IL-1β signaling promotes CNS-intrinsic immune control of West Nile virus infection

The Role of Stefin B in Neuro-inflammation

Stefin B (cystatin B) is an endogenous cysteine cathepsin inhibitor localized in the cytosol, mitochondria and nucleus. Its expression is upregulated upon macrophage activation and cellular stress. Mutations in the gene of stefin B are associated with the neurodegenerative disease known as Unverricht-Lundborg disease (EPM1). It was reported that early microglial activation precedes neuronal loss in the brain of the stefin B-deficient mice, implying a role of the inhibitor at the cross-talk between microglia and cerebellar cells. Detailed analysis of microglial activation in stefin B-deficient microglia showed a significantly higher proportion of both pro-inflammatory M1 and anti-inflammatory M2 microglia in stefin B-deficient mouse brain compared with control mice. In our recent work, we demonstrated that stefin B-deficient mice were significantly more sensitive to the lethal lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced sepsis, due to increased caspase-11 expression and secreted higher amounts of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18. Upon LPS stimulation, stefin B was targeted into the mitochondria, and the lack of stefin B resulted in the increased destabilization of the mitochondrial membrane potential and mitochondrial superoxide generation. The increased caspase-11 gene expression and better pro- inflammatory caspase-1 and -11 activation determined in stefin B deficient bone marrow-derived macrophages resulted in enhanced non-canonical inflammasome activation. Since signaling pathways in macrophages could be compared to the ones in microglia we propose that inflammasome activation could play an important role in the pathogenesis of EPM1.

Immunopathogenesis of Hepatitis C Virus Infection

Despite advances in therapy, hepatitis C virus infection remains a major global health issue with 3 to 4 million incident cases and 170 million prevalent chronic infections. Complex, partially understood, host-virus interactions determine whether an acute infection with hepatitis C resolves, as occurs in approximately 30% of cases, or generates a persistent hepatic infection, as occurs in the remainder. Once chronic infection is established, the velocity of hepatocyte injury and resultant fibrosis is significantly modulated by immunologic as well as environmental factors. Immunomodulation has been the backbone of antiviral therapy despite poor understanding of its mechanism of action.

Hypothalamic inflammation in the control of metabolic function

Diet-induced obesity leads to devastating and common chronic diseases, fueling ongoing interest in determining new mechanisms underlying both obesity and its consequences. It is now well known that chronic overnutrition produces a unique form of inflammation in peripheral insulin target tissues, and efforts to limit this inflammation have met with some success in preserving insulin sensitivity in obese individuals. Recently, the activation of inflammatory pathways by dietary excess has also been observed among cells located in the mediobasal hypothalamus, a brain area that exerts central control over peripheral glucose, fat, and energy metabolism. Here we review progress in the field of diet-induced hypothalamic inflammation, drawing key distinctions between metabolic inflammation in the hypothalamus and that occurring in peripheral tissues. We focus on specific stimuli of the inflammatory response, the roles of individual hypothalamic cell types, and the links between hypothalamic inflammation and metabolic function under normal and pathophysiological circumstances. Finally, we explore the concept of controlling hypothalamic inflammation to mitigate metabolic disease.

The NLRP3 Inflammasome and IL-1β Accelerate Immunologically Mediated Pathology in Experimental Viral Fulminant Hepatitis

Viral fulminant hepatitis (FH) is a severe disease with high mortality resulting from excessive inflammation in the infected liver. Clinical interventions have been inefficient due to the lack of knowledge for inflammatory pathogenesis in the virus-infected liver. We show that wild-type mice infected with murine hepatitis virus strain-3 (MHV-3), a model for viral FH, manifest with severe disease and high mortality in association with a significant elevation in IL-1β expression in the serum and liver. Whereas, the viral infection in IL-1β receptor-I deficient (IL-1R1^-/-) or IL-1R antagonist (IL-1Ra) treated mice, show reductions in virus replication, disease progress and mortality. IL-1R1 deficiency appears to debilitate the virus-induced fibrinogen-like protein-2 (FGL2) production in macrophages and CD45⁺Gr-1^high neutrophil infiltration in the liver. The quick release of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by the infected macrophages suggests a plausible viral initiation of NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Further experiments show that mice deficient of p47^phox, a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase subunit that controls acute ROS production, present with reductions in NLRP3 inflammasome activation and subsequent IL-1β secretion during viral infection, which appears to be responsible for acquiring resilience to viral FH. Moreover, viral infected animals in deficiencies of NLRP3 and Caspase-1, two essential components of the inflammasome complex, also have reduced IL-1β induction along with ameliorated hepatitis. Our results demonstrate that the ROS/NLRP3/IL-1β axis institutes an essential signaling pathway, which is over activated and directly causes the severe liver disease during viral infection, which sheds light on development of efficient treatments for human viral FH and other severe inflammatory diseases.

The NLRP3 inflammasome and IL-1β play essential roles in mediating the primary inflammatory responses against pathogen invasions in the host. Hyperactivation of this signaling pathway can lead to life-threatening diseases under certain circumstances. However, it is not clear if NLRP3 inflammasome activation participates in the pathogenesis of viral fulminant hepatitis (FH), a clinical severe syndrome characterized by acute inflammation in the liver along with massive necrosis of hepatocytes and hepatic encephalopathy during viral infection. Using a mouse viral FH model by infection with murine hepatitis virus strain-3 (MHV-3), we observed a significant macrophage induction and the serum and liver massive accumulation of IL-1β. Conversely, interruption of IL-1β signals results in attenuation of the MHV-3-induced hepatitis and mortality. Blocking IL-1β activity reduces the virus-induced expression of fibrinogen-like protein-2 (FGL2) in macrophages, and limits the liver recruitment of CD45⁺Gr-1^high neutrophils upon the virus infection. We further show that proIL-1β is bioprocessed by NLRP3 inflammasome. Deletion of the components in the inflammasome complex, including NLRP3 and Caspase-1, leads to reduction in the virus-induced IL-1β production and lessening of disease progression. Further studies show that macrophages in deficiency of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase subunit p47^phox, a protein that controls acute ROS production, prevents NLRP3 inflammasome activation and IL-1β secretion, suggesting that the virus-induced ROS production can directly initiate NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Therefore, p47^phox-/- mice exhibited certain degrees of MHV-3 resistance. Taken together, these results demonstrate that ROS/NLRP3/IL-1β is the key pathway signaling exacerbated inflammatory responses that cause viral FH in mice, suggesting that mediation of this signal cascade may benefit on the disease treatment.

Neuropathic Pain Phenotype Does Not Involve the NLRP3 Inflammasome and Its End Product Interleukin-1β in the Mice Spared Nerve Injury Model

The NACHT, LRR and PYD domains-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is one of the main sources of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and is involved in several inflammatory-related pathologies. To date, its relationship with pain has not been studied in depth. The aim of our study was to elucidate the role of NLRP3 inflammasome and IL-1β production on neuropathic pain. Results showed that basal pain sensitivity is unaltered in NLRP3^-/- mice as well as responses to formalin test. Spared nerve injury (SNI) surgery induced the development of mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia in a similar way in both genotypes and did not modify mRNA levels of the NLRP3 inflammasome components in the spinal cord. Intrathecal lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection increases apoptosis-associated speck like protein (ASC), caspase-1 and IL-1β expression in both wildtype and NLRP3^-/- mice. Those data suggest that NLRP3 is not involved in neuropathic pain and also that other sources of IL-1β are implicated in neuroinflammatory responses induced by LPS.

Innate immune interactions within the central nervous system modulate pathogenesis of viral infections

The innate immune system mediates protection against neurotropic viruses that replicate in the central nervous system (CNS). Virus infection within specific cells of the CNS triggers activation of several families of pattern recognition receptors including Toll-like receptors, retinoic acid-inducible gene I like receptors, nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors, and cytosolic DNA sensors. In this review, we highlight recent advances in our understanding of how cell-intrinsic host defenses within the CNS modulate infection of different DNA and RNA viruses.

Inflammasome control of viral infection

The inflammasome is a caspase-1 containing complex that activates the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18 and results in the proinflammatory cell death known as pyroptosis. Numerous recent publications have highlighted the importance of inflammasome activation in the control of virus infection. Inflammasome activation during viral infection is dependent on a variety of upstream receptors including the NOD-like receptor, RIG-I-like receptor and AIM2-like receptor families. Various receptors also function in inflammasome activation in different cellular compartments, including the cytoplasm and the nucleus. The effectiveness of inflammasomes at suppressing virus replication is highlighted by the prevalence and diversity of virus encoded inflammasome inhibitors. Also, the host has a myriad of regulatory mechanisms in place to prevent unwanted inflammasome activation and overt inflammation. Finally, recent reports begin to suggest that inflammasome activation and inflammasome modulation may have important clinical applications. Herein, we highlight recent advances and discuss potential future directions toward understanding the role of inflammasomes during virus infection.

Emerging complexity and new roles for the RIG-I-like receptors in innate antiviral immunity

Innate immunity is critical for the control of virus infection and operates to restrict viral susceptibility and direct antiviral immunity for protection from acute or chronic viral-associated diseases including cancer. RIG-I like receptors (RLRs) are cytosolic RNA helicases that function as pathogen recognition receptors to detect RNA pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) of virus infection. The RLRs include RIG-I, MDA5, and LGP2. They function to recognize and bind to PAMP motifs within viral RNA in a process that directs the RLR to trigger downstream signaling cascades that induce innate immunity that controls viral replication and spread. Products of RLR signaling also serve to modulate the adaptive immune response to infection. Recent studies have additionally connected RLRs to signaling cascades that impart inflammatory and apoptotic responses to virus infection. Viral evasion of RLR signaling supports viral outgrowth and pathogenesis, including the onset of viral-associated cancer.

In ovo delivery of CpG DNA reduces avian infectious laryngotracheitis virus induced mortality and morbidity

Endosomal toll-like receptor-21 and -9 sense CpG DNA activating production of pro-inflammatory mediators with antimicrobial effects. Here, we investigated the induction of antiviral response of in ovo delivered CpG DNA against infectious laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV) infection. We found that in ovo delivered CpG DNA significantly reduces ILTV infection pre-hatch correlating with the expression of IL-1β and increase of macrophages in lungs. As assessed in vitro, CpG DNA stimulated avian macrophages could be a potential source of IL-1β and other pro-inflammatory mediators. Since we also found that in ovo CpG DNA delivery maintains increased macrophages in the lungs post-hatch, we infected the chickens on the day of hatch with ILTV. We found that in ovo delivered CpG DNA significantly reduces mortality and morbidity resulting from ILTV infection encountered post-hatch. Thus, CpG DNA can be a candidate innate immune stimulant worthy of further investigation for the control of ILTV infection in chickens.

Inflammasome signaling pathways exert antiviral effect against Chikungunya virus in human dermal fibroblasts

Arboviruses represent an emerging threat to human. They are transmitted to vertebrates by the bite of infected arthropods. Early transmission to vertebrates is initiated by skin puncture and deposition of virus in this organ. However, events at the bite site remain largely unknown. Here, we report that Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) and West Nile virus (WNV), despite belonging to distinct viral families, elicit a common antiviral signature in primary human dermal fibroblasts, attesting for the up regulation of interferon signaling pathways and leading to an increased expression of IFN-β, interleukins and chemokines. Remarkably, CHIKV and WNV enhance IL-1β expression and induce maturation of caspase-1, indicating the capacity of these pathogens to elicit activation of the inflammasome program in resident skin cells. CHIKV and WNV also induce the expression of the inflammasome sensor AIM2 in dermal fibroblasts, whereas inhibition of caspase-1 and AIM2 with siRNA interferes with both CHIKV- and WNV-induced IL-1β production by these cells. Finally, inhibition of the inflammasome via caspase-1 silencing was found to enhance CHIKV replication in dermal fibroblasts. Together, these results indicate that the skin contributes to the pro-inflammatory and anti-viral microenvironment via the activation of the inflammasome in the early stages following infection with arboviruses.

RNase L activates the NLRP3 inflammasome during viral infections

The NLRP3 inflammasome assembles in response to danger signals, triggering self-cleavage of procaspase-1 and production of the proinflammatory cytokine IL-1β. Although virus infection activates the NLRP3 inflammasome, the underlying events remain incompletely understood. We report that virus activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome involves the 2',5'-oligoadenylate (2-5A) synthetase(OAS)/RNase L system, a component of the interferon-induced antiviral response that senses double-stranded RNA and activates endoribonuclease RNase L to cleave viral and cellular RNAs. The absence of RNase L reduces IL-1β production in influenza A virus-infected mice. RNA cleavage products generated by RNase L enhance IL-1β production but require the presence of 2',3'-cyclic phosphorylated termini characteristic of RNase L activity. Additionally, these cleavage products stimulate NLRP3 complex formation with the DExD/H-box helicase, DHX33, and mitochondrial adaptor protein, MAVS, which are each required for effective NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Thus, RNA cleavage events catalyzed by RNase L are required for optimal inflammasome activation during viral infections.

Risk factors for West Nile virus infection and disease in populations and individuals

West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne enveloped positive-strand RNA virus that emerged in North America in 1999 in New York City. Over the past 15 years, WNV has become established throughout the USA and has spread into Canada, Mexico and the Caribbean. CDC reports indicate >41,000 clinical cases, including more than 1700 fatalities. An estimated 3 million people in the USA may have been infected to date. Infection with WNV is dependent on many factors including climate, mosquito habitats and immunologically naïve bird populations. In addition, variations within individuals contribute to the risk of severe disease, in particular, advanced age, hypertension, immunosuppression and critical elements of the immune response. Recent advances in technology now allow detailed analysis of complex immune interactions relevant to disease susceptibility.

Viral sensing at the blood-brain barrier: new roles for innate immunity at the CNS vasculature

Neurotropic viral infections are a major source of disease worldwide and represent a growing burden to public health. While the central nervous system (CNS) is normally protected from viral infection by the blood-brain barrier (BBB), many viruses are able to cross the BBB and establish CNS infection through processes that largely remain poorly understood. A growing body of recent research has begun to shed light on the viral and host factors that modulate BBB function, contributing to both protective and pathological disease processes. Central to these studies have been the actions of host cytokines and chemokines, which have increasingly been shown to be key regulators of BBB physiology. This review summarizes recent advances in understanding how BBB function governs both viral pathogenesis and host immune responses during neurotropic viral infections.

In ovo delivery of Toll-like receptor 2 ligand, lipoteichoic acid induces pro-inflammatory mediators reducing post-hatch infectious laryngotracheitis virus infection

Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands are pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) recognized by the TLRs resulting in induction of host innate immune responses. One of the PAMPs that binds to TLR2 and cluster of differentiation (CD) 14 is lipotechoic acid (LTA), which activates downstream signals culminating in the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. In this study, we investigated whether in ovo LTA delivery leads to the induction of antiviral responses against post-hatch infectious laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV) infection. We first delivered the LTA into embryo day (ED)18 eggs via in ovo route so that the compound is available at the respiratory mucosa. Then the LTA treated and control ED18 eggs were allowed to hatch and the hatched chicken was infected with ILTV intratracheally on the day of hatch. We found that in ovo delivered LTA reduces ILTV infection post-hatch. We also found that in ovo delivery of LTA significantly increases mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory mediators in pre-hatch embryo lungs as well as mononuclear cell infiltration, predominantly macrophages, in lung of post-hatch chickens. Altogether, the data suggest that in ovo delivered LTA could be used to reduce ILTV infection in newly hatched chickens.

Danger- and pathogen-associated molecular patterns recognition by pattern-recognition receptors and ion channels of the transient receptor potential family triggers the inflammasome activation in immune cells and sensory neurons

An increasing number of studies show that the activation of the innate immune system and inflammatory mechanisms play an important role in the pathogenesis of numerous diseases. The innate immune system is present in almost all multicellular organisms and its activation occurs in response to pathogens or tissue injury via pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) that recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) or danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). Intracellular pathways, linking immune and inflammatory response to ion channel expression and function, have been recently identified. Among ion channels, the transient receptor potential (TRP) channels are a major family of non-selective cation-permeable channels that function as polymodal cellular sensors involved in many physiological and pathological processes.

In this review, we summarize current knowledge of interactions between immune cells and PRRs and ion channels of TRP families with PAMPs and DAMPs to provide new insights into the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases. TRP channels have been found to interfere with innate immunity via both nuclear factor-kB and procaspase-1 activation to generate the mature caspase-1 that cleaves pro-interleukin-1β cytokine into the mature interleukin-1β.

Sensory neurons are also adapted to recognize dangers by virtue of their sensitivity to intense mechanical, thermal and irritant chemical stimuli. As immune cells, they possess many of the same molecular recognition pathways for danger. Thus, they express PRRs including Toll-like receptors 3, 4, 7, and 9, and stimulation by Toll-like receptor ligands leads to induction of inward currents and sensitization in TRPs. In addition, the expression of inflammasomes in neurons and the involvement of TRPs in central nervous system diseases strongly support a role of TRPs in inflammasome-mediated neurodegenerative pathologies. This field is still at its beginning and further studies may be required.

Overall, these studies highlight the therapeutic potential of targeting the inflammasomes in proinflammatory, autoinflammatory and metabolic disorders associated with undesirable activation of the inflammasome by using specific TRP antagonists, anti-human TRP monoclonal antibody or different molecules able to abrogate the TRP channel-mediated inflammatory signals.

Nanoparticle-based caspase sensors

Recent advances in nanotechnology have provided new tools for measuring enzymatic activities that are relevant for the assessment of physiological and pathological processes. Caspases, the enzymes intimately linked with cell death and inflammation, are cysteine-dependent aspartate-directed proteases. The measurement of caspase activity requires assays that can provide data with specificity, precision and sensitivity. Several nanoparticle-based assays are now beginning to emerge. This article will first provide a brief discussion of conventional methods of measuring caspase activity and their limitations, followed by an overview of the advantages and limitations of nanoparticle-based strategies for sensing caspase enzymatic activity in vitro and in vivo.

Of Mice and Men: Protective and Pathogenic Immune Responses to West Nile virus Infection

West Nile virus, a mosquito-borne flavivirus, first emerged in the Western Hemisphere in 1999. Although the majority of infections are asymptomatic, WNV causes significant morbidity and mortality in a minority of individuals who develop neuroinvasive disease, in particular the elderly and immunocompromised. Research in animal models has demonstrated interactions between WNV and the innate and adaptive immune system, some of which protect the host and others which are deleterious. Studies of disease pathogenesis in humans are less numerous, largely due to the complexities of WNV epidemiology. Human studies that have been done support the notion that innate and adaptive immune responses are delicately balanced and may help or harm the host. Further human investigations are needed to characterize beneficial responses to WNV with the goal of such research leading to therapeutics and effective vaccines in order to control this emerging viral disease.

Interleukin-1- and type I interferon-dependent enhanced immunogenicity of an NYVAC-HIV-1 Env-Gag-Pol-Nef vaccine vector with dual deletions of type I and type II interferon-binding proteins

NYVAC, a highly attenuated, replication-restricted poxvirus, is a safe and immunogenic vaccine vector. Deletion of immune evasion genes from the poxvirus genome is an attractive strategy for improving the immunogenic properties of poxviruses. Using systems biology approaches, we describe herein the enhanced immunological profile of NYVAC vectors expressing the HIV-1 clade C env, gag, pol, and nef genes (NYVAC-C) with single or double deletions of genes encoding type I (ΔB19R) or type II (ΔB8R) interferon (IFN)-binding proteins. Transcriptomic analyses of human monocytes infected with NYVAC-C, NYVAC-C with the B19R deletion (NYVAC-C-ΔB19R), or NYVAC-C with B8R and B19R deletions (NYVAC-C-ΔB8RB19R) revealed a concerted upregulation of innate immune pathways (IFN-stimulated genes [ISGs]) of increasing magnitude with NYVAC-C-ΔB19R and NYVAC-C-ΔB8RB19R than with NYVAC-C. Deletion of B8R and B19R resulted in an enhanced activation of IRF3, IRF7, and STAT1 and the robust production of type I IFNs and of ISGs, whose expression was inhibited by anti-type I IFN antibodies. Interestingly, NYVAC-C-ΔB8RB19R induced the production of much higher levels of proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor [TNF], interleukin-6 [IL-6], and IL-8) than NYVAC-C or NYVAC-C-ΔB19R as well as a strong inflammasome response (caspase-1 and IL-1β) in infected monocytes. Top network analyses showed that this broad response mediated by the deletion of B8R and B19R was organized around two upregulated gene expression nodes (TNF and IRF7). Consistent with these findings, monocytes infected with NYVAC-C-ΔB8RB19R induced a stronger type I IFN-dependent and IL-1-dependent allogeneic CD4(+) T cell response than monocytes infected with NYVAC-C or NYVAC-C-ΔB19R. Dual deletion of type I and type II IFN immune evasion genes in NYVAC markedly enhanced its immunogenic properties via its induction of the increased expression of type I IFNs and IL-1β and make it an attractive candidate HIV vaccine vector.

IMPORTANCE

NYVAC is a replication-deficient poxvirus developed as a vaccine vector against HIV. NYVAC expresses several genes known to impair the host immune defenses by interfering with innate immune receptors, cytokines, or interferons. Given the crucial role played by interferons against viruses, we postulated that targeting the type I and type II decoy receptors used by poxvirus to subvert the host innate immune response would be an attractive approach to improve the immunogenicity of NYVAC vectors. Using systems biology approaches, we report that deletion of type I and type II IFN immune evasion genes in NYVAC poxvirus resulted in the robust expression of type I IFNs and interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs), a strong activation of the inflammasome, and upregulated expression of IL-1β and proinflammatory cytokines. Dual deletion of type I and type II IFN immune evasion genes in NYVAC poxvirus improves its immunogenic profile and makes it an attractive candidate HIV vaccine vector.

Response of host inflammasomes to viral infection

Inflammasomes are multiprotein complexes that induce downstream immune responses to specific pathogens, environmental stimuli, and host cell damage. Components of specific viruses activate different inflammasomes; for example, the influenza A virus M2 protein and encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) 2B protein activate the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor family pyrin domain (PYD)-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, whereas viral double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) activates the retinoic acid inducible gene-I (RIG-I) inflammasome. Once activated in response to viral infection, inflammasomes induce the activation of caspases and the release of mature forms of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-18. Here we review the association between viral infection and inflammasome activation. Identifying the mechanisms underlying virus-induced inflammasome activation is important if we are to develop novel therapeutic strategies to target viruses.

Toll-like receptor 2 ligand, lipoteichoic acid is inhibitory against infectious laryngotracheitis virus infection in vitro and in vivo

Lipoteichoic acid (LTA) is one of the pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) that activates toll-like receptor (TLR)2-cluster of differentiation (CD)14 signalling pathway. This recognition elicits antiviral responses that have been recorded against viruses of mammals although such responses have not been characterized adequately against avian viruses. In this investigation, we characterized the LTA induced antiviral responses against infectious laryntotracheitis virus (ILTV) infection in vitro and in vivo. We found that LTA is capable of up regulating mRNA expression of innate proteins in macrophages such as MyD88, iNOS and IL-1β and reduces the ILTV plaques in vitro. Similarly, we found that LTA treatment of embryonic day 18 (ED18) eggs can lead to the antiviral response against pre-hatch ILTV infection in vivo and is associated with expansion of macrophage populations and expression of IL-1β and MyD88 in the lung. The data highlight that LTA can be a potential innate immune stimulant that can be used against ILTV infection in chickens.

Systems immunology reveals markers of susceptibility to West Nile virus infection

West Nile virus (WNV) infection is usually asymptomatic but can cause severe neurological disease and death, particularly in older patients, and how individual variations in immunity contribute to disease severity is not yet defined. Animal studies identified a role for several immunity-related genes that determine the severity of infection. We have integrated systems-level transcriptional and functional data sets from stratified cohorts of subjects with a history of WNV infection to define whether these markers can distinguish susceptibility in a human population. Transcriptional profiles combined with immunophenotyping of primary cells identified a predictive signature of susceptibility that was detectable years after acute infection (67% accuracy), with the most prominent alteration being decreased IL1B induction following ex vivo infection of macrophages with WNV. Deconvolution analysis also determined a significant role for CXCL10 expression in myeloid dendritic cells. This systems analysis identified markers of pathogenic mechanisms and offers insights into potential therapeutic strategies.

Chemokines Referee Inflammation within the Central Nervous System during Infection and Disease

The discovery that chemokines and their receptors are expressed by a variety of cell types within the normal adult central nervous system (CNS) has led to an expansion of their repertoire as molecular interfaces between the immune and nervous systems. Thus, CNS chemokines are now divided into those molecules that regulate inflammatory cell migration into the CNS and those that initiate CNS repair from inflammation-mediated tissue damage. Work in our laboratory throughout the past decade has sought to elucidate how chemokines coordinate leukocyte entry and interactions at CNS endothelial barriers, under both homeostatic and inflammatory conditions, and how they promote repair within the CNS parenchyma. These studies have identified several chemokines, including CXCL12 and CXCL10, as critical regulators of leukocyte migration from perivascular locations. CXCL12 additionally plays an essential role in promoting remyelination of injured white matter. In both scenarios we have shown that chemokines serve as molecular links between inflammatory mediators and other effector molecules involved in neuroprotective processes.

IL-1R1 signaling regulates CXCL12-mediated T cell localization and fate within the central nervous system during West Nile Virus encephalitis

Immune cell entry into the virally infected CNS is vital for promoting viral clearance yet may contribute to neuropathology if not rigorously regulated. We previously showed that signaling through IL-1R1 is critical for effector T cell reactivation and virologic control within the CNS during murine West Nile virus (WNV) encephalitis. WNV-infected IL-1R1(-/-) mice also display increased parenchymal penetration of CD8(+) T cells despite lack of CD4-mediated full activation, suggesting dysregulation of molecular components of CNS immune privilege. In this study, we show that IL-1 signaling regulates the CNS entry of virus-specific lymphocytes, promoting protective immune responses to CNS viral infections that limit immunopathology. Analysis of blood-brain barrier function in the WNV-infected IL-1R1(-/-) mice revealed no alterations in permeability. However, parenchymal proinflammatory chemokine expression, including CCL2, CCL5, and CXCL10, was significantly upregulated, whereas microvasculature CXCL12 expression was significantly decreased in the absence of IL-1 signaling. We show that during WNV infection, CD11b(+)CD45(hi) infiltrating cells (macrophages) are the primary producers of IL-1β within the CNS and, through the use of an in vitro blood-brain barrier model, that IL-1β promotes CXCR4-mediated T cell adhesion to brain microvasculature endothelial cells. Of interest, IFNγ(+) and CD69(+) WNV-primed T cells were able to overcome CXCL12-mediated adhesion via downregulation of CXCR4. These data indicate that infiltrating IL-1β-producing leukocytes contribute to cellular interactions at endothelial barriers that impart protective CNS inflammation by regulating the parenchymal entry of CXCR4(+) virus-specific T cells during WNV infection.

Activation of intrinsic immune responses and microglial phagocytosis in an ex vivo spinal cord slice culture model of West Nile virus infection

West Nile virus (WNV) is a neurotropic flavivirus that causes significant neuroinvasive disease involving the brain and/or spinal cord. Experimental mouse models of WNV infection have established the importance of innate and adaptive immune responses in controlling the extent and severity of central nervous system (CNS) disease. However, differentiating between immune responses that are intrinsic to the CNS and those that are dependent on infiltrating inflammatory cells has proven difficult. We used a murine ex vivo spinal cord slice culture (SCSC) model to determine the innate immune processes specific to the CNS during WNV infections. By 7 days after ex vivo infection of SCSCs, the majority of neurons and a substantial percentage of astrocytes were infected with WNV, resulting in apoptotic cell death and astrogliosis. Microglia, the resident immune cells of the CNS, were activated by WNV infection, as exemplified by their amoeboid morphology, the development of filopodia and lamellipodia, and phagocytosis of WNV-infected cells and debris. Microglial cell activation was concomitant with increased expression of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines, including CXCL10, CXCL1, CCL5, CCL3, CCL2, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL), and interleukin-6 (IL-6). The application of minocycline, an inhibitor of neuroinflammation, altered the WNV-induced proinflammatory cytokine/chemokine expression profile, with inhibited production of CCL5, CCL2, and IL-6. Our findings establish that CNS-resident cells have the capacity to initiate a robust innate immune response against WNV infection in the absence of infiltrating inflammatory cells and systemic immune responses.

IMPORTANCE

There are no specific treatments of proven efficacy available for WNV neuroinvasive disease. A better understanding of the pathogenesis of WNV CNS infection is crucial for the rational development of novel therapies. Development of a spinal cord slice culture (SCSC) model facilitates the study of WNV pathogenesis and allows investigation of the intrinsic immune responses of the CNS. Our studies demonstrate that robust CNS innate immune responses, including microglial activation and proinflammatory cytokine/chemokine production, develop independently of contributions from the peripheral immune system and CNS-infiltrating inflammatory cells.

Viral pathogen-associated molecular patterns regulate blood-brain barrier integrity via competing innate cytokine signals

Pattern recognition receptor (PRR) detection of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), such as viral RNA, drives innate immune responses against West Nile virus (WNV), an emerging neurotropic pathogen. Here we demonstrate that WNV PAMPs orchestrate endothelial responses to WNV via competing innate immune cytokine signals at the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a multicellular interface with highly specialized brain endothelial cells that normally prevents pathogen entry. While Th1 cytokines increase the permeability of endothelial barriers, type I interferon (IFN) promoted and stabilized BBB function. Induction of innate cytokines by pattern recognition pathways directly regulated BBB permeability and tight junction formation via balanced activation of the small GTPases Rac1 and RhoA, which in turn regulated the transendothelial trafficking of WNV. In vivo, mice with attenuated type I IFN signaling or IFN induction (Ifnar^−/−Irf7^−/−) exhibited enhanced BBB permeability and tight junction dysregulation after WNV infection. Together, these data provide new insight into host-pathogen interactions at the BBB during neurotropic viral infection.

West Nile virus (WNV) is an emerging pathogen capable of infecting the central nervous system (CNS), causing fatal encephalitis. However, the mechanisms that control the ability of WNV to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and access the CNS are unclear. In this study, we show that detection of WNV by host tissues induces innate immune cytokine expression at the BBB, regulating BBB structure and function and impacting transendothelial trafficking of WNV. This regulatory effect is shown to happen rapidly following exposure to virus, to occur independently of viral replication within BBB cells, and to require the signaling of cytoskeletal regulatory Rho GTPases. These results provide new understanding of host-pathogen interactions at the BBB during viral encephalitis.

Classical swine fever virus and p7 protein induce secretion of IL-1β in macrophages

Classical swine fever virus (CSFV) has a tropism for vascular endothelial cells and immune system cells. The process and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β and IL-18, is one of the fundamental reactions of the innate immune response to viral infection. In this study, we investigated the production of IL-1β from macrophages following CSFV infection. Our results showed that IL-1β was upregulated after CSFV infection through activating caspase-1. Subsequent studies demonstrated that reactive oxygen species may not be involved in CSFV-mediated IL-1β release. Recently, research has indicated a novel mechanism by which inflammasomes are triggered through detection of activity of viroporin. We further demonstrated that CSFV viroporin p7 protein induced IL-1β secretion which could be inhibited by the ion channel blocker amantadine and also discovered that p7 protein was a short-lived protein degraded by the proteasome. Together, our observations provided an insight into the mechanism of CSFV-induced inflammatory responses.

Increased expression of capsid protein in trans enhances production of single-round infectious particles by West Nile virus DNA vaccine candidate

West Nile virus (WNV; genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae) is an emerging pathogenic arbovirus responsible for outbreaks of encephalitis around the world. Whilst no vaccines are currently available to prevent WNV infection of humans, the use of cDNA copies of flavivirus RNA genomes with large internal deletions within the capsid (C) appears promising. C-deleted vaccines are able to replicate and secrete large amounts of non-infectious immunogenic subviral particles (SVPs) from transfected cells. We have previously generated a WNV DNA vaccine candidate pKUNdC/C where C-deleted WNV cDNA was placed under the control of one copy of the cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter and the C gene was placed under the control of a second copy of the CMV promoter in the same plasmid DNA. This DNA was shown to generate single-round infectious particles (SRIPs) capable of delivering self-replicating C-deleted RNA producing SVPs to surrounding cells, thus enhancing the vaccine potential. However, the amounts of both SRIPs and SVPs produced from pKUNdC/C DNA were relatively low. In this investigation, we aimed at increasing SRIP production by optimizing trans-C expression via incorporating different forms of C and the use of a more powerful promoter. The construct containing an elongation factor EF1α promoter encoding an extended form of C was demonstrated to produce the highest titres of SRIPs and was immunogenic in mice. Additionally, SRIP and SVP titres were further improved via incorporation of a glycosylation motif in the envelope protein. The optimized DNA yielded ~100-fold greater titres of SRIPs than the original construct, thus providing a promising candidate for further vaccine evaluation.

Innate and intrinsic antiviral immunity in skin

As the body's most exposed interface with the environment, the skin is constantly challenged by potentially pathogenic microbes, including viruses. To sense the invading viruses, various types of cells resident in the skin express many different pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) such as C-type lectin receptors (CLRs), Toll-like receptors (TLRs), nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptors (NLRs), retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I)-like receptors (RLRs) and cytosolic DNA sensors, that can detect the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) of the viruses. The detection of viral PAMPs initiates two major innate immune signaling cascades: the first involves the activation of the downstream transcription factors, such as interferon regulatory factors (IRFs), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and activator protein 1 (AP-1), which cooperate to induce the transcription of type I interferons and pro-inflammatory cytokines. The second signaling pathway involves the caspase-1-mediated processing of IL-1β and IL-18 through the formation of an inflammasome complex. Cutaneous innate immunity including the production of the innate cytokines constitutes the first line of host defence that limits the virus dissemination from the skin, and also plays an important role in the activation of adaptive immune response, which represents the second line of defence. More recently, the third immunity "intrinsic immunity" has emerged, that provides an immediate and direct antiviral defense mediated by host intrinsic restriction factors. This review focuses on the recent advances regarding the antiviral immune systems, highlighting the innate and intrinsic immunity against the viral infections in the skin, and describes how viral components are recognized by cutaneous immune systems.

Current developments in understanding of West Nile virus central nervous system disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

West Nile virus (WNV) is the most important cause of epidemic encephalitis in the United States. We review articles published in the last 18 months related to the epidemiology, immunology, clinical features, and treatment of this disease.

RECENT FINDINGS

There was a resurgence in WNV disease in the United States in 2012. The WNV strain now predominant in the United States (NA/WN02) differs from the initial emergent isolate in 1999 (NY99). However, differences in the genetics of currently circulating United States WNV strains do not explain variations in epidemic magnitude or disease severity. Innate and acquired immunity are critical in control of WNV, and in some cases pathways are central nervous system specific. The clinical features of infection are now well understood, although nonconfirmed observations of chronic viral excretion in urine remain controversial. There is no specific antiviral therapy for WNV, but studies of antivirals specific for other flaviviruses may identify agents with promise against WNV. Phase I and II human WNV vaccine clinical trials have established that well tolerated and immunogenic WNV vaccines can be developed.

SUMMARY

WNV remains an important public health problem. Although recent studies have significantly increased our understanding of host immune and genetic factors involved in control of WNV infection, no specific therapy is yet available. Development of a well tolerated, immunogenic, and effective vaccine against WNV is almost certainly feasible, but economic factors and the lack of predictability of the magnitude and location of outbreaks are problematic for designing phase III trials and ultimate licensure.

Systems analysis of West Nile virus infection

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Emerging/re-emerging mosquito-borne viruses are a significant public health threat.

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There is a need define the virus–host interactions that govern immunity to infection.

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Systems biology provides a comprehensive analysis of the host response.

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High-throughput based assays provide rapid identification of host targets.

Emerging and re-emerging mosquito-borne viruses continue to pose a significant threat to human health throughout the world. Over the past decade, West Nile virus (WNV), Dengue virus (DENV), and Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), have caused annual epidemics of virus-induced encephalitis, hemorrhagic fever\shock syndromes, and arthritis, respectively. Currently, no specific antiviral therapies or vaccines exist for use in humans to combat or prevent these viral infections. Thus, there is a pressing need to define the virus–host interactions that govern immunity and infection outcome. Recent technological breakthroughs in ‘omics’ resources and high-throughput based assays are beginning to accelerate antiviral drug discovery and improve on current strategies for vaccine design. In this review, we highlight studies with WNV and discuss how traditional and systems biological approaches are being used to rapidly identify novel host targets for therapeutic intervention and develop a deeper conceptual understanding of the host response to virus infection.

Rapid inflammasome activation in microglia contributes to brain disease in HIV/AIDS

Background

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1(HIV-1) infects and activates innate immune cells in the brain resulting in inflammation and neuronal death with accompanying neurological deficits. Induction of inflammasomes causes cleavage and release of IL-1β and IL-18, representing pathogenic processes that underlie inflammatory diseases although their contribution HIV-associated brain disease is unknown.

Results

Investigation of inflammasome-associated genes revealed that IL-1β, IL-18 and caspase-1 were induced in brains of HIV-infected persons and detected in brain microglial cells. HIV-1 infection induced pro-IL-1β in human microglia at 4 hr post-infection with peak IL-1β release at 24 hr, which was accompanied by intracellular ASC translocation and caspase-1 activation. HIV-dependent release of IL-1β from a human macrophage cell line, THP-1, was inhibited by NLRP3 deficiency and high extracellular [K⁺]. Exposure of microglia to HIV-1 gp120 caused IL-1β production and similarly, HIV-1 envelope pseudotyped viral particles induced IL-1β release, unlike VSV-G pseudotyped particles. Infection of cultured feline macrophages by the related lentivirus, feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), also resulted in the prompt induction of IL-1β. In vivo FIV infection activated multiple inflammasome-associated genes in microglia, which was accompanied by neuronal loss in cerebral cortex and neurological deficits. Multivariate analyses of data from FIV-infected and uninfected animals disclosed that IL-1β, NLRP3 and caspase-1 expression in cerebral cortex represented key molecular determinants of neurological deficits.

Conclusions

NLRP3 inflammasome activation was an early and integral aspect of lentivirus infection of microglia, which was associated with lentivirus-induced brain disease. Inflammasome activation in the brain might represent a potential target for therapeutic interventions in HIV/AIDS.

Deficient IFN signaling by myeloid cells leads to MAVS-dependent virus-induced sepsis

The type I interferon (IFN) signaling response limits infection of many RNA and DNA viruses. To define key cell types that require type I IFN signaling to orchestrate immunity against West Nile virus (WNV), we infected mice with conditional deletions of the type I IFN receptor (IFNAR) gene. Deletion of the Ifnar gene in subsets of myeloid cells resulted in uncontrolled WNV replication, vasoactive cytokine production, sepsis, organ damage, and death that were remarkably similar to infection of Ifnar^−/− mice completely lacking type I IFN signaling. In Mavs^−/−×Ifnar^−/− myeloid cells and mice lacking both Ifnar and the RIG-I-like receptor adaptor gene Mavs, cytokine production was muted despite high levels of WNV infection. Thus, in myeloid cells, viral infection triggers signaling through MAVS to induce proinflammatory cytokines that can result in sepsis and organ damage. Viral pathogenesis was caused in part by massive complement activation, as liver damage was minimized in animals lacking complement components C3 or factor B or treated with neutralizing anti-C5 antibodies. Disease in Ifnar^−/− and CD11c Cre⁺Ifnar^f/f mice also was facilitated by the proinflammatory cytokine TNF-α, as blocking antibodies diminished complement activation and prolonged survival without altering viral burden. Collectively, our findings establish the dominant role of type I IFN signaling in myeloid cells in restricting virus infection and controlling pathological inflammation and tissue injury.

Although it is well established that the interferon (IFN) signaling pathway restricts infection by many viruses, the key cell types in vivo that contribute to this process remain poorly characterized. To address this question in the context of West Nile virus (WNV) pathogenesis, we infected mice that specifically delete the type I IFN receptor gene (Ifnar) in subsets of myeloid cells, including dendritic cells and macrophages. Remarkably, mice lacking Ifnar expression only in myeloid cell subsets rapidly developed a sepsis-like syndrome that was characterized by enhanced WNV infection and visceral organ injury and caused by massive proinflammatory cytokine production and complement activation. By using additional gene targeted deletion mice, we show that WNV infection triggered signaling through the RIG-I like receptor adaptor protein MAVS to cause complement activation, sepsis, and tissue damage. Indeed, liver damage was minimized in animals lacking specific complement components, or treated with neutralizing anti-complement or anti-TNF-α antibodies. Our results establish how type I IFN signaling in dendritic cells and macrophages restricts infection, controls inflammatory cascades, and prevents pathogenesis in vivo.

The expanding role of NLRs in antiviral immunity

Nucleotide oligomerization and binding domain (NOD)-like receptors (NLRs) are a major constituent of the cytosolic innate immune-sensing machinery and participate in a wide array of pathways including nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), inflammasome, and type I interferon (IFN) signaling. NLRs have known roles in autoimmune, autoinflammatory, and infectious diseases. With respect to virus infection, NLRP3 is the most extensively studied NLR, including mechanisms of activation and inhibition. Furthermore, the importance of NLRP3 in both innate and adaptive immunity has been demonstrated. In comparison to NLRP3, the roles of other NLRs during virus infection are only just emerging. NLRC2 is an important activator of innate antiviral signaling and was recently found to mitigate inflammation during virus infection through autophagy. Finally, functions for NLRX1 in immune modulation and reactive oxygen species production require further examination and the importance of NLRC5 as a transactivator of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and antigen presentation is currently developing. In this review, we discuss current knowledge pertaining to viruses and NLRs as well as areas of potential research, which will help advance the study of NLR biology during virus infection.

Role of pattern recognition receptors in flavivirus infections

The flaviviral encephalitis has now become a major health concern in global scale. The efficient detection of viral infection and induction of the innate antiviral response by host's innate immune system are crucial to determine the outcome of infection. The intracellular pattern recognition receptors TLRs, RLRs, NLRs and CLRs play a central role in detection and initiation of robust antiviral response against flaviviral infection. Both cytoplasmic RLRs, RIG-I and MDA5 have been shown to be implicated in sensing flaviviral genomic RNA. Similarly among TLRs mainly TLR3 and TLR7 are known to respond in flaviviral infections as they are known to sense dsRNA and ssRNA moiety as their natural cognate ligand. Several studies have also shown the roles of NLRs and CLRs in mounting an innate antiviral response against flavivirus but, it is yet to be completely understood. Until now only few reports have implicated NLRs and CLRs in induction of antiviral and proinflammatory state following flaviviral infection. The current review therefore aims to comprehensively analyze past as well as current understanding on the role of PRRs in flaviviral infections.

The fine line between protection and pathology in neurotropic flavivirus and alphavirus infections

ABSTRACT: 

Flavivirus and alphavirus are two families of medically important arboviruses known to cause devastating neurologic disease. Exciting knowledge regarding epidemiology, disease and host immune responses are constantly unraveling. In this review, we aim to piece existing knowledge of neurotropic flavi- and alpha-viruses into a general, coherent picture of host–pathogen interactions. Special interest lies in the protective and pathologic host immunity to flavi- and alpha-viral infections, with a strong focus on West Nile virus, Japanese Encephalitis virus and Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus as representatives of their family.

Combinatorial cytokine code generates anti-viral state in dendritic cells

The physiological function of the immune system and the response to therapeutic immunomodulators may be sensitive to combinatorial cytokine micro-environments that shape the responses of specific immune cells. Previous work shows that paracrine cytokines released by virus-infected human dendritic cells (DC) can dictate the maturation state of naïve DCs. To understand the effects of paracrine signaling, we systematically studied the effects of combinations cytokines in this complex mixture in generating an anti-viral state. After naïve DCs were exposed to either IFNβ or to paracrine signaling released by DCs infected by Newcastle disease virus (NDV), microarray analysis revealed a large number of genes that were differently regulated by the DC-secreted paracrine signaling. In order to identify the cytokine mechanisms involved, we identified 20 cytokines secreted by NDV infected DCs for which the corresponding receptor gene is expressed in naïve DCs. By exposing cells to all combinations of 19 cytokines (leave-one-out studies), we identified five cytokines (IFNβ, TNFα, IL-1β, TNFSF15, and IL28) as candidates for regulating DC maturation markers. Subsequent experiments identified IFNβ, TNFα, and IL1β as the major contributors to this anti-viral state. This finding was supported by infection studies in vitro, by T-cell activation studies and by in vivo infection studies in mouse. Combination of cytokines can cause response states in DCs that differ from those achieved by the individual cytokines alone. These results suggest that the cytokine microenvironment may act via a combinatorial code to direct the response state of specific immune cells. Further elucidation of this code may provide insight into responses to infection and neoplasia as well as guide the development of combinatorial cytokine immunomodulation for infectious, autoimmune, and immunosurveillance-related diseases.

Critical role for the AIM2 inflammasome during acute CNS bacterial infection

Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) is essential for eliciting protective immunity during the acute phase of Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) infection in the central nervous system (CNS). We previously demonstrated that microglial IL-1β production in response to live S. aureus is mediated through the Nod-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, including the adapter protein ASC (apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase-1 recruitment domain), and pro-caspase 1. Here, we utilized NLRP3, ASC, and caspase 1/11 knockout (KO) mice to demonstrate the functional significance of inflammasome activity during CNS S. aureus infection. ASC and caspase 1/11 KO animals were exquisitely sensitive, with approximately 50% of mice succumbing to infection within 24 h. Unexpectedly, the survival of NLRP3 KO mice was similar to wild-type animals, suggesting the involvement of an alternative upstream sensor, which was later identified as absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) based on the similar disease patterns between AIM2 and ASC KO mice. Besides IL-1β, other key inflammatory mediators, including IL-6, CXCL1, CXCL10, and CCL2 were significantly reduced in the CNS of AIM2 and ASC KO mice, implicating autocrine/paracrine actions of IL-1β, as these mediators do not require inflammasome processing for secretion. These studies demonstrate a novel role for the AIM2 inflammasome as a critical molecular platform for regulating IL-1β release and survival during acute CNS S. aureus infection.

Inflammasomes in the CNS

Microglia and macrophages in the CNS contain multimolecular complexes termed inflammasomes. Inflammasomes function as intracellular sensors for infectious agents as well as for host-derived danger signals that are associated with neurological diseases, including meningitis, stroke and Alzheimer's disease. Assembly of an inflammasome activates caspase 1 and, subsequently, the proteolysis and release of the cytokines interleukin-1β and interleukin-18, as well as pyroptotic cell death. Since the discovery of inflammasomes in 2002, there has been burgeoning recognition of their complexities and functions. Here, we review the current understanding of the functions of different inflammasomes in the CNS and their roles in neurological diseases.

Evaluation of neuroimmunomodulatory activity of recombinant human interferon α

OBJECTIVE

Recombinant human interferon (rhIFN)-α is a potent immunoregulator having a wide range of therapeutic applications. In the present study, rhIFN-α was evaluated for its neuroimmunomodulatory activity.

METHOD

Dose-dependent gene expression of cytokines and chemokines in the brain of rhIFN-administered mice was studied using real-time SYBR green PCR.

RESULTS

Statistically significant increase in expression levels of tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β and IFN-γ were observed.

CONCLUSION

The findings indicate that rhIFN-α may be used at an optimized dose to cause appropriate neuromodulation of cytokine/chemokine secretion that can aid in the development of therapeutic approaches for many infectious diseases of the central nervous system for which therapies are lacking.

Licensing Adaptive Immunity by NOD-Like Receptors

The innate immune system is composed of a diverse set of host defense molecules, physical barriers, and specialized leukocytes and is the primary form of immune defense against environmental insults. Another crucial role of innate immunity is to shape the long-lived adaptive immune response mediated by T and B lymphocytes. The activation of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) from the Toll-like receptor family is now a classic example of innate immune molecules influencing adaptive immunity, resulting in effective antigen presentation to naïve T cells. More recent work suggests that the activation of another family of PRRs, the NOD-like receptors (NLRs), induces a different set of innate immune responses and accordingly, drives different aspects of adaptive immunity. Yet how this unusually diverse family of molecules (some without canonical PRR function) regulates immunity remains incompletely understood. In this review, we discuss the evidence for and against NLR activity orchestrating adaptive immune responses during infectious as well as non-infectious challenges.

Interleukin-1β (187-207)-induced hyperthermia is inhibited by interleukin-1β (193-195) in rats

Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) is a pro-inflammatory cytokine, which plays an important role in the immune response and signal transduction both in the periphery and the central nervous system (CNS). Various diseases of the CNS, including neurodegenerative disorders, vascular lesions, meningo-encephalitis or status epilepticus are accompanied by elevated levels of IL-1β. Different domains within the IL-lβ protein are responsible for distinct functions. The IL-lβ domain in position 208-240 has pyrogenic properties, while the domain in position 193-195 exerts anti-inflammatory effects. Previous studies provide little evidence about the effect of the domain in position 187-207 on the body temperature. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the action of IL-1β (187-207) and its interaction with IL-1β (193-195) on the body temperature. IL fragments were administered intracerebroventricularly and the body temperature was measured rectally in male Wistar rats. IL-1β (187-207) induced hyperthermia, while IL-1β (193-195) did not influence the core temperature considerably. In co-administration, IL-1β (193-195) completely abolished the IL-1β (187-207)-induced hyperthermia. The non-steroid anti-inflammatory drug metamizole also reversed completely the action of IL-1β (187-207). Our results provide evidence that the IL-lβ domain in position 187-207 has hyperthermic effect. This effect is mediated through prostaglandin E2 stimulation and other mechanisms may also be involved in the action of IL-1β (187-207). It also suggests that IL-lβ domain in position 187-207 and IL-1β (193-195) fragment may serve as novel target for treatment of disorders accompanied with hyperthermia.

Regulatory T cells shape the resident memory T cell response to virus infection in the tissues

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are well known for their role in dampening the immune responses to self-Ags and, thereby, limiting autoimmunity. However, they also must permit immune responses to occur against foreign infectious agents. Using a mouse model of West Nile virus infection, we examined the role of Tregs in the generation of effector and memory T cell responses in the secondary lymphoid organs, as well as the infected tissues. We found that Treg numbers and activation increased in both the secondary lymphoid organs and CNS postinfection. Using Foxp3(DTR) knock-in mice, we found that Treg-deficient mice had increased Ag-driven production of IFN-γ from both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells in the spleen and CNS during the effector phase. In mice lacking Tregs, there were greater numbers of short-lived effector CD8(+) T cells in the spleen during the peak of the immune response, but the memory CD8(+) T cell response was impaired. Specifically, we demonstrate that Treg-dependent production of TGF-β results in increased expression of CD103 on CD8(+) T cells, thereby allowing for a large pool of resident memory T cells to be maintained in the brain postinfection.

Differential virulence and pathogenesis of West Nile viruses

West Nile virus (WNV) is a neurotropic flavivirus that cycles between mosquitoes and birds but that can also infect humans, horses, and other vertebrate animals. In most humans, WNV infection remains subclinical. However, 20%-40% of those infected may develop WNV disease, with symptoms ranging from fever to meningoencephalitis. A large variety of WNV strains have been described worldwide. Based on their genetic differences, they have been classified into eight lineages; the pathogenic strains belong to lineages 1 and 2. Ten years ago, Beasley et al. (2002) found that dramatic differences exist in the virulence and neuroinvasion properties of lineage 1 and lineage 2 WNV strains. Further insights on how WNV interacts with its hosts have recently been gained; the virus acts either at the periphery or on the central nervous system (CNS), and these observed differences could help explain the differential virulence and neurovirulence of WNV strains. This review aims to summarize the current state of knowledge on factors that trigger WNV dissemination and CNS invasion as well as on the inflammatory response and CNS damage induced by WNV. Moreover, we will discuss how WNV strains differentially interact with the innate immune system and CNS cells, thus influencing WNV pathogenesis.

The innate immune playbook for restricting West Nile virus infection

West Nile virus (WNV) is an emerging mosquito-borne flavivirus that causes annual epidemics of encephalitic disease throughout the world. Despite the ongoing risk to public health, no approved vaccines or therapies exist for use in humans to prevent or combat WNV infection. The innate immune response is critical for controlling WNV replication, limiting virus-induced pathology, and programming protective humoral and cell-mediated immunity to WNV infection. The RIG-I like receptors, Toll-like receptors, and Nod-like receptors detect and respond to WNV by inducing a potent antiviral defense program, characterized by production of type I IFN, IL-1β and expression of antiviral effector genes. Recent research efforts have focused on uncovering the mechanisms of innate immune sensing, antiviral effector genes that inhibit WNV, and countermeasures employed by WNV to antagonize innate immune cellular defenses. In this review, we highlight the major research findings pertaining to innate immune regulation of WNV infection.

CD8 and CD4 T cells in west nile virus immunity and pathogenesis

CD4 and CD8 T lymphocytes are adaptive immune cells that play a key role in the immune response to pathogens. They have been extensively studied in a variety of model systems and the mechanisms by which they function are well described. However, the responses by these cell types vary widely from pathogen to pathogen. In this review, we will discuss the role of CD8 and CD4 T cells in the immune response to West Nile virus infection.

A Nod to disease vectors: mitigation of pathogen sensing by arthropod saliva

Arthropod saliva possesses anti-hemostatic, anesthetic, and anti-inflammatory properties that facilitate feeding and, inadvertently, dissemination of pathogens. Vector-borne diseases caused by these pathogens affect millions of people each year. Many studies address the impact of arthropod salivary proteins on various immunological components. However, whether and how arthropod saliva counters Nod-like (NLR) sensing remains elusive. NLRs are innate immune pattern recognition molecules involved in detecting microbial molecules and danger signals. Nod1/2 signaling results in activation of the nuclear factor-κB and the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. Caspase-1 NLRs regulate the inflammasome~– a protein scaffold that governs the maturation of interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18. Recently, several vector-borne pathogens have been shown to induce NLR activation in immune cells. Here, we provide a brief overview of NLR signaling and discuss clinically relevant vector-borne pathogens recognized by NLR pathways. We also elaborate on possible anti-inflammatory effects of arthropod saliva on NLR signaling and microbial pathogenesis for the purpose of exchanging research perspectives.

The neuroimmune response to West Nile virus

The recent introduction of highly pathogenic strains of West Nile virus (WNV) into naïve populations in Europe, Israel, and the USA has resulted in a marked increase in both the number of reported cases and the severity of disease compared to previous outbreaks. The impact of the increased virulence of recently emerged strains of WNV is exacerbated by the fact that antiviral therapies and vaccines are not currently available for use in humans. A greater understanding of the viral and host factors involved in WNV-mediated neuropathology is necessary to facilitate the development of novel therapeutic approaches. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge of the role of the cell-intrinsic innate immune responses as well as the cell-mediated innate and adaptive immune responses in promoting the detection and clearance of WNV from the CNS.