Chemokines Modulate Immune Surveillance in Tumorigenesis, Metastasis, and Response to Immunotherapy

Construction of a Novel Immune-Related mRNA Signature to Predict the Prognosis and Immune Characteristics of Human Colorectal Cancer

Background: Anti-cancer immunotherapeutic approaches have gained significant efficacy in multiple cancer types. However, not all patients with colorectal cancer (CRC) could benefit from immunotherapy due to tumor heterogeneity. The purpose of this study was to construct an immune-related signature for predicting the immune characteristics and prognosis of CRC.

Methods: RNA-sequencing data and corresponding clinical information of patients with CRC were obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO), and immune-related genes (IRGs) were downloaded from the Immunology Database and Analysis Portal (ImmPort). Then, we utilized univariate, lasso regression, and multivariate cox regression to identify prognostic IRGs and develop the immune-related signature. Subsequently, a nomogram was established based on the signature and other prognostic factors, and its predictive capacity was assessed by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) and decision curve analysis (DCA). Finally, associations between the signature and the immune characteristics of CRC were assessed.

Results: In total, 472 samples downloaded from TCGA were divided into the training cohort (236 samples) and internal validation cohort (236 samples), and the GEO cohort was downloaded as an external validation cohort (122 samples). A total of 476 differently expressed IRGs were identified, 17 of which were significantly correlated to the prognosis of CRC patients. Finally, 10 IRGs were filtered out to construct the risk score signature, and patients were divided into low- and high-risk groups according to the median of risk scores in the training cohort. The high-risk score was significantly correlated with unfavorable survival outcomes and aggressive clinicopathological characteristics in CRC patients, and the results were further confirmed in the internal validation cohort, entire TCGA cohort, and external validation cohort. Immune infiltration analysis revealed that patients in the low-risk group infiltrated with high tumor-infiltrating immune cell (TIIC) abundances compared to the high-risk group. Moreover, we also found that the immune checkpoint biomarkers were significantly overexpressed in the low-risk group.

Conclusion: The prognostic signature established by IRGs showed a promising clinical value for predicting the prognosis and immune characteristics of human CRC, which contribute to individualized treatment decisions.

Harnessing the chemokine system to home CAR-T cells into solid tumors

CAR-T cell therapy has been heralded as a breakthrough in the field of immunotherapy, but to date, this success has been limited to hematological malignancies. By harnessing the chemokine system and taking into consideration the chemokine expression profile in the tumor microenvironment, CAR-T cells may be homed into tumors to facilitate direct tumor cell cytolysis and overcome a major hurdle in generating effective CAR-T cell responses to solid cancers.

Natural killer cell therapy: A new frontier for obesity-associated cancer

Natural killer (NK) cell infiltration of solid tumours is associated with better outcomes, placing augmentation of NK cell abundance in tumours as an attractive immunotherapeutic approach. The unique ability of NK cells to target cancer cells without antigen specificity increases their versatility and applicability as an immunotherapeutic tool. However, successful utilisation of NK cell-based therapies in solid tumours is still at an early stage. Obesity has become a global health epidemic, and the prevalence of obesity-associated cancers has significantly increased. Obesity-associated malignancies provide a unique challenge for the successful application of cell-based immunotherapies including NK cell-based therapies because significant numbers of NK and T cells are recruited to the visceral adipose tissue at the expense of successful tumour infiltration and eradication. As such, immunotherapy efficacy has been disappointing for obesity-associated malignancies such as oesophageal and gastric adenocarcinoma. Therefore, immunotherapies for obesity-associated cancers warrant our further attention. Indeed, it is becoming ever more obvious that more innovative approaches are needed to re-invigorate anti-tumour immunity and overcome immune exclusion in such tumours. In this review, we briefly summarise the dysfunctionality of NK cells in obesity-associated cancer. We outline the NK cell-based immunotherapeutic approaches which hold promise as effective treatments in this disease space, including CAR-NK cells. Furthermore, we suggest future avenues which possess the potential to transform immunotherapy and specifically NK cell therapy efficacy for obesity-associated cancer.

Chemokines in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Heterogeneity: New Challenges for Clinical Implications

Tumor heterogeneity is a hallmark of cancer and one of the primary causes of resistance to therapies. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), which accounts for 15% to 20% of all breast cancers and is the most aggressive subtype, is very diverse, connected to metastatic potential and response to therapy. It is a very diverse disease at the molecular, pathologic, and clinical levels. TNBC is substantially more likely to recur and has a worse overall survival rate following diagnosis than other breast cancer subtypes. Chemokines, low molecular weight proteins that stimulate chemotaxis, have been shown to control the cues responsible for TNBC heterogeneity. In this review, we have focused on tumor heterogeneity and the role of chemokines in modulating tumor heterogeneity, since this is the most critical issue in treating TNBC. Additionally, we examined numerous cues mediated by chemokine networks that contribute to the heterogeneity of TNBC. Recent developments in our knowledge of the chemokine networks that regulate TNBC heterogeneity may pave the door for developing difficult-to-treat TNBC treatment options.

Dichotomous effects of cellular expression of STAT3 on tumor growth of HNSCC

STAT3 signaling has been shown to regulate cellular function and cytokine production in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Within the head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) TME, we previously showed that therapeutic targeting of STAT3 in combination with radiation resulted in improved tumor growth delay. However, given the independent regulatory effects STAT3 has on anti-tumor immunity, we aimed to decipher the effects of individually targeting STAT3 in the cancer cell, regulatory T cells (Tregs), and natural killer (NK) cell compartments in driving tumor growth and resistance to therapy in HNSCCs. We utilized a CRISPR knockout system for genetic deletion of STAT3 within the cancer cell as well as two genetic knockout mouse models, FoxP3-Cre/STAT3 fl and NKp46-Cre/STAT3 fl, for Tregs and NK cell targeting, respectively. Our data revealed differences in development of resistance to treatment with STAT3 CRISPR knockout in the cancer cell, driven by differential recruitment of immune cells. Knockout of STAT3 in Tregs overcomes this resistance and results in Treg reprogramming and recruitment and activation of antigen-presenting cells. In contrast, knockout of STAT3 in the NK cell compartment results in NK cell inactivation and acceleration of tumor growth. These data underscore the complex interplay between the cancer cell and the immune TME and carry significant implications for drug targeting and design of combination approaches in HNSCCs.

MicroRNA-200b-3p restrains gastric cancer cell proliferation, migration, and invasion via C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 12/CXC chemokine receptor 7 axis

This study was conducted to investigate the impact of microRNA (miR)-200b-3p on viability, migration, and invasion of gastric cancer (GC) cells and its mechanism. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) was conducted to measure miR-200b-3p expression in GC tissues and cells; besides, the relationship between miR-200b-3p expression and overall survival time (OS) was analyzed with OncomiR database; cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8), colony formation assay, flow cytometry, scratch healing assay, and Transwell assay were performed to detect the proliferation, cell cycle progression, migration, and invasion of GC cells; a lung metastasis model in nude mice was used to examine the effect of miR-200b-3p on the metastasis of GC cells in vivo; the interplay between miR-200b-3p and C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12) mRNA 3’ UTR was predicted by bioinformatics and verified with a dual-luciferase reporter gene assay; besides, the expression of CXCL12 and CXC chemokine receptor 7 (CXCR7) was probed by Western blot. It was found that miR-200b-3p expression was down-regulated in GC tissues, which was remarkably associated with the lymph node metastasis and decrease of differentiation of GC; transfection with miR-200b-3p mimics restrained the growth, migration, and invasion of GC cells in vitro, induced cell cycle arrest, and inhibited CXCL12 and CXCR7 expression levels; transfection of miR-200b-3p inhibitors worked oppositely in vitro and promoted lung metastasis in vivo. CXCL12 was confirmed as the downstream target of miR-200b-3p and was negatively modulated by miR-200b-3p. In conclusion, miR-200b-3p inhibited GC progression via regulating CXCL12/CXCR7 axis.

Eosinophils and melanoma: Implications for immunotherapy

New therapies such as immune checkpoint blockers (ICB) have offered extended survival to patients affected by advanced melanoma. However, ICBs have demonstrated debilitating side effects on the joints, liver, lungs, skin, and gut. Several biomarkers have been identified for their role in predicting which patients better tolerate ICBs. Still, these biomarkers are limited by immunologic and genetic heterogeneity and the complexity of translation into clinical practice. Recent observational studies have suggested eosinophil counts, and serum levels of eosinophil cationic protein are significantly associated with prolonged survival in advanced-stage melanoma. It is likely that eosinophils thereby modulate treatment response through mechanisms yet to be explored. Here, we review the functionality of eosinophils, their oncogenic role in melanoma and discuss how these mechanisms may influence patient response to ICBs and their implications in clinical practice.

CXC Chemokine Signaling in Progression of Epithelial Ovarian Cancer: Theranostic Perspectives

Patients with epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) are often diagnosed at an advanced stage due to nonspecific symptoms and ineffective screening approaches. Although chemotherapy has been available and widely used for the treatment of advanced EOC, the overall prognosis remains dismal. As part of the intrinsic defense mechanisms against cancer development and progression, immune cells are recruited into the tumor microenvironment (TME), and this process is directed by the interactions between different chemokines and their receptors. In this review, the functional significance of CXC chemokine ligands/chemokine receptors (CXCL/CXCR) and their roles in modulating EOC progression are summarized. The status and prospects of CXCR/CXCL-based theranostic strategies in EOC management are also discussed.

Bystander T cells in cancer immunology and therapy

Cancer-specific T cells are required for effective anti-cancer immunity and have a central role in cancer immunotherapy. However, emerging evidence suggests that only a small fraction of tumor-infiltrating T cells are cancer specific, and T cells that recognize cancer-unrelated antigens (so-called 'bystanders') are abundant. Although the role of cancer-specific T cells in anti-cancer immunity has been well established, the implications of bystander T cells in tumors are only beginning to be understood. It is becoming increasingly clear that bystander T cells are not a homogeneous group of cells but, instead, they differ in their specificities, their activation states and effector functions. In this Perspective, we discuss recent studies of bystander T cells in tumors, including experimental and computational approaches that enable their identification and functional analysis and viewpoints on how these insights could be used to develop new therapeutic approaches for cancer immunotherapy.

Novel Cellular Therapies for Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the leading causes of cancer related death worldwide. Most patients present with advanced disease, and current gold-standard management using tyrosine kinase inhibitors or immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) offers modest clinical benefit. Cellular immune therapies targeting HCC are currently being tested in the laboratory and in clinical trials. Here, we review the landscape of cellular immunotherapy for HCC, defining antigenic targets, outlining the range of cell therapy products being applied in HCC (such as CAR-T and TCR-T), and exploring how advanced engineering solutions may further enhance this therapeutic approach.

Chemokine Receptor-Targeted Therapies: Special Case for CCR8

Immune checkpoint blockade inhibitors (CBIs) targeting cytotoxic T lymphocyte associated protein-4 (CTLA-4) and program death receptor-1 (PD-1) or its ligand-1 (PD-L1) have transformed the outlook of many patients with cancer. This remarkable progress has highlighted, from the translational point of view, the importance of immune cells in the control of tumor progression. There is still room for improvement, since current CBI therapies benefit a minority of patients. Moreover, interference with immune checkpoint receptors frequently causes immune related adverse events (irAEs) with life-threatening consequences in some of the patients. Immunosuppressive cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME), including intratumoral regulatory T (Treg) cells, tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), contribute to tumor progression and correlate with a negative disease outlook. Recent reports revealed the selective expression of the chemokine receptor CCR8 on tumor Treg cells, making CCR8 a promising target in translational research. In this review, I summarize our current knowledge about the cellular distribution and function of CCR8 in physiological and pathophysiological processes. The discussion includes an assessment of how the removal of CCR8-expressing cells might affect both anti-tumor immunity as well as immune homeostasis at remote sites. Based on these considerations, CCR8 appears to be a promising novel target to be considered in future translational research.

Upregulation of IFNɣ-mediated chemokines dominate the immune transcriptome of muscle-invasive urothelial carcinoma

Tumor inflammation is prognostically significant in high-grade muscle-invasive bladder cancer (MIBC). However, the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. To identify inflammation-associated immune gene expression patterns, we performed transcriptomic profiling of 40 MIBC archival tumors using the NanoString nCounter Human v.1.1 PanCancer Panel. Findings were validated using the TCGA MIBC dataset. Unsupervised and supervised clustering identified a distinctive immune-related gene expression profile for inflammation, characterized by significant upregulation of 149 genes, particularly chemokines, a subset of which also had potential prognostic utility. Some of the most enriched biological processes were lymphocyte activation and proliferation, leukocyte adhesion and migration, antigen processing and presentation and cellular response to IFN-γ. Upregulation of numerous IFN-γ-inducible chemokines, class II MHC molecules and immune checkpoint genes was detected as part of the complex immune response to MIBC. Further, B-cell markers linked to tertiary lymphoid structures were upregulated, which in turn is predictive of tumor response to immunotherapy and favorable outcome. Our findings of both an overall activated immune profıle and immunosuppressive microenvironment provide novel insights into the complex immune milieu of MIBC with inflammation and supports its clinical significance for predicting prognosis and immunotherapeutic responsiveness, which warrants further investigation. This may open novel opportunities to identify mechanisms for developing new immunotherapeutic strategies.

Potential Role of CXCL13/CXCR5 Signaling in Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Treatment in Cancer

Simple Summary

Immunotherapy is currently the backbone of new drug treatments for many cancer patients. CXC chemokine ligand 13 (CXCL13) is an important factor involved in recruiting immune cells that express CXC chemokine receptor type 5 (CXCR5) in the tumor microenvironment and serves as a key molecular determinant of tertiary lymphoid structure (TLS) formation. An increasing number of studies have identified the influence of CXCL13 on prognosis in patients with cancer, regardless of the use of immunotherapy treatment. However, no comprehensive reviews of the role of CXCL13 in cancer immunotherapy have been published to date. This review aims to provide an overview of the CXCL13/CXCR5 signaling axis to summarize its mechanisms of action in cancer cells and lymphocytes, in addition to effects on immunity and cancer pathobiology, and its potential as a biomarker for the response to cancer immunotherapy.

Abstract

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), including antibodies that target programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1), programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1), or cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA4), represent some of the most important breakthroughs in new drug development for oncology therapy from the past decade. CXC chemokine ligand 13 (CXCL13) exclusively binds CXC chemokine receptor type 5 (CXCR5), which plays a critical role in immune cell recruitment and activation and the regulation of the adaptive immune response. CXCL13 is a key molecular determinant of the formation of tertiary lymphoid structures (TLSs), which are organized aggregates of T, B, and dendritic cells that participate in the adaptive antitumor immune response. CXCL13 may also serve as a prognostic and predictive factor, and the role played by CXCL13 in some ICI-responsive tumor types has gained intense interest. This review discusses how CXCL13/CXCR5 signaling modulates cancer and immune cells to promote lymphocyte infiltration, activation by tumor antigens, and differentiation to increase the antitumor immune response. We also summarize recent preclinical and clinical evidence regarding the ICI-therapeutic implications of targeting the CXCL13/CXCR5 axis and discuss the potential role of this signaling pathway in cancer immunotherapy.

Interleukin-8 in Melanoma Pathogenesis, Prognosis and Therapy-An Integrated View into Other Neoplasms and Chemokine Networks

Cutaneous melanoma accounts for only about 7% of skin cancers but is causing almost 90% of deaths. Melanoma cells have a distinct repertoire of mutations from other cancers, a high plasticity and degree of mimicry toward vascular phenotype, stemness markers, versatility in evading and suppress host immune control. They exert a significant influence on immune, endothelial and various stromal cells which form tumor microenvironment. The metastatic stage, the leading cause of mortality in this neoplasm, is the outcome of a complex, still poorly understood, cross-talk between tumor and other cell phenotypes. There is accumulating evidence that Interleukin-8 (IL-8) is emblematic for advanced melanomas. This work aimed to present an updated status of IL-8 in melanoma tumor cellular complexity, through a comprehensive analysis including data from other chemokines and neoplasms. The multiple processes and mechanisms surveyed here demonstrate that IL-8 operates following orchestrated programs within signaling webs in melanoma, stromal and vascular cells. Importantly, the yet unknown molecularity regulating IL-8 impact on cells of the immune system could be exploited to overturn tumor fate. The molecular and cellular targets of IL-8 should be brought into the attention of even more intense scientific exploration and valorization in the therapeutical management of melanoma.

Monocyte Chemotactic Proteins (MCP) in Colorectal Adenomas Are Differently Expressed at the Transcriptional and Protein Levels: Implications for Colorectal Cancer Prevention

The expression of monocyte chemotactic proteins (MCPs) in colorectal polyps and their suitability as targets for chemoprevention is unknown, although MCP expression and secretion can be modulated by non-steroidal inflammatory drugs. This study was designed to determine the expression patterns of MCP-1/CCL2, MCP-2/CCL8, and MCP-3/CCL7 at the protein (immunohistochemistry; n = 62) and transcriptional levels (RTqPCR; n = 173) in colorectal polyps with reference to the polyp malignancy potential. All chemokines were significantly upregulated in polyps at the protein level but downregulated at the transcriptional level by 1.4-(CCL2), 1.7-(CCL7), and 2.3-fold (CCL8). There was an inverse relation between the immunoreactivity toward chemokine proteins and the number of corresponding transcripts in polyps (CCL2 and CCL7) or in normal mucosa (CCL8). The downregulation of chemokine transcripts correlated with the presence of multiple polyps (CCL2 and CCL8), a larger polyp size (CCL2, CCL7, and CCL8), predominant villous growth patterns (CCL2, CCL7 and CCL8), and high-grade dysplasia (CCL2 and CCL8). In conclusion, MCP-1/CCL2, MCP-2/CCL8, and MCP-3/CCL7 chemokines are counter-regulated at the protein and transcriptional levels. Chemokine-directed chemopreventive strategies should therefore directly neutralize MCP proteins or target molecular pathways contributing to their enhanced translation or reduced degradation, rather than aiming at CCL2, CCL7 or CCL8 expression.

Combination of IDO1high and CCL19low expression in the tumor tissue reduces survival in HPV positive cervical cancer

The over expression of Indoleamine 2, 3-Dioxygenase (IDO1), an immune checkpoint inhibitor, is well known in cervical cancer. However, its association with chemokine signals promoting cellular infiltration in the cervical tumor microenvironment, is unknown. In the current study, we evaluated the expression and enzymatic activity of IDO1. We also profiled the expression of chemokine ligand-receptors- CCR4-CCL22, CXCR3-CXCL10, CXCR4-CXCL12, and CCR7-CCL19 using immunohistochemistry (IHC), and studied their association with IDO1, statistically. After getting an informed consent, punch biopsy samples were obtained from 105 patients diagnosed with cervical cancer. HPV typing by Sanger sequencing, realtime PCR for quantifying IDO1 mRNA expression, HPLC for determining the K/T ratio and IHC for all the above chemokine receptor-ligand pairs along with IDO1 were performed. We found a significant increase in the expression of IDO1 and K/T levels in early and locally advanced stages when compared to Stage IV disease. Among the chemokine ligand -receptor pairs profiled, we found that high CCL19 marker expression was a good prognostic indicator of patients' disease-free (p = 0.013) and overall survival (p = 0.043). Although we could not identify IDO1 as an independent prognostic factor, we found that high levels of IDO1 expression may further reduce survival outcomes in patients with low CCL19 expression. This could be vital for designing immuno therapeutic interventions targeting IDO1.

Mesenchymal Stem/Stromal Cells Overexpressing CXCR4R334X Revealed Enhanced Migration: A Lesson Learned from the Pathogenesis of WHIM Syndrome

C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4), initially recognized as a co-receptor for HIV, contributes to several disorders, including the WHIM (Warts, Hypogammaglobulinemia, Infections, and Myelokathexis) syndrome. CXCR4 binds to its ligand SDF-1 to make an axis involved in the homing property of stem cells. This study aimed to employ WHIM syndrome pathogenesis as an inspirational approach to reinforce cell therapies. Wild type and WHIM-type variants of the CXCR4 gene were chemically synthesized and cloned in the pCDH-513B-1 lentiviral vector. Molecular cloning of the synthetic genes was confirmed by DNA sequencing, and expression of both types of CXCR4 at the protein level was confirmed by western blotting in HEK293T cells. Human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (Ad-MSCs) were isolated, characterized, and subjected to lentiviral transduction with Wild type and WHIM-type variants of CXCR4. The presence of copGFP-positive MSCs confirmed the high efficiency of transduction. The migration ability of both groups of transduced cells was then assessed by transwell migration assay in the presence or absence of a CXCR4-blocking agent. Our qRT-PCR results showed overexpression of CXCR4 at mRNA level in both groups of transduced MSCs, and expression of WHIM-type CXCR4 was significantly higher than Wild type CXCR4 (P<0.05). Our results indicated that the migration of genetically modified MSCs expressing WHIM-type CXCR4 had significantly enhanced towards SDF1 in comparison with Wild type CXCR4 (P<0.05), while it was reduced after treatment with CXCR4 antagonist. These data suggest that overexpression of WHIM-type CXCR4 could lead to enhanced and sustained expression of CXCR4 on human MSCs, which would increase their homing capability; hence it might be an appropriate strategy to improve the efficiency of cell-based therapies.

Identification of Gene Co-Expression Networks Associated with Consensus Molecular Subtype-1 of Colorectal Cancer

Simple Summary

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a frequently lethal disease with heterogenous outcomes. Alterations in the Wnt signaling pathways have been shown to promote activation of signaling pathways such as MAPK and PI3K-Akt. Consensus molecular subtyping (CMS) provides a cohesive structure to classify the heterogeneity of CRC using gene expression analysis. CMS is categorized into four subtypes: CMS1, immune; CMS2, canonical; CMS3, metabolic; and CMS4, mesenchymal. Here, we identify co-expressed gene networks associated with CMS1. Our findings distinguish co-expressed gene networks that play a pivotal role in key features specific for CMS1, such as immune infiltration and activation. The co-expressed gene networks for CMS1 were significantly and positively correlated with the TNF, WNT, and ERK1 and ERK2 signaling pathways. This study highlights the relevance of CMS1 gene networks relating to oncogenic signaling cascades, cell activation, and positive regulation of immune responses, promoting CRC progressiveness.

Abstract

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is driven in part by dysregulated Wnt, Ras-Raf-MAPK, TGF-β, and PI3K-Akt signaling. The progression of CRC is also promoted by molecular alterations and heterogeneous—yet interconnected—gene mutations, chromosomal instability, transcriptomic subtypes, and immune signatures. Genomic alterations of CRC progression lead to changes in RNA expression, which support CRC metastasis. An RNA-based classification system used for CRC, known as consensus molecular subtyping (CMS), has four classes. CMS1 has the lowest survival after relapse of the four CRC CMS phenotypes. Here, we identify gene signatures and associated coding mRNAs that are co-expressed during CMS1 CRC progression. Using RNA-seq data from CRC primary tumor samples, acquired from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), we identified co-expression gene networks significantly correlated with CMS1 CRC progression. CXCL13, CXCR5, IL10, PIK3R5, PIK3AP1, CCL19, and other co-expressed genes were identified to be positively correlated with CMS1. The co-expressed eigengene networks for CMS1 were significantly and positively correlated with the TNF, WNT, and ERK1 and ERK2 signaling pathways, which together promote cell proliferation and survival. This network was also aligned with biological characteristics of CMS1 CRC, being positively correlated to right-sided tumors, microsatellite instability, chemokine-mediated signaling pathways, and immune responses. CMS1 also differentially expressed genes involved in PI3K-Akt signaling. Our findings reveal CRC gene networks related to oncogenic signaling cascades, cell activation, and positive regulation of immune responses distinguishing CMS1 from other CRC subtypes.

Radiation Augments the Local Anti-Tumor Effect of In Situ Vaccine With CpG-Oligodeoxynucleotides and Anti-OX40 in Immunologically Cold Tumor Models

Introduction

Combining CpG oligodeoxynucleotides with anti-OX40 agonist antibody (CpG+OX40) is able to generate an effective in situ vaccine in some tumor models, including the A20 lymphoma model. Immunologically "cold" tumors, which are typically less responsive to immunotherapy, are characterized by few tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), low mutation burden, and limited neoantigen expression. Radiation therapy (RT) can change the tumor microenvironment (TME) of an immunologically "cold" tumor. This study investigated the effect of combining RT with the in situ vaccine CpG+OX40 in immunologically "cold" tumor models.

Methods

Mice bearing flank tumors (A20 lymphoma, B78 melanoma or 4T1 breast cancer) were treated with combinations of local RT, CpG, and/or OX40, and response to treatment was monitored. Flow cytometry and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) experiments were conducted to study differences in the TME, secondary lymphoid organs, and immune activation after treatment.

Results

An in situ vaccine regimen of CpG+OX40, which was effective in the A20 model, did not significantly improve tumor response or survival in the "cold" B78 and 4T1 models, as tested here. In both models, treatment with RT prior to CpG+OX40 enabled a local response to this in situ vaccine, significantly improving the anti-tumor response and survival compared to RT alone or CpG+OX40 alone. RT increased OX40 expression on tumor infiltrating CD4+ non-regulatory T cells. RT+CpG+OX40 increased the ratio of tumor-infiltrating effector T cells to T regulatory cells and significantly increased CD4+ and CD8+ T cell activation in the tumor draining lymph node (TDLN) and spleen.

Conclusion

RT significantly improves the local anti-tumor effect of the in situ vaccine CpG+OX40 in immunologically "cold", solid, murine tumor models where RT or CpG+OX40 alone fail to stimulate tumor regression.

The Role of the Innate Immune System in Cancer Dormancy and Relapse

Metastatic spread and recurrence are intimately linked to therapy failure, which remains an overarching clinical challenge for patients with cancer. Cancer cells often disseminate early in the disease process and can remain dormant for years or decades before re-emerging as metastatic disease, often after successful treatment. The interactions of dormant cancer cells and their metastatic niche, comprised of various stromal and immune cells, can determine the length of time that cancer cells remain dormant, as well as when they reactivate. New studies are defining how innate immune cells in the primary tumor may be corrupted to help facilitate many aspects of dissemination and re-emergence from a dormant state. Although the scientific literature has partially shed light on the drivers of immune escape in cancer, the specific mechanisms regulating metastasis and dormancy in the context of anti-tumor immunity are still mostly unknown. This review follows the journey of metastatic cells from dissemination to dormancy and the onset of metastatic outgrowth and recurrent tumor development, with emphasis on the role of the innate immune system. To this end, further research identifying how immune cells interact with cancer cells at each step of cancer progression will pave the way for new therapies that target the reactivation of dormant cancer cells into recurrent, metastatic cancers.

Exosomal lncAY927529 enhances prostate cancer cell proliferation and invasion through regulating bone microenvironment

Exosomes mediate the interaction between cancer cells and their microenvironment, and play a key role in tumor development. Although exosomes can package lncRNAs to mediate extracellular communication, the role of exosomal lncRNA AY927529 in prostate cancer (PCa) remains unclear. Exosomes were extracted from normal human prostatic epithelial cell lines (BPH-1 and RWPE-1) and PCa cell lines (VCaP and LNCaP, DU145, PC3) by ultrahigh speed centrifugation. Results of Western blot indicated that Alix, HSC70 and TSGl01 protein levels were upregulated in exosomes derived from PCa cells. LncAY927529 level was upregulated in PCa cells and exosomes derived from PCa patient serum and human PCa cells. CCK-8, Transwell and Flow cytometry assays demonstrated that bone marrow stromal cell line (ST2) conditioned medium (ST2-CM), treated with exosomes derived from PCa cells with high lncAY927529 level, promoted proliferation and invasion of PC3 and DU145 cells, and inhibited cell apoptosis. RT-qPCR assay indicated that lncAY927529 level was downregulated in PC3 and DU145 cells, exosomes derived from PCa cells (PCa-Exo) and ST2-CM treated with PCa-Exo with low expression of lncAY927529, and overexpression of lncAY927529 had the opposite results. In addition, Western blot assay showed that the autophagy related protein LC3II level was increased in ST2 cells treated with exosomes derived from DU145 cells with high expression of lncAY927529, and LC3I protein level was decreased. CXCL14 acted as a RNA-binding protein of lncAY927529, and exosome-mediated lncAY927529 positively regulated CXCL14 levels in ST2 cells. In general, exosome-mediated lncAY927529 could promote PCa cell proliferation and invasion by regulating bone microenvironment, suggesting that exosomal lncAY927529 may be a potential molecular diagnostic marker of PCa.

The prospect of immunotherapy combined with chemotherapy in patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer: a narrative review

OBJECTIVE

Based on a thorough analysis of monotherapy (pembrolizumab) and chemoimmunotherapy, the immunomodulatory effects of chemotherapy agents are emphasized.

BACKGROUND

The combination of chemotherapy and immune checkpoint inhibitors should and is already being regarded as a new standard strategy for the first-line treatment of advanced NSCLC. As some scientists hold, chemoimmunotherapy is the beginning of a new era of lung cancer therapy. Scientists of this field are trying to make the perfect blend, that is, to explore the perfect condition for combination therapy. However, first, we should fully understand the specific role of chemotherapy agents in combination therapy and its specific mechanism. However, our current consideration of this aspect is not comprehensive enough. Based on a full understanding of the mechanisms and roles of these partner treatments, can the perfect blend or a more appropriate combination strategy of cancer immunotherapy be established?

METHODS

Search and discuss the literature of pembrolizumab in the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer, as well as previous studies on the immune regulatory function of chemotherapeutic agents, to analyze the mechanism of chemotherapeutic agents in combination immunotherapy.

CONCLUSION

Here, we carefully analyzed the details of clinical trials of pembrolizumab in the treatment of NSCLC, and reviewed literature in this field. Therefore, we aim to put forward that chemoimmunotherapy is not a simple model of one plus another. Accordingly, we believe that the more likely role of chemotherapeutics in combination therapy with pembrolizumab is an immunomodulator. Based on this perspective, we propose that more attention and efforts should be devoted to understanding and exploring the immunomodulatory function of chemotherapy agents.

Alteration of the immune environment in bone marrow from children with recurrent B cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Due to the considerable success of cancer immunotherapy for leukemia, the tumor immune environment has become a focus of intense research; however, there are few reports on the dynamics of the tumor immune environment in leukemia. Here, we analyzed the tumor immune environment in pediatric B cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia by analyzing serial bone marrow samples from nine patients with primary and recurrent disease by mass cytometry using 39 immunophenotype markers, and transcriptome analysis. High‐dimensional single‐cell mass cytometry analysis elucidated a dynamic shift of T cells from naïve to effector subsets, and clarified that, during relapse, the tumor immune environment comprised a T helper 1‐polarized immune profile, together with an increased number of effector regulatory T cells. These results were confirmed in a validation cohort using conventional flow cytometry. Furthermore, RNA transcriptome analysis identified the upregulation of immune‐related pathways in B cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells during relapse, suggesting interaction with the surrounding environment. In conclusion, a tumor immune environment characterized by a T helper 1‐polarized immune profile, with an increased number of effector regulatory T cells, could contribute to the pathophysiology of recurrent B cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia. This information could contribute to the development of effective immunotherapeutic approaches against B cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia relapse.

CSF1R Inhibition Combined with GM-CSF Reprograms Macrophages and Disrupts Protumoral Interplays with AML Cells

Relapse is a major issue in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and while the contribution of gene mutations in developing drug resistance is well established, little is known on the role of macrophages (MΦs) in an AML cell microenvironment. We examined whether myeloblasts could educate MΦs to adopt a protumoral orientation supporting myeloblast survival and resistance to therapy. Flow cytometry analyses demonstrated that M2-like CD163⁺ MΦs are abundantly present, at diagnosis, in the bone marrow of AML patients. We showed that myeloblasts, or their conditioned medium, polarize monocytes to M2-like CD163⁺ MΦs, induce the secretion of many protumoral factors, and promote myeloblast survival and proliferation as long as close intercellular contacts are maintained. Importantly, pharmacologic inhibition of the CSF1 receptor (CSF1R), in the presence of GM-CSF, reprogrammed MΦ polarization to an M1-like orientation, induced the secretion of soluble factors with antitumoral activities, reduced protumoral agonists, and promoted the apoptosis of myeloblasts interacting with MΦs. Furthermore, myeloblasts, which became resistant to venetoclax or midostaurin during their interplay with protumoral CD163⁺ MΦs, regained sensitivity to these targeted therapies following CSF1R inhibition in the presence of GM-CSF. These data reveal a crucial role of CD163⁺ MΦ interactions with myeloblasts that promote myeloblast survival and identify CSF1R inhibition as a novel target for AML therapy.

Toll-like receptor 3 is a potential prognosis marker and associated with immune infiltration in stomach adenocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

Toll-like receptors participate in various biological mechanisms, mainly including the immune response and inflammatory response. Nevertheless, the role of TLRs in STAD remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to explore the expression, prognosis performance of TLRs in STAD and their relationship with immune infiltration.

METHODS

Student's t-test was used to evaluate the expression of TLRs between STAD tissues and normal tissues. Kaplan-Meier method was applied to explored the prognosis value of TLRs in STAD. And qRT-PCR validated their expression and prognosis value. Spearman's correlation analysis and Wilcoxon rank-sum test were used to assess the association between TLRs and immune infiltration in STAD.

RESULTS

The mRNA level of TLR3 was downregulated in STAD. We summarized genetic mutations and CNV alteration of TLRs in STAD cohort. Prognosis analysis revealed that STAD patients with high TLR3 expression showed better prognosis in OS, FP and PPS. The result of qRT-PCR suggested that TLR3 expression was decreased in STAD tissues and STAD patients with high TLR3 mRNA level had a better OS. Univariate and multivariate cox regression analysis suggested TLR3 expression and clinical stage as independent factors affecting STAD patients' prognosis. A positive association existed between TLR3 expression and the abundance of immune cells and the expression of various immune biomarkers. Furthermore, key targets related to TLR3 were identified in STAD, mainly including MIR-129 (GCAAAAA), PLK1, and V$IRF1_01.

CONCLUSIONS

Our result demonstrated TLR3 as a prognosis marker and associated with immune infiltration in STAD.

Therapy-Induced Senescence: Opportunities to Improve Anticancer Therapy

Cellular senescence is an essential tumor suppressive mechanism that prevents the propagation of oncogenically activated, genetically unstable, and/or damaged cells. Induction of tumor cell senescence is also one of the underlying mechanisms by which cancer therapies exert antitumor activity. However, an increasing body of evidence from preclinical studies demonstrates that radiation and chemotherapy cause accumulation of senescent cells (SnCs) both in tumor and normal tissue. SnCs in tumors can, paradoxically, promote tumor relapse, metastasis, and resistance to therapy, in part, through expression of the senescence-associated secretory phenotype. In addition, SnCs in normal tissue can contribute to certain radiation- and chemotherapy-induced side effects. Because of its multiple roles, cellular senescence could serve as an important target in the fight against cancer. This commentary provides a summary of the discussion at the National Cancer Institute Workshop on Radiation, Senescence, and Cancer (August 10-11, 2020, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD) regarding the current status of senescence research, heterogeneity of therapy-induced senescence, current status of senotherapeutics and molecular biomarkers, a concept of "one-two punch" cancer therapy (consisting of therapeutics to induce tumor cell senescence followed by selective clearance of SnCs), and its integration with personalized adaptive tumor therapy. It also identifies key knowledge gaps and outlines future directions in this emerging field to improve treatment outcomes for cancer patients.

Transcriptome profiling based on protein-protein interaction networks provides a set of core genes for understanding the immune response mechanisms of the egg-protecting behavior in Octopus ocellatus

Protection via of the immune system is indispensable to the life of organisms. Within an immune network, problems with a given link will affect the normal life activities of the organism. Octopus ocellatus is cephalopod widely distributed throughout the world's oceans. Because of its unique nervous system and locomotive organs, research on this species has gradually increased in recent years. Many immune response mechanisms associated with behaviors of O. ocellatus are still unclear. Moreover, as a factor affecting the normal growth of O. ocellatus, egg protection has rarely been considered in previous behavioral studies. In this study, we analyzed the transcriptome profile of gene expression in O. ocellatus larvae, and identified 5936 differentially expressed genes (DEGs). GO and KEGG enrichment analyses were used to search for immune-related DEGs. Protein-protein interaction networks were constructed to examine the interactions between immune-related genes. Fifteen hub genes involved in multiple KEGG signaling pathways or with multiple protein-protein interaction relationships were obtained and verified by quantitative RT-PCR. We first studied the effects of egg protection on the immunity of O. ocellatus larvae by means of protein-protein interaction networks, and the results provide valuable genetic resources for understanding the immunity of invertebrate larvae. The data serve as a foundation for further research on the egg-protecting behavior of invertebrates.

PD-1 inhibition in advanced myeloproliferative neoplasms

This is the first report demonstrating the safety and lack of efficacy of pembrolizumab treatment in patients with advanced MPNs.

Pembrolizumab was associated with changes in the immune milieu that could potentially support antitumor immunity in patients with advanced MPNs.

Myelofibrosis (MF) is a clonal stem cell neoplasm characterized by abnormal JAK-STAT signaling, chronic inflammation, cytopenias, and risk of transformation to acute leukemia. Despite improvements in the therapeutic options for patients with MF, allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation remains the only curative treatment. We previously demonstrated multiple immunosuppressive mechanisms in patients with MF, including increased expression of programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) on T cells compared with healthy controls. Therefore, we conducted a multicenter, open-label, phase 2, single-arm study of pembrolizumab in patients with Dynamic International Prognostic Scoring System category of intermediate-2 or greater primary, post-essential thrombocythemia or post-polycythemia vera myelofibrosis that were ineligible for or were previously treated with ruxolitinib. The study followed a Simon 2-stage design and enrolled a total of 10 patients, 5 of whom had JAK2^V617mutation, 2 had CALR mutation, and 6 had additional mutations. Most patients were previously treated with ruxolitinib. Pembrolizumab treatment was well tolerated, but there were no objective clinical responses, so the study closed after the first stage was completed. However, immune profiling by flow cytometry, T-cell receptor sequencing, and plasma proteomics demonstrated changes in the immune milieu of patients, which suggested improved T-cell responses that can potentially favor antitumor immunity. The fact that these changes were not reflected in a clinical response strongly suggests that combination immunotherapeutic approaches rather than monotherapy may be necessary to reverse the multifactorial mechanisms of immune suppression in myeloproliferative neoplasms. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as #NCT03065400.

Anti-melanoma effects of concomitant inhibition of SIRT1 and SIRT3 in BrafV600E/PtenNULL mice

Novel therapeutic strategies are required for the effective and lasting treatment of metastatic melanoma, one of the deadliest skin malignancies. In this study, we determined the anti-melanoma efficacy of 4'-bromo-resveratrol (4'-BR), which is a small molecule dual inhibitor of SIRT1 and SIRT3 in a Braf^V600E/Pten^NULL mouse model that recapitulates human disease, including metastases. Tumors were induced by topical application of 4-hydroxy-tamoxifen on shaved backs of 10-week-old mice, and the effects of 4'-BR (5-30 mg/kg b.wt.; intraperitoneally; 3d/week for 5 weeks) were assessed on melanoma development and progression. We found that 4'-BR at a dose of 30 mg/kg significantly reduced size and volume of primary melanoma tumors, as well as lung metastasis, with no adverse effects. Further, mechanistic studies on tumors showed significant modulation in markers of proliferation, survival and melanoma progression. As SIRT1 and SIRT3 are linked to immunomodulation, we performed differential gene expression analysis via NanoString PanCancer Immune Profiling panel (770 genes). Our data demonstrated that 4'-BR significantly downregulated genes related to metastasis-promotion, chemokine/cytokine-regulation, and innate/adaptive immune functions. Overall, inhibition of SIRT1 and SIRT3 by 4'-BR is a promising anti-melanoma therapy with anti-metastatic and immunomodulatory activities warranting further detailed studies, including clinical investigations.

Imaging CAR T-cell kinetics in solid tumors: Translational implications

Success in solid tumor chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy requires overcoming several barriers, including lung sequestration, inefficient accumulation within the tumor, and target-antigen heterogeneity. Understanding CAR T-cell kinetics can assist in the interpretation of therapy response and limitations and thereby facilitate developing successful strategies to treat solid tumors. As T-cell therapy response varies across metastatic sites, the assessment of CAR T-cell kinetics by peripheral blood analysis or a single-site tumor biopsy is inadequate for interpretation of therapy response. The use of tumor imaging alone has also proven to be insufficient to interpret response to therapy. To address these limitations, we conducted dual tumor and T-cell imaging by use of a bioluminescent reporter and positron emission tomography in clinically relevant mouse models of pleural mesothelioma and non-small cell lung cancer. We observed that the mode of delivery of T cells (systemic versus regional), T-cell activation status (presence or absence of antigen-expressing tumor), and tumor-antigen expression heterogeneity influence T-cell kinetics. The observations from our study underscore the need to identify and develop a T-cell reporter—in addition to standard parameters of tumor imaging and antitumor efficacy—that can be used for repeat imaging without compromising the efficacy of CAR T cells in vivo.

Molecular Biology Networks and Key Gene Regulators for Inflammatory Biomarkers Shared by Breast Cancer Development: Multi-Omics Systems Analysis

As key inflammatory biomarkers C-reactive protein (CRP) and interleukin-6 (IL6) play an important role in the pathogenesis of non-inflammatory diseases, including specific cancers, such as breast cancer (BC). Previous genome-wide association studies (GWASs) have neither explained the large proportion of genetic heritability nor provided comprehensive understanding of the underlying regulatory mechanisms. We adopted an integrative genomic network approach by incorporating our previous GWAS data for CRP and IL6 with multi-omics datasets, such as whole-blood expression quantitative loci, molecular biologic pathways, and gene regulatory networks to capture the full range of genetic functionalities associated with CRP/IL6 and tissue-specific key drivers (KDs) in gene subnetworks. We applied another systematic genomics approach for BC development to detect shared gene sets in enriched subnetworks across BC and CRP/IL6. We detected the topmost significant common pathways across CRP/IL6 (e.g., immune regulatory; chemokines and their receptors; interferon γ, JAK-STAT, and ERBB4 signaling), several of which overlapped with BC pathways. Further, in gene-gene interaction networks enriched by those topmost pathways, we identified KDs-both well-established (e.g., JAK1/2/3, STAT3) and novel (e.g., CXCR3, CD3D, CD3G, STAT6)-in a tissue-specific manner, for mechanisms shared in regulating CRP/IL6 and BC risk. Our study may provide robust, comprehensive insights into the mechanisms of CRP/IL6 regulation and highlight potential novel genetic targets as preventive and therapeutic strategies for associated disorders, such as BC.

Anticancer opportunities at every stage of chemokine function

The chemokine system, comprising 48 chemokines and 23 receptors, is critically involved in several hallmarks of cancer. Yet, despite extensive efforts from the pharmaceutical sector, only two drugs aimed at this system are currently approved for clinical use against cancer. To date, numerous pharmacological approaches have been developed to successfully intervene at different stages of chemokine function: (i) chemokine availability; (ii) chemokine-glycosaminoglycan binding; and (iii) chemokine receptor binding. Many of these strategies have been tested in preclinical cancer models, and some have advanced to clinical trials as potential anticancer therapies. Here we will review the strategies and growing pharmacological toolbox for manipulating the chemokine system in cancer, and address novel methods poised for future (pre)clinical testing.

Profound Treg perturbations correlate with COVID-19 severity

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are responsible for restraining excessive inflammation, a hallmark of COVID-19. We identified a striking phenotype in Tregs from patients with severe disease, as well as an interesting role for interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-18. An increased suppressive profile, including increased Treg proportions, combined with the expression of proinflammatory mediators, distinguished severe patients and persisted in some of those recovered. This phenotype is in notable similarity to that found in tumor-infiltrating Tregs, which are generally associated with poor prognosis, and suggests both a detrimental role for these cells in COVID-19 as well as a potential explanation for some of the still largely unexplored complications associated with recovery.

The hallmark of severe COVID-19 is an uncontrolled inflammatory response, resulting from poorly understood immunological dysfunction. We hypothesized that perturbations in FoxP3⁺ T regulatory cells (Treg), key enforcers of immune homeostasis, contribute to COVID-19 pathology. Cytometric and transcriptomic profiling revealed a distinct Treg phenotype in severe COVID-19 patients, with an increase in Treg proportions and intracellular levels of the lineage-defining transcription factor FoxP3, correlating with poor outcomes. These Tregs showed a distinct transcriptional signature, with overexpression of several suppressive effectors, but also proinflammatory molecules like interleukin (IL)-32, and a striking similarity to tumor-infiltrating Tregs that suppress antitumor responses. Most marked during acute severe disease, these traits persisted somewhat in convalescent patients. A screen for candidate agents revealed that IL-6 and IL-18 may individually contribute different facets of these COVID-19–linked perturbations. These results suggest that Tregs may play nefarious roles in COVID-19, by suppressing antiviral T cell responses during the severe phase of the disease, and by a direct proinflammatory role.

The Interplay between Glioblastoma and Its Microenvironment

GBM is the most common primary brain tumor in adults, and the aggressive nature of this tumor contributes to its extremely poor prognosis. Over the years, the heterogeneous and adaptive nature of GBM has been highlighted as a major contributor to the poor efficacy of many treatments including various immunotherapies. The major challenge lies in understanding and manipulating the complex interplay among the different components within the tumor microenvironment (TME). This interplay varies not only by the type of cells interacting but also by their spatial distribution with the TME. This review highlights the various immune and non-immune components of the tumor microenvironment and their consequences of the efficacy of immunotherapies. Understanding the independent and interdependent aspects of the various sub-populations encapsulated by the immune and non-immune components will allow for more targeted therapies. Meanwhile, understanding how the TME creates and responds to different environmental pressures such as hypoxia may allow for other multimodal approaches in the treatment of GBM. Ultimately, a better understanding of the GBM TME will aid in the development and advancement of more effective treatments and in improving patient outcomes.

Comprehensive Analysis of CD163 as a Prognostic Biomarker and Associated with Immune Infiltration in Glioblastoma Multiforme

Background

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common and aggressive primary malignancy in adults with high aggression. The prognosis of GBM patients is poor. There is a critical need for novel biomarkers for the prognosis and therapy of GBM.

Methods

Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in GBM were screened using TCGA cohort. Univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses were performed on DEGs to identify the optimal prognosis-related genes. qRT-PCR was performed to verify the result.

Results

A total of 5216 DEGs, including 2785 upregulated and 2458 downregulated genes, were obtained. Enrichment analysis revealed that these DEGs were mainly involved in the p53 signaling pathway and cell cycle, immune response, and MAPK signaling pathways. Moreover, the top 50 DEGs were associated with drug resistance or drug sensitivity. Prognosis analysis revealed that GBM patients with a high expression of CD163 and CHI3L2 had a poor overall survival, prognosis-free survival, and disease-specific survival. The univariate and multivariate analyses revealed that CD163 and age were independent factors affecting the prognosis of GBM patients. A validation study revealed that CD163 was upregulated in GBM tissues and associated with poor overall survival. Moreover, further analysis revealed that CD163 showed significant correlation with immune cells, immune biomarkers, chemokines, and chemokine receptors. We also identified several CD163-associated kinase, miRNA, and transcription factor targets in GBM, including LCK, miR-483, and ELF1.

Conclusions

In conclusion, our study suggested CD163 as a prognostic biomarker and associated it with immune infiltration in GBM.

Quercetin Inhibits the Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition through Suppressing Akt Mediated Nuclear Translocation of β-Catenin in Lung Cancer Cell Line

Lung cancer is a first leading cause of cancer related death worldwide. Quercetin (QUE) has chemo-preventive effect against a variety of cancers. However, the molecular mechanism of QUE mediated inhibition of cancer cell migration and epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is not clear in lung cancer. Therefore, this study investigates the effect of QUE on EMT and metastasis of lung cancer cell line (A549). The MTT assay, scratch wound healing assay, Transwell migration and invasion assay performed to assess the cell viability and migration potential of lung cancer cells after treatment with different concentration of QUE. Further, chemokines gene expression was analyzed by qPCR and EMT markers were analyzed by immunocytochemistry and Western blot. QUE inhibits cell viability in a dose-dependent (10-80 μM) manner both at 24 and 48 h treatment. The Akt/MAPK/β-catenin and EMT marker protein expressions were decreased significantly, whereas TIMP-2 expression was increased upon QUE treatment. QUE inhibits cell migration and invasion of A-549 cells. In addition, Immunocytochemistry result showed that QUE can reduce nuclear translocalisation of β-catenin in A549 cells. Our results suggest that QUE can inhibit the metastatic potential in lung cancer by altering the Akt/MAPK/β-catenin signaling pathway and inhibiting the nuclear translocation of β-catenin.

T-Cell-Derived Nanovesicles for Cancer Immunotherapy

Although T-cell therapy is a remarkable breakthrough in cancer immunotherapy, the therapeutic efficacy is limited for solid tumors. A major cause of the low efficacy is T-cell exhaustion by immunosuppressive mechanisms of solid tumors, which are mainly mediated by programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β). Herein, T-cell-derived nanovesicles (TCNVs) produced by the serial extrusion of cytotoxic T cells through membranes with micro-/nanosized pores that inhibit T-cell exhaustion and exhibit antitumoral activity maintained in the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) are presented. TCNVs, which have programmed cell death protein 1 and TGF-β receptor on their surface, block PD-L1 on cancer cells and scavenge TGF-β in the immunosuppressive TME, thereby preventing cytotoxic-T-cell exhaustion. In addition, TCNVs directly kill cancer cells via granzyme B delivery. TCNVs successfully suppress tumor growth in syngeneic-solid-tumor-bearing mice. Taken together, TCNV offers an effective cancer immunotherapy strategy to overcome the tumor's immunosuppressive mechanisms.

Hot or cold: Bioengineering immune contextures into in vitro patient-derived tumor models

In the past decade, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) have proven to be tremendously effective for a subset of cancer patients. However, it is difficult to predict the response of individual patients and efforts are now directed at understanding the mechanisms of ICI resistance. Current models of patient tumors poorly recapitulate the immune contexture, which describe immune parameters that are associated with patient survival. In this Review, we discuss parameters that influence the induction of different immune contextures found within tumors and how engineering strategies may be leveraged to recapitulate these contextures to develop the next generation of immune-competent patient-derived in vitro models.

A TLR4 agonist improves immune checkpoint blockade treatment by increasing the ratio of effector to regulatory cells within the tumor microenvironment

Brucella lumazine synthase (BLS) is a homodecameric protein that activates dendritic cells via toll like receptor 4, inducing the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. We have previously shown that BLS has a therapeutic effect in B16 melanoma-bearing mice only when administered at early stages of tumor growth. In this work, we study the mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effect of BLS, by analyzing the tumor microenvironment. Administration of BLS at early stages of tumor growth induces high levels of serum IFN-γ, as well as an increment of hematopoietic immune cells within the tumor. Moreover, BLS-treatment increases the ratio of effector to regulatory cells. However, all treated mice eventually succumb to the tumors. Therefore, we combined BLS administration with anti-PD-1 treatment. Combined treatment increases the outcome of both monotherapies. In conclusion, we show that the absence of the therapeutic effect at late stages of tumor growth correlates with low levels of serum IFN-γ and lower infiltration of immune cells in the tumor, both of which are essential to delay tumor growth. Furthermore, the combined treatment of BLS and PD-1 blockade shows that BLS could be exploited as an essential immunomodulator in combination therapy with an immune checkpoint blockade to treat skin cancer.

Ginger Extract Modulates the Production of Chemokines CCL17, CCL20, CCL22, and CXCL10 and the Gene Expression of Their Receptors in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells from Peptic Ulcer Patients Infected with Helicobacter pylori

Background: The imbalanced expression of chemokines plays critical role in the development of Helicobacter pylori-mediated complications. Objectives: Our aim was to determine ginger extract (GE) effects on the expression of chemokines CCL17, CCL20, CCL22, and CXCL10, as well as CCR4, CCR6, and CXCR3 receptors by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from H. pylori -infected patients with peptic ulcer (PU). Methods: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were obtained from 20 patients with H. pylori-associated PU, 20 H. pylori-infected asymptomatic subjects (HAS), and 20 non-infected healthy subjects (NHS). The PBMCs were stimulated by 10 µg/mL of H. pylori-derived crude extract (HPCE) in the presence of 0, 10, 20, and 30 µg/mL of GE. After 36 hours, the supernatant and the RNA extracted from the cells were tested for chemokine concentration and chemokine receptor expression using ELISA and real-time PCR techniques, respectively. Results: In PU patients, treating HPCE-stimulated PBMCs with 10, 20, or 30 µg/mL GE reduced the production of CXCL10 (1.47, 1.5, and 1.53 folds, respectively, P < 0.001 for all), CCL20 (1.44, 1.62, and 1.65 folds, respectively, P < 0.003), and treatment with 30 µg/mL GE increased CCL17 (1.28-fold, P < 0.001) and CCL22 (1.59-fold, P < 0.001) production compared with untreated HPCE-stimulated PBMCs. In PU patients, the HPCE-stimulated PBMCs treated with 10, 20, or 30 µg/mL GE expressed lower levels of CXCR3 (1.9, 3, and 3.5 folds, respectively, P < 0.001) and CCR6 (2.3, 2.7, and 2.8 folds, respectively, P < 0.002) while treating with 10 µg/mL GE upregulated CCR4 (1.7 fold, P = 0.003) compared with untreated HPCE-stimulated PBMCs. Conclusions: Ginger extract modulated the expression of chemokines and their receptors in the PBMCs derived from H. pylori-infected PU patients. The therapeutic potentials of ginger for treating HP-related complications need to be further explored.

Identification of the Prognosis Value and Potential Mechanism of Immune Checkpoints in Renal Clear Cell Carcinoma Microenvironment

Background

Kidney Renal Clear Cell Carcinoma (KIRC) is one of the most prevalent types of cancer worldwide. KIRC has a poor prognosis and, to date, immunotherapy based on immune checkpoints is the most promising treatment. However, the role of immune checkpoints in KIRC remains ambiguous.

Methods

Bioinformatics analyses and qRT-PCR were performed to explore and further confirm the prognostic value of immune checkpoint genes and their correlation with immune infiltration in KIRC samples.

Results

The expression of the immune checkpoint genes CD274, PDCD1LG2, HAVCR2, CTLA4, TIGFT, LAG3, and PDCD1 was upregulated in KIRC tissues. These genes were involved in the activation of the apoptosis pathway in KIRC. Low expression of CD274 and HAVCR2 and high expression of CTLA4 were associated with poor overall survival (OS), progression-free survival (PFS), and disease-free survival (DFS) of KIRC patients. The univariate and multivariate analyses revealed that CTLA4, HAVCR2, age, pTNM stage, and tumor grade were independent factors affecting the prognosis of KIRC patients. A predictive nomogram demonstrated that the calibration plots for the 3‐year and 5‐year OS probabilities showed good agreement compared to the actual OS of KIRC patients. The expression of CTLA4 and HAVCR2 were positively associated with immune cell infiltration, immune biomarkers, chemokines, and chemokine receptors. Moreover, miR-20b-5p was identified as a potential miRNA target of CTLA4 in KIRC.

Conclusion

Our study clarified the prognostic value of several immune checkpoint regulators in KIRC, revealing a CTLA4/miR-20b-5p axis in the control of immune cell infiltration in the tumor microenvironment.

Hepatic BRD4 Is Upregulated in Liver Fibrosis of Various Etiologies and Positively Correlated to Fibrotic Severity

Bromodomain-containing protein 4 (BRD4) has been implicated to play a regulatory role in fibrogenic gene expression in animal models of liver fibrosis. The potential role of BRD4 in liver fibrosis in humans remains unclear. We sought to investigate the expression and cellular localization of BRD4 in fibrotic liver tissues. Human liver tissues were collected from healthy individuals and patients with liver fibrosis of various etiologies. RNA-seq showed that hepatic BRD4 mRNA was elevated in patients with liver fibrosis compared with that in healthy controls. Subsequent multiple manipulations such as western blotting, real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction, and dual immunofluorescence analysis confirmed the abnormal elevation of the BRD4 expression in liver fibrosis of various etiologies compared to healthy controls. BRD4 expression was positively correlated with the severity of liver fibrosis, and also correlated with the serum levels of aspartate aminotransferase and total bilirubin. Moreover, the expression of C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 6 (CXCL6), a factor interplayed with BRD4, was increased in hepatic tissues of the patients with liver fibrosis. Its expression level was positively correlated with BRD4 level. BRD4 is up-regulated in liver fibrosis, regardless of etiology, and its increased expression is positively correlated with higher degrees of liver fibrosis. Our data indicate that BRD4 play a critical role in the progress of liver fibrosis, and it holds promise as a potential target for intervention of liver fibrosis.

Analyzing the impact of ATF3 in tumorigenesis and immune cell infiltration of ovarian tumor: a bioinformatics study

ATF3 is an essential transcription activator in regulating cancer-related genetic expression. To identify the role of ATF3 in ovarian tumor, we investigated the correlation between ATF3 expression and the clinicopathological properties using multiple database. The cBioPortal and GEPIA database displayed the clinical information of ovarian patients harboring or without harboring ATF3 mutation. Furthermore, we assessed the relationship between survival and ATF3 expression level using Kaplan-Meier plotter, which reveals that the ovarian patients with higher expression of ATF3 suffered the worse overall survival and progression-free survival. The differentially expressed genes were analyzed using gene ontology, protein-protein interaction network, and gene set enrichment analysis to identify the hub gene and critical pathways, significantly affecting the tumorigenesis of ovarian tumor. Finally, we assessed the correlation between ATF3 and immune cell infiltration using Tumor Immunoassay Resource (TIMER) database. The results demonstrated that higher expression has a positive correlation with macrophage infiltration, expression for M1- and M2-type macrophages. Our study suggests that ATF3 can regulate the cell cycle and heme-related oxidative phosphorylation process, and it may be a critical factor to regulate the macrophage cell to be infiltrated into ovarian cancer. ATF3 can be used as a biomarker for diagnosis and therapy of ovarian tumor.

Humoral Effect of a B-Cell Tumor on the Bone Marrow Multipotent Mesenchymal Stromal Cells

The properties of bone marrow (BM)-derived multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) are altered in the patients with the diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) without BM involvement. It was suggested that plasma from the patients contains soluble factors that affect MSCs. Plasma and BM-derived MSCs from the DLBCL patients at the onset of the disease and one month after the end of treatment were studied. Concentration of the plasma cytokines and gene expression in the MSCs were evaluated by the Bio-Plex Pro Human Cytokine Panel kit to measure 27 analytes and real-time PCR. Plasma and MSCs from the healthy donors were used as controls. Analysis of cytokines in the plasma from healthy donors and patients before and one month after the end of treatment revealed significant differences in the concentration of 14 out of 27 cytokines. Correlations between the levels of secreted cytokines were altered in the plasma from patients indicating that the immune response regulation was disturbed. Cultivation of the MSCs from the healthy donors in the medium supplemented with the plasma from patients led to the changes in the MSC properties, similar to those observed in the MSCs from patients. The BM-derived MSCs were shown to participate in the humoral changes occurring in the DLBCL patients. For the first time, it was shown that the precursors of the stromal microenvironment - multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells - are altered in the patients with DLBCL without bone marrow involvement due to the humoral effect of the tumor and the response of organism to it. Comprehensive analysis of the results shows that, when remission is achieved in the patients with DLBCL, composition of the plasma cytokines normalizes, but does not reach the level observed in the healthy donors. The discovery of a new aspect of the effect of the tumor B-cells on the organism could help to reveal general regularities of the humoral effect of various tumors on the bone marrow stromal cells.

The circadian clock is associated with prognosis and immune infiltration in stomach adenocarcinoma

Background: Stomach adenocarcinoma (STAD) is one of the most prevalent malignances and ranks fifth in incidence and third in cancer-related death among all malignances. The prognosis of STAD is poor. The circadian clock is regulated by interlocked transcriptional-translational feedback loops that orchestrate circadian rhythms in some biological processes, including the immune response and metabolism. However, the association between core circadian clock genes and STAD patient prognosis is unclear.

Materials and Methods: In our study, bioinformatics methods were performed to explore the expression and prognostic value of core circadian clock genes in STAD and their association with immune infiltration.

Results: The mRNA levels of CLOCK, CRY1 and NR1D1 were upregulated, while the mRNA levels of CRY2, PER1, PER3 and RORA were downregulated in STAD tissues compared with normal tissues. Core circadian clock genes exert promoting or inhibiting effects on certain cancer-related hallmark pathways, including the DNA damage response, cell cycle, apoptosis and RAS/MAPK pathways. Moreover, core circadian clock genes were linked to drug sensitivity or drug resistance. Prognosis analysis revealed that high expression of PER1 and NR1D1 was associated with poor overall survival, progression-free survival, and disease-free survival rates in STAD patients. Validation analysis further confirmed our result. Immune infiltration analysis demonstrated that the expression of ICOSLG and CD70 was significantly correlated with immune cells, immune biomarkers, chemokines and their receptors.

Conclusions: Our results suggest that NR1D1 and PER1 are prognostic biomarkers and are associated with immune infiltration in STAD.

Shaping Immune Responses in the Tumor Microenvironment of Ovarian Cancer

Reciprocal signaling between immune cells and ovarian cancer cells in the tumor microenvironment can alter immune responses and regulate disease progression. These signaling events are regulated by multiple factors, including genetic and epigenetic alterations in both the ovarian cancer cells and immune cells, as well as cytokine pathways. Multiple immune cell types are recruited to the ovarian cancer tumor microenvironment, and new insights about the complexity of their interactions have emerged in recent years. The growing understanding of immune cell function in the ovarian cancer tumor microenvironment has important implications for biomarker discovery and therapeutic development. This review aims to describe the factors that shape the phenotypes of immune cells in the tumor microenvironment of ovarian cancer and how these changes impact disease progression and therapy.

Deciphering the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment in ALK- and EGFR-positive lung adenocarcinoma

Introduction

The advent of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) has led to significantly improved disease outcome in lung adenocarcinoma (ADC), but response of ALK/EGFR-positive tumors to immune therapy is limited. The underlying immune biology is incompletely understood.

Methods

We performed comparative mRNA expression profiling of 31 ALK-positive, 40 EGFR-positive and 43 ALK/EGFR-negative lung ADC focused on immune gene expression. The presence and levels of tumor infiltration lymphocytes (TILs) as well as fourteen specific immune cell populations were estimated from the gene expression profiles.

Results

While total TILs were not lower in ALK-positive and EGFR-positive tumors compared to ALK/EGFR-negative tumors, specific immunosuppressive characteristics were detected in both subgroups: In ALK-positive tumors, regulatory T cells were significantly higher compared to EGFR-positive (fold change: FC = 1.9, p = 0.0013) and ALK/EGFR-negative tumors (FC = 2.1, p = 0.00047). In EGFR-positive tumors, cytotoxic cells were significantly lower compared to ALK-positive (FC =  − 1.7, p = 0.016) and to ALK/EGFR-negative tumors (FC =  − 2.1, p = 2.0E-05). A total number of 289 genes, 40 part of cytokine–cytokine receptor signaling, were differentially expressed between the three subgroups. Among the latter, five genes were differently expressed in both ALK-positive and EGFR-positive tumors, while twelve genes showed differential expression solely in ALK-positive tumors and eleven genes solely in EGFR-positive tumors.

Conclusion

Targeted gene expression profiling is a promising tool to read out tumor microenvironment characteristics from routine diagnostic lung cancer biopsies. Significant immune reactivity including specific immunosuppressive characteristics in ALK- and EGFR-positive lung ADC, but not a total absence of immune infiltration supports further clinical evaluation of immune-modulators as partners of ICB in such tumors.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00262-021-02981-w.

Frontiers in Pharmacology: Review Manuscript Targeting of the Neutrophil as an Adjunctive Strategy in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Lung cancer remains the leading cause of cancer mortality in the United States, with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounting for around 85% of cases. Of particular concern is the poor responsiveness of this malignancy to therapy, resulting in a very low 5-year survival rate (17.4%) and a prominent tendency to progress to metastatic disease. A number of very recent studies, both pre-clinical and clinical, have implicated the neutrophil in both the pathogenesis and unsatisfactory response to therapy of NSCLC. In this context, movement of neutrophils into the tumor microenvironment (TME) is a common feature of NSCLC. Indeed neutrophils are the dominant type of immune cell in the NSCLC TME, creating a highly immunosuppressive milieu that is not only conducive to tumor growth and spread, but also represents a significant obstacle to the success of anti-tumor therapy, especially novel immunotherapies. The clinically relevant adverse impact of a neutrophil predominance both systemically and in the TME of patients with NSCLC is underscored by the negative prognostic value of both a persistent neutrophilia and, in particular, a high (≥5) neutrophil:lymphocyte ratio. On a more positive note, however, recognition of the involvement of the neutrophil in both the pathophysiology of NSCLC and treatment failure has enabled identification of neutrophil-targeted strategies that have the potential to serve as adjuncts to standard anti-cancer therapies, including immunotherapy. These strategies together with a consideration of the immunosuppressive, pro-tumorigenic properties of the neutrophil represent the major thrusts of this review.

Modulation of the chemokine/chemokine receptor axis as a novel approach for glioma therapy

Chemokines are a large subfamily of cytokines known for their ability to facilitate cell migration, most notably leukocytes, throughout the body. Chemokines are necessary for a functioning immune system in both health and disease and have received considerable attention for their roles in orchestrating temporal-spatial regulation of immune cell populations in cancer. Gliomas comprise a group of common central nervous system (CNS) primary tumors that are extremely challenging to treat. Immunotherapy approaches for highly malignant brain tumors offer an exciting new avenue for therapeutic intervention but so far, have seen limited successful clinical outcomes. Herein we focus on important chemokine/chemokine receptor systems in the regulation of pro- and anti-tumor mechanisms, highlighting potential therapeutic advantages of modulating these systems in malignant gliomas and other cancers.

Chemokines orchestrate tumor cells and the microenvironment to achieve metastatic heterogeneity

Chemokines, a subfamily of the cell cytokines, are low molecular weight proteins known to induce chemotaxis in leukocytes in response to inflammatory and pathogenic signals. A plethora of literature demonstrates that chemokines and their receptors regulate tumor progression and metastasis. With these diverse functionalities, chemokines act as a fundamental link between the tumor cells and their microenvironment. Recent studies demonstrate that the biology of chemokines and their receptor in metastasis is complex as numerous chemokines are involved in regulating site-specific tumor growth and metastasis. Successful treatment of disseminated cancer is a significant challenge. The most crucial problem for treating metastatic cancer is developing therapy regimes capable of overcoming heterogeneity problems within primary tumors and among metastases and within metastases (intralesional). This heterogeneity of malignant tumor cells can be related to metastatic potential, response to chemotherapy or specific immunotherapy, and many other factors. In this review, we have emphasized the role of chemokines in the process of metastasis and metastatic heterogeneity. Individual chemokines may not express the full potential to address metastatic heterogeneity, but chemokine networks need exploration. Understanding the interplay between chemokine-chemokine receptor networks between the tumor cells and their microenvironment is a novel approach to overcome the problem of metastatic heterogeneity. Recent advances in the understanding of chemokine networks pave the way for developing a potential targeted therapeutic strategy to treat metastatic cancer.