using Vanbreuseghem hair bait and identified as 18 different fungal species. The study sites located inside the studied caves displayed much more fungal species (17 species) than outside the underground (3 species), and the highest values of the Shannon diversity index of keratinophilic and keratinolytic fungi were noted for the study sites inside the Demänovská Slobody Cave. Overall, Arthroderma quadrifidum was the most common fungal species in all soil and/or sediment samples. To the best of our knowledge, our research has allowed for the first detection of fungal species such as Arthroderma eboreum, Arthrodermainsingulare, Chrysosporiumeuropae, Chrysosporiumsiglerae, Keratinophytonwagneri, and Penicillium charlesii in underground sites. We also showed that the temperature of soil and sediments was negatively correlated with the number of isolated keratinophilic and keratinolytic fungal species in the investigated caves.

Genomic Characterization of Parengyodontium torokii sp. nov., a Biofilm-Forming Fungus Isolated from Mars 2020 Assembly Facility

A fungal strain (FJII-L10-SW-P1) was isolated from the Mars 2020 spacecraft assembly facility and exhibited biofilm formation on spacecraft-qualified Teflon surfaces. The reconstruction of a six-loci gene tree (ITS, LSU, SSU, RPB1 and RPB2, and TEF1) using multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) analyses of the strain FJII-L10-SW-P1 supported a close relationship to other known Parengyodontium album subclade 3 isolates while being phylogenetically distinct from subclade 1 strains. The zig-zag rachides morphology of the conidiogenous cells and spindle-shaped conidia were the distinct morphological characteristics of the P. album subclade 3 strains. The MLST data and morphological analysis supported the conclusion that the P. album subclade 3 strains could be classified as a new species of the genus Parengyodontium and placed in the family Cordycipitaceae. The name Parengyodontium torokii sp. nov. is proposed to accommodate the strain, with FJII-L10-SW-P1 as the holotype. The genome of the FJII-L10-SW-P1 strain was sequenced, annotated, and the secondary metabolite clusters were identified. Genes predicted to be responsible for biofilm formation and adhesion to surfaces were identified. Homology-based assignment of gene ontologies to the predicted proteome of P. torokii revealed the presence of gene clusters responsible for synthesizing several metabolic compounds, including a cytochalasin that was also verified using traditional metabolomic analysis.

Synergistic Association With Root Endophytic Fungi Improves Morpho-Physiological and Biochemical Responses of Chenopodium quinoa to Salt Stress

Symbiotic associations with microbes can contribute to mitigating abiotic environmental stress in plants. In this study, we investigated individual and interactive effects of two root endophytic fungal species on physiological and biochemical mechanisms of the crop Chenopodium quinoa in response to salinity. Fungal endophytes (FE) Talaromyces minioluteus and Penicillium murcianum, isolated from quinoa plants that occur naturally in the Atacama Desert, were used for endophyte inoculation. A greenhouse experiment was developed using four plant groups: (1) plants inoculated with T. minioluteus (E1+), (2) plants inoculated with P. murcianum (E2+), (3) plants inoculated with both fungal species (E1E2+), and (4) non-inoculated plants (E-). Plants from each group were then assigned to either salt (300 mM) or control (no salt) treatments. Differences in morphological traits, photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, transpiration, superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), peroxidase, (POD), phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), phenolic content, and lipid peroxidation between plant groups under each treatment were examined. We found that both endophyte species significantly improved morphological and physiological traits, including plant height, number of shoots, photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, and transpiration, in C. quinoa in response to salt, but optimal physiological responses were observed in E1E2+ plants. Under saline conditions, endophyte inoculation improved SOD, APX, and POD activity by over 50%, and phenolic content by approximately 30%, with optimal enzymatic responses again observed in E1E2+ plants. Lipid peroxidation was significantly lower in inoculated plants than in non-inoculated plants. Results demonstrate that both endophyte species enhanced the ability of C. quinoa to cope with salt stress by improving antioxidative enzyme and non-enzyme systems. In general, both FE species interacting in tandem yielded better morphological, physiological, and biochemical responses to salinity in quinoa than inoculation by a single species in isolation. Our study highlights the importance of stress-adapted FE as a biological agent for mitigating abiotic stress in crop plants.

Boosting the Anticancer Activity of Aspergillus flavus "endophyte of Jojoba" Taxol via Conjugation with Gold Nanoparticles Mediated by γ-Irradiation

Taxol production by fungi is one of the promising alternative approaches, regarding to the natural and semisynthetic sources; however, the lower yield and rapid loss of Taxol productivity by fungi are the major challenges that halt their further industrial implementation. Thus, searching for fungal isolates with affordable Taxol-production stability, in addition to enhance its anticancer activity via conjugation with gold nanoparticles, is the main objectives of this study. Twenty-four endophytic fungal isolates were recovered from the barks, twigs, and leaves of jojoba plant, among these fungi, Aspergillus flavus MW485934.1 was the most potent Taxol producer (88.6 µg/l). The chemical identity of the extracted Taxol of A. flavus was verified by the TLC, HPLC, HNMR, and FTIR analyses. The yield of Taxol produced by A. flavus was optimized by the response surface methodology (RSM) using Plackett-Burman (PBD) and faced central composite designs (FCCD). The yield of Taxol by A. flavus was increased by about 3.2 folds comparing to the control cultures (from 96.5 into 302.7 µg/l). The highest Taxol yield by was obtained growing A. flavus on a modified malt extract medium (g/l) (malt extract 20.0, peptone 2.0, sucrose 20.0, soytone 2.0, cysteine 0.5, glutamine 0.5, and beef extract 1.0 adjusted to pH 6.0) and incubated at 30 °C for 16 days. From the FCCD design, the significant variables affecting Taxol production by A. flavus were cysteine, pH, and incubation time. Upon A. flavus γ-irradiation at 1.0 kGy, the Taxol yield was increased by about 1.25 fold (375.9 µg/l). To boost its anticancer activity, the purified Taxol was conjugated with gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) mediated by γ-rays irradiation (0.5 kGy), and the physicochemical properties of Taxol-AuNPs composite were evaluated by UV-Vis, DLS, XRD, and TEM analyses. The IC₅₀ values of the native-Taxol and Taxol-AuNPs conjugates towards HEPG-2 cells were 4.06 and 2.1 µg/ml, while the IC₅₀ values against MCF-7 were 6.07 and 3.3 µg/ml, respectively. Thus, the anticancer activity of Taxol-AuNPs composite was increased by 2 folds comparing to the native Taxol towards HEPG-2 and MCF-7 cell lines. Also, the antimicrobial activity of Taxol against the multidrug resistant bacteria was dramatically increased upon conjugation with AuNPs comparing to authentic AuNPs and Taxol, ensuring the higher solubility, targetability, and efficiency of Taxol upon AuNPs conjugation.

Polyphasic identification of decay agents of lemon fruits in Serbia

Lemon fruits are an important source of vitamin C, potassium, folate, carotenoids, polyphenols, coumarins and terpenes. These lemon compounds have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties which have beneficial effects on human health. This research aimed to elucidate the etiology of blue and green molds detected on lemon fruits in Serbia. Using integrative identification approach, the obtained isolates were characterized from morphological, physiological, molecular, phylogenetic and pathological aspects. Colony growth and morphology were examined on Czapek yeast autolysate agar (CYA), Malt extract agar (MEA) and Creatine sucrose agar (CREA), and on CYA at two additional incubation temperatures (5 and 37 ?C). For molecular identification, ITS and partial ?-tubulin (BenA) genes were sequenced. Phylogenetic relationships were investigated using maximum-likelihood method. A pathogenicity test was carried out and the possible difference in pathogenicity among isolates was assessed with analysis of variance (ANOVA) and subsequent Tukey?s test. Four species were identified: Penicillium expansum, Penicillium digitatum, Penicillium polonicum and Talaromyces rugulosus. All four species proved to be pathogenic on lemon fruits, producing symptoms similar to those observed on naturally infected fruits. The results of this study are the first records of the beforementioned Penicillium/ Talaromyces species as postharvest pathogens on lemon fruits in Serbia and the first world report of T. rugulosus as phytopathogenic on the same host.

Antimicrobial Polyketide Metabolites from Penicillium bissettii and P. glabrum

Screening of several fungi from the New Zealand International Collection of Microorganisms from Plants identified two strains of Penicillium, P. bissettii and P. glabrum, which exhibited antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli,Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Staphylococcus aureus. Further investigation into the natural products of the fungi, through extraction and fractionation, led to the isolation of five known polyketide metabolites, penicillic acid (1), citromycetin (2), penialdin A (3), penialdin F (4), and myxotrichin B (5). Semi-synthetic derivatization of 1 led to the discovery of a novel dihydro (1a) derivative that provided evidence for the existence of the much-speculated open-chained form of 1. Upon investigation of the antimicrobial activities of the natural products and derivatives, both penicillic acid (1) and penialdin F (4) were found to inhibit the growth of Methicillin-resistant S. aureus. Penialdin F (4) was also found to have some inhibitory activity against Mycobacterium abscessus and M. marinum along with citromycetin (2).

Nuclear hormone receptors promote gut and glia detoxifying enzyme induction and protect C. elegans from the mold P. brevicompactum

Animals encounter microorganisms in their habitats, adapting physiology and behavior accordingly. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is found in microbe-rich environments; however, its responses to fungi are not extensively studied. Here, we describe interactions of C. elegans and Penicillium brevicompactum, an ecologically relevant mold. Transcriptome studies reveal that co-culture upregulates stress response genes, including xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes (XMEs), in C. elegans intestine and AMsh glial cells. The nuclear hormone receptors (NHRs) NHR-45 and NHR-156 are induction regulators, and mutants that cannot induce XMEs in the intestine when exposed to P. brevicompactum experience mitochondrial stress and exhibit developmental defects. Different C. elegans wild isolates harbor sequence polymorphisms in nhr-156, resulting in phenotypic diversity in AMsh glia responses to microbe exposure. We propose that P. brevicompactum mitochondria-targeting mycotoxins are deactivated by intestinal detoxification, allowing tolerance to moldy environments. Our studies support the idea that C. elegans NHRs may be regulated by environmental cues.

Characterization of cross-species transcription and splicing from Penicillium to Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Heterologous expression of eukaryotic gene clusters in yeast has been widely used for producing high-value chemicals and bioactive secondary metabolites. However, eukaryotic transcription cis-elements are still undercharacterized, and the cross-species expression mechanism remains poorly understood. Here we used the whole expression unit (including original promoter, terminator, and open reading frame with introns) of orotidine 5'-monophosphate decarboxylases from 14 Penicillium species as a showcase, and analyzed their cross-species expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We found that pyrG promoters from the Penicillium species could drive URA3 expression in yeast, and that inefficient cross-species splicing of Penicillium introns might result in weak cross-species expression. Thus, this study demonstrates cross-species expression from Penicillium to yeast, and sheds light on the opportunities and challenges of cross-species expression of fungi expression units and gene clusters in yeast without refactoring for novel natural product discovery.

The Influence of Organic Fertilizers on the Abundance of Soil Microorganism Communities, Agrochemical Indicators, and Yield in East Lithuanian Light Soils

Soil microorganisms are one of the main indicators used for assessing the stability of the soil ecosystem, the metabolism in the soil, and its fertility. The most important are the active soil microorganisms and the influence of the fertilizer applied to the soil on the abundance of these microorganisms. We aimed to investigate how the applied organic fertilizers affect the most active soil microorganisms, which determine the soil fertility and stability. Fungi, yeast-like fungi abundance, and abundance of three physiological groups of bacteria were analyzed: non-symbiotic diazotrophic, organotrophic, and mineral nitrogen assimilating. This study is valuable because relatively few similar studies have been performed on infertile Lithuanian soils. The first results of a long-term study were obtained. The results show the effect of fertilizers on trends in the changes of microorganism community diversity; however, more analysis is needed to assess the impact of organic fertilizers on the most active soil microorganisms. Therefore, the investigation was continued. The results of the 2020 quantitative analysis of culturable soil microorganisms show that the highest abundance of organotrophic and non-symbiotic diazotrophic bacteria were recorded during the summer season. Meanwhile, the abundance of bacteria assimilating mineral nitrogen and fungi was higher in autumn. Agrochemical parameters were determined at the beginning of the experiment. The highest concentration of N_min in the soil was determined after fertilizing the plants with the combination of granulated poultry manure (N₁₇₀) + biological substance Azotobacter spp. The yield of barley was calculated. It was found that the highest yield of spring barley in 2020 was obtained by fertilizing the experimental field with organic in combination with mineral fertilizers.

Incidence, Speciation, and Morpho-Genetic Diversity of Penicillium spp. Causing Blue Mold of Stored Pome Fruits in Serbia

Blue mold, caused by Penicillium spp., is one of the most economically important postharvest diseases of pome fruits, globally. Pome fruits, in particular apple, is the most widely grown pome fruit in Serbia, and the distribution of Penicillium spp. responsible for postharvest decay is unknown. A two-year survey was conducted in 2014 and 2015, where four pome fruits (apple, pear, quince, and medlar) with blue mold symptoms were collected from 20 storage locations throughout Serbia. Detailed morphological characterization, analysis of virulence in three apple cultivars, and multilocus phylogeny revealed three main Penicillium spp. in order of abundance: P. expansum, P. crustosum, and P. solitum. Interestingly, P. expansum split into two distinct clades with strong statistical support that coincided with several morphological observations. Findings from this study are significant and showed previously undocumented diversity in blue mold fungi responsible for postharvest decay including the first finding of P. crustosum, and P. solitum as postharvest pathogens of quince and P. crustosum of medlar fruit in the world, and P. expansum of quince in Serbia. Data from this study provide timely information regarding phenotypic, morphological and genotypic plasticity in P. expansum that will impact the design of species-specific detection tools and guide the development of blue mold management strategies.

Increased prevalence of indoor Aspergillus and Penicillium species is associated with indoor flooding and coastal proximity: a case study of 28 moldy buildings

Indoor flooding is a leading contributor to indoor dampness and the associated mold infestations in the coastal United States. Whether the prevalent mold genera that infest the coastal flood-prone buildings are different from those not flood-prone is unknown. In the current case study of 28 mold-infested buildings across the U.S. east coast, we surprisingly noted a trend of higher prevalence of indoor Aspergillus and Penicillium genera (denoted here as Asp-Pen) in buildings with previous flooding history. Hence, we sought to determine the possibility of a potential statistically significant association between indoor Asp-Pen prevalence and three building-related variables: (i) indoor flooding history, (ii) geographical location, and (iii) the building's use (residential versus non-residential). Culturable spores and hyphal fragments in indoor air were collected using the settle-plate method, and corresponding genera were confirmed using phylogenetic analysis of their ITS sequence (the fungal barcode). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Generalized linear model procedure (GLM) showed that Asp-Pen prevalence is significantly associated with indoor flooding as well as coastal proximity. To address the small sample size, a multivariate decision tree analysis was conducted, which ranked indoor flooding history as the strongest determinant of Asp-Pen prevalence, followed by geographical location and the building's use.

Investigation of the neuroprotective and neuritogenic effects of halotolerant Penicillium flavigenum-derived sorbicillin-like compounds on PC-12 Adh cells

Parkinson's disease (PD) is an adult-onset neurodegenerative condition caused by oxidative stress and mitochondrial malfunction. In this study, the neuroprotective and neuritogenic activity of water fraction (Sw-fr) containing sorbicillin-like active metabolites of halotolerant P. flavigenum isolated from Salt Lake in Konya, Turkey were investigated on a 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced PD in vitro PC-12 Adh cell model. Firstly, Sw-fr containing sorbicillin-like active metabolites were extracted from P. flavigenum and was compared with a sorbicillin standard by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Then, the effects of non-cytotoxic concentrations of Sw-fr on the 6-OHDA-induced PD cell model were investigated via real-time cell proliferation analysis using the RTCA DP instrument. The effects of these concentrations on mitochondrial membrane integrity, caspase-3 were investigated by flow cytometry. Neurite outgrowth analysis and immunofluorescence staining were used to explore the neuritogenic effects of neuroprotective doses. By improving PC-12 Adh cell viability, decreasing reactive oxygen species production, and reducing apoptotic cell death, 1 and 10 μg/mL Sw-fr and sorbicillin standard proved neuroprotective against 6-OHDA-induced neurotoxicity. Furthermore, 1 and 10 µg/mL Sw-fr significantly induced neurite outgrowth. As a result, sorbicillin-like active metabolites containing Sw-fr were found to have neuroprotective and neuritogenic effects. Sorbicillin-like metabolites obtained from fungi may be novel natural medicines for neurodegenerative diseases.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10616-021-00498-9.

Penicillium and Talaromyces Species as Postharvest Pathogens of Pear Fruit (Pyrus communis) in Serbia

Pears are one of the oldest and the third most important fruit species grown in temperate regions. They are consumed because of their nutritional and health benefits, in fresh form or as various processed products. This article resolves the etiology of the Penicillium-like mold symptoms on pear fruits in Serbia. Samples of pear fruits with blue mold and other Penicillium-like mold symptoms were collected in Serbia from 2016 to 2019, from four storages. The recovered isolates were identified and characterized according to a polyphasic approach. Morphological and physiological analyses were performed on three media and five temperatures, respectively. Four loci (internal transcribed spacer, beta-tubulin, calmodulin, and DNA-dependent RNA polymerase II second largest subunit) were used for sequencing, genetic identification, and phylogenetic analyses. The results of the identification by conventional and molecular methods were in agreement, and they revealed that the obtained isolates belong to five species: Penicillium crustosum, P. expansum, P. italicum, Talaromyces minioluteus, and T. rugulosus. In a pathogenicity test, P. crustosum, P. expansum, T. minioluteus, and T. rugulosus produced decay on artificially inoculated pear fruits, and P. italicum induced tissue response lesions. The results of this study are the first reports of T. minioluteus and T. rugulosus as postharvest pear pathogens. Also, these are the first world records of T. minioluteus, T. rugulosus, and P. italicum on fruits of European pear. Furthermore, this is the first finding of P. crustosum, P. expansum, P. italicum, T. minioluteus, and T. rugulosus on pear fruit in Serbia.

Occurrence and Characterization of Penicillium Species Isolated from Post-Harvest Apples in Lebanon

The apple is one of the most important fruit tree crops in the Mediterranean region. Lebanon, in particular, is among the top apple producer countries in the Middle East; however, recently, several types of damage, particularly rot symptoms, have been detected on fruits in cold storage. This study aims to identify the causal agents of apple decay in Lebanese post-harvest facilities and characterize a set of 39 representative strains of the toxigenic fungus Penicillium. The results demonstrated that blue mould was the most frequent fungal disease associated with apples showing symptoms of decay after 3–4 months of storage at 0 °C, with an average frequency of 76.5% and 80.6% on cv. Red and cv. Golden Delicious apples, respectively. The morphological identification and phylogenetic analysis of benA gene showed that most Penicillium strains (87.2%) belong to P. expansum species whereas the remaining strains (12.8%) belong to P. solitum. Furthermore, 67.7% of P. expansum strains produced patulin when grown on apple puree for 14 days at 25 °C with values ranging from 10.7 mg kg⁻¹ to 125.9 mg kg⁻¹, whereas all P. solitum did not produce the mycotoxin. This study highlights the presence of Penicillium spp. and their related mycotoxin risk during apple storage and calls for the implementation of proper measures to decrease the risk of mycotoxin contamination of apple fruit products.

Fungal quinones: diversity, producers, and applications of quinones from Aspergillus, Penicillium, Talaromyces, Fusarium, and Arthrinium

Quinones represent an important group of highly structurally diverse, mainly polyketide-derived secondary metabolites widely distributed among filamentous fungi. Many quinones have been reported to have important biological functions such as inhibition of bacteria or repression of the immune response in insects. Other quinones, such as ubiquinones are known to be essential molecules in cellular respiration, and many quinones are known to protect their producing organisms from exposure to sunlight. Most recently, quinones have also attracted a lot of industrial interest since their electron-donating and -accepting properties make them good candidates as electrolytes in redox flow batteries, like their often highly conjugated double bond systems make them attractive as pigments. On an industrial level, quinones are mainly synthesized from raw components in coal tar. However, the possibility of producing quinones by fungal cultivation has great prospects since fungi can often be grown in industrially scaled bioreactors, producing valuable metabolites on cheap substrates. In order to give a better overview of the secondary metabolite quinones produced by and shared between various fungi, mainly belonging to the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, Talaromyces, Fusarium, and Arthrinium, this review categorizes quinones into families such as emodins, fumigatins, sorbicillinoids, yanuthones, and xanthomegnins, depending on structural similarities and information about the biosynthetic pathway from which they are derived, whenever applicable. The production of these quinone families is compared between the different genera, based on recently revised taxonomy. KEY POINTS: • Quinones represent an important group of secondary metabolites widely distributed in important fungal genera such as Aspergillus, Penicillium, Talaromyces, Fusarium, and Arthrinium. • Quinones are of industrial interest and can be used in pharmacology, as colorants and pigments, and as electrolytes in redox flow batteries. • Quinones are grouped into families and compared between genera according to the revised taxonomy.