Turning behaviour in animals

Locomotor bias produced by intra-accumbens injection of dopamine agonists and antagonists

Several experiments have shown that the dopamine (DA) receptors in the nucleus accumbens control the intensity of locomotor activity; however, there are several contradictory results concerning the role of the accumbens in the regulation of the direction of locomotion. To further evaluate the contribution of dopaminergic function in the accumbens to the direction of locomotion, we first compared the effect on the direction of locomotor activity of unilateral intra-accumbens injections of the nonspecific DA antagonist haloperidol, the specific D-1 antagonist SCH-23390, the specific D-2 antagonist metoclopramide. In the second part of the experiment, we examined the effect on the direction of locomotor activity of unilateral intra-accumbens injections of the non-specific DA agonist apomorphine, the specific D-1 agonist SKF-38393, the specific D-2 agonist LY-171555, and the combination of SKF-38393 and LY-171555. Haloperidol, metoclopramide and to a lesser extent, SCH-23393 together with peripheral amphetamine injections produced a locomotor bias that resulted in ipsilateral turning. Apomorphine, LY-171555 or the combination of SKF-38393 and LY-171555 (but not SKF-38393 alone) produced a locomotor bias that resulted in contralateral turning. No significant locomotor bias was produced by intra-accumbens injection of the various vehicles. These results suggest that the bilateral DA organization thought to exist in the nigro-striatal pathway for the control of locomotion may also be true for the mesolimbic dopamine system.

Intrastriatal dopaminergic agents, muscarinic stimulation, and GABA antagonism compared for rotation responses in rats

We tested the common hypothesis that rotation on systemic injection of dopaminergic agents in rats with unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the substantia nigra is attributable to unequal stimulation of dopamine receptors between the two striata. No rotation occurred when dopamine, apomorphine or amphetamine were injected into dorsal striatum or nucleus accumbens of intact, unanesthetized rats. Intrastriatal haloperidol elicited ipsiversive postural deviation only in conjunction with hypermotility induced by systemic amphetamine. In unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rats, intrastriatal apomorphine elicited rotation directed away from the side of its injection, whether intact or lesioned. Carbachol elicited short-latency rotation, contraversive to injection in dorsal striatum or nucleus accumbens, in both intact and 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rats. The rotation response to carbachol was suppressed by atropine administered systemically or into the site of intrastriatal carbachol. Picrotoxin or bicuculline produced contraversive rotation or contralateral myoclonic jerks on injection into the striatum in intact rats. The results show that asymmetric stimulation of striatal dopamine receptors is not sufficient to cause rotation, unless the receptors have been denervated. On the other hand, asymmetric stimulation muscarinic receptors is in itself enough to produce the imbalance of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic striatal outputs responsible for rotation.

Alterations in the metabolism of serotonin and dopamine in the mouse brain following a single administration of allylnitrile, which induces long-term dyskinesia

The effects of allylnitrile (ALN), which induces a long-term dyskinesia in mice, on the metabolism of serotonin (5-HT) and dopamine (DA) were studied after a single administration. One day after injection, ALN produced a significant increase in the levels of 5-HT, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) and homovanillic acid (HVA): 5-HT in the brain cortex, medulla oblongata plus pons, hypothalamus and midbrain; 5-HIAA in the cortex, medulla oblongata plus pons, striatum, hypothalamus and midbrain; the ratio of 5-HIAA/5-HT in the medulla oblongata plus pons, striatum and midbrain; HVA in the cortex and midbrain. These changes were not seen 10 and 35 days after injection when the animals were showing behavioral abnormalities. The present findings suggest that changes in 5-HT and DA metabolism are involved in the appearance of the dyskinetic syndrome.

Changes in blood-brain barrier permeability are associated with behavioral and neurochemical indices of recovery following intraventricular adrenal medulla grafts in an animal model of Parkinson's disease

Intraventricular adrenal medulla grafts were found to produce dissociable effects on rotational behavior induced by amphetamine and apomorphine in rats with unilateral striatal dopamine depletions. Some animals showed a decrease in the behavioral response to apomorphine, some showed a decrease to amphetamine, and some showed a decrease to both amphetamine and apomorphine. Using in vivo microdialysis, the experiments reported demonstrate that in animals with decreased rotational behavior, assessed with either amphetamine or apomorphine, there was an increase in the permeability of the blood-brain barrier to dopamine. The increased blood-brain barrier permeability was visually confirmed with horseradish peroxidase. The extent of the blood-brain barrier disruption, however, was greater in animals with a decreased response to amphetamine. Animals that exhibited decreased amphetamine-induced turning after adrenal medulla grafts also had a greater amphetamine-stimulated increase in striatal dopamine and greater extracellular striatal dihydroxyphenylacetic acid concentrations compared to controls and animals with a graft-induced decrease in the response to apomorphine. We conclude that more than one mechanism is involved in mediating the behavioral effects of adrenal medulla grafts.

Role of the mesopontine area in the circling behavior induced by apomorphine in rats bearing unilateral lesion of the entopeduncular nucleus

The role of the mesopontine area and superior colliculus in turning behavior induced by systemic administration of apomorphine was studied in rats bearing a unilateral entopeduncular lesion. Bilateral electrolytic damage of the superior colliculus resulted in an enhancement of the ipsilateral circling response to apomorphine, perhaps as a consequence of an increased locomotor drive in such animals. Bilateral electrolytic lesions of the mesopontine area decreased apomorphine-induced turning in entopeduncular rats, while a bilateral kainic acid lesion of the same region was ineffective. It was concluded that the pedunculopontine nucleus and adjacent reticular formation are not an essential link for the striopallidal complex output mediating circling in this model. Fibers running through this region could be implicated in the expression of the behavior under study. Since a unilateral electrolytic lesion of the mesopontine area contralateral to the damaged entopeduncular nucleus reduced drug-induced turning, we propose that an uncrossed pathway from the intact striopallidal complex mediates circling in our rats.

Differential modulation of (+)-amphetamine-induced rotation in unilateral substantia nigra-lesioned rats by alpha 1 as compared to alpha 2 agonists and antagonists

In rats sustaining unilateral 6-hydroxy-dopamine lesions of the substantia nigra (SN), the indirect dopaminergic agonist, (+)-amphetamine (AMPH), dose-dependently induced robust, ipsilateral rotation: this could be dose-dependently abolished by the dopamine (D2/D1) antagonist, haloperidol. The selective alpha 1 antagonist, prazosin, dose-dependently attenuated the action of AMPH though rotation was not completely abolished. In the presence of a constant dose of prazosin, the dose-response curve for induction of rotation by AMPH was shifted to the right. The action of prazosin was mimicked by a further alpha 1 antagonist, corynanthine. In contrast, the selective alpha 1 agonist, ST 587, potentiated the rotation evoked by AMPH. The selective alpha 2 antagonist, idazoxan, dose-dependently potentiated the action of AMPH and, in the presence of a constant dose of idazoxan, the dose-response curve for AMPH was shifted to the left. This effect of idazoxan was mimicked by a further alpha 2 antagonist, yohimbine. In distinction, the selective alpha 2 agonist, UK 14,304, dose-dependently attenuated the action of AMPH, an action mimicked by the alpha 2 partial agonist, clonidine. Upon administration alone, the above mentioned drugs did not induce rotation. The data indicate that activation and antagonism of alpha 1 receptors enhance and inhibit rotation, respectively, whereas activation and antagonism of alpha 2 receptors inhibit and enhance rotation, respectively. These findings demonstrate an opposite alpha 1 and alpha 2 receptor-mediated control of rotation in this model. They suggest that an increase and decrease in noradrenergic tone, respectively, facilitate and inhibit locomotor activity controlled via the nigro-striatal dopaminergic pathway. The possible relevance of these findings to Parkinson's disease is discussed.

Effects of 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the nigrostriatal pathway on striatal serotonin innervation in adult rats

The effects of 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the nigrostriatal pathway on striatal serotonin (5-HT) innervation have been examined using immunohistochemistry in adult rats. One day after lesioning, a large number of swollen and densely stained 5-HT-immunoreactive fibers appeared around the lesion which was almost completely void of 5-HT-immunoreactivity. Four weeks after lesioning, a significant reduction in 5-HT innervation density was verified in the ventral portion of the rostral neostriatum and in the caudal neostriatum of the lesioned side. Eight weeks after lesioning, a similar decrease in 5-HT innervation density was observed in the neostriatum on the lesioned side. Some aberrant 5-HT-immunoreactive fibers were found around the lesion of the nigrostriatal pathway. These results indicate that 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the nigrostriatal bundle of adult rats induce a reduction in striatal serotonin innervation density as well as aberrant morphology of 5-HT-immunoreactive fibers around the lesion.

Long-term potentiation of the amygdalo-striatal synaptic transmission in the course of development of amygdaloid kindling in cats

Limbic projection from the amygdala to the basal forebrain and the neostriatum was studied physiologically during development of amygdaloid kindling in cats. Stimulation of the basolateral amygdaloid nucleus (BL) produced the negative field potential monosynaptically in the nucleus accumbens (Acb), while in the caudate nucleus (Cd) it produced a slight negative deflection with a longer latency. The latter is produced disynaptically as it showed marked facilitation in its amplitude when two stimuli were applied at short intervals. After a single period of tetanic stimulation of the BL with a 2-s train of 50-Hz pulses, there was a long-term potentiation (LTP) of both Acb and Cd responses in amplitude to test pulses to the same electrode. These responses increased up to 140% of the pre-tetanus control for 1 h following tetanic stimulation and declined gradually back to the baseline thereafter. However, a slight or moderate increase in the response was observed even 24 h later. Therefore, trains of stimuli presented once per day had a cumulative effect on the negative field potentials evoked in the Acb and the Cd in the early stage of kindling development. In particular, the disynaptic response in the Cd increased markedly to over 10 times as the prekindled control. These findings suggest that LTP in amygdalo-striatal synaptic transmission following tetanic stimulation represents an example of plastic changes in a neuronal chain within the neostriatum, which would underlie the pathophysiological mechanism for developing motor seizures of amygdaloid kindling.

Brain monoamine metabolism and rotational behaviour induced by experimental herpes simplex virus encephalitis

The motor behaviour and brain concentrations of dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin and their metabolites have been examined in rabbits with experimental herpes simplex virus (HSV) brain infection achieved by unilateral corneal inoculation. The animals showed altered motor behaviour, consisting of a posture tilting to the side of inoculation and circling in the same direction, that began on day 4-5 post inoculation, and was most vigorous on day 7 post inoculation. Compared with controls, the concentration of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid was increased in the caudate nucleus on both sides and that of serotonin was decreased in the nucleus accumbens on the side of inoculation. The circling of the animals correlated positively with the ratio of homovanillic acid concentrations between the left and right caudate nucleus, although the actual concentrations did not differ from the controls. The posture asymmetry correlated with the ratio of the left and right nucleus accumbens homovanillic acid concentrations. The results demonstrate that experimental HSV infection in the brain alters motor behaviour, in association with changes in brain dopamine and serotonin metabolism in the major ascending monoamine systems.

Stimulation of the caudate nucleus induces contraversive saccadic eye movements as well as head turning in the cat

The effects of stimulation of the caudate nucleus were investigated in alert cats, with special reference to the induction of eye and head movements. Stimulation of caudal portions of the caudate nucleus on one side with trains of current pulses induced gaze shifts towards the contralateral side. When the head of the animal was restrained, the majority of evoked eye movements were single conjugate saccades. The amplitude and direction of the evoked saccade varied depending on the initial eye position. The amplitude of the horizontal component tended to be larger for saccades initiated from more ipsilateral positions, and became gradually smaller as the initial eye position shifted to the contralateral side. If the eye was far into the contralateral positions, no saccades were induced. Furthermore, the saccades tended to have a downward component when the eye was initially focused upward, and an upward component when the eye was focused downward. When the head was made free to move, the same stimulation induced a sequence of contraversive staircase gaze shifts composed of coordinated eye and head movements. The eye movements in the orbit resembled nystagmus, consisting of contraversive saccades followed by reverse compensatory movements. The head turning, though smooth and continuous, was also suggested to consist of a series of movements coupled with saccadic eye movements. This study indicates a potential role of the caudate nucleus in the control of orienting reflexes.

Motor effects of globus pallidus stimulation in the rat: lesions to corticofugal fibers block the motor effects

Unilateral electrical stimulation of the globus pallidus (GP) in anesthetized male rats was used to determine the nature of the activity driven in muscles of the neck and shoulder by GP output. In 6 groups of animals stimulation was coupled with lesions to sites that interrupted corticofugal fibers or GP output. Interruption of corticofugal fibers blocked the driven activity while lesions that compromised GP output left the activity unaffected.

Anatomical plasticity of the tectospinal tract after unilateral lesion of the superior colliculus in the neonatal rat

After unilateral ablation of the superior colliculus (SC) in neonatal or adult rats, the reorganization of the tectospinal tract (TST) was examined using the technique of anterograde transport of horseradish peroxidase to which wheat germ agglutinin had been conjugated (WGA-HRP). In neonatally lesioned rats, aberrant labeled terminals of TST axons were found on the ipsilateral side of the spinal cord. Postnatal development of the TST was then studied by retrograde transport of HRP to determine whether the aberrant tectospinal projections resulted from normally transient ipsilateral projections that persisted in operated rats or were due to collateral sprouting of projections to the contralateral projection field. The results failed to show an ipsilateral projection from the SC to spinal cord in normal neonatal rats. However, in neonatally lesioned rats, aberrant labeled fibers were observed recrossing the midline of the cervical spinal cord. Therefore, the increase in labeled terminals on the ipsilateral side following unilateral SC ablation appeared to originate from collateral sprouting at the spinal cord level of TST fibers from the intact pathway.

Serotonergic sprouting in the neostriatum after intrastriatal transplantation of fetal ventral mesencephalon

The sprouting of serotonergic fibers into the neostriatum of 6-OHDA-lesioned rats should be considered, when assessing the functional aspects of ventral mesencephalic grafts. The degree of serotonergic fiber growth into the neostriatum of rats subjected to unilateral 6-OHDA lesions followed by fetal ventral mesencephalic grafts was examined immunohistochemically. As a measure of serotonergic innervation density, the total length of immunoreactive fibers was quantified as percent area. Four weeks after transplantation, there was complete recovery of (+)-amphetamine-induced rotation. All of the ventral mesencephalic grafts contained serotonin-immunoreactive cells, but much fewer in number than the tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells found in the same grafts. However, there was significant serotonergic hyperinnervation throughout the transplanted neostriatum compared with the control side. The hyperinnervation derived from the grafted neurons was most marked in the dorsal and lateral sectors of the rostral neostriatum. At 24 weeks after transplantation, the implanted neostriatum still showed a dense serotonergic innervation.

Ventral pallidal microinjections of receptor-selective opioid agonists produce differential effects on circling and locomotor activity in rats

Locomotor activity was investigated following microinjections of receptor-selective opioid agonists into the ventral pallidum (VP) of rats. In Expt. 1, male Long-Evans rats were treated with unilateral microinjections of the mu agonist [D-Ala2-MePhe4, Gly-ol5]-enkephalin (DAGO), the delta agonist [D-Pen2, D-Pen5]-enkephalin (DPDPE) or the kappa agonist U50,488H, and the rate and duration of circling behaviour were measured. DAGO (0.01, 0.1, 1.0 nmol) produced a dose-dependent increase in contralateral circling; pretreatment with 1.0 mg/kg naltrexone blocked the circling induced by the highest dose. The behavioral effect was largest when injections were targeted at the VP rather than structures dorsal to the VP. In contast to DAGO, intrapallidal DPDPE (0.01, 0.1, 1.0, 10.0 nmol) produced a slight increase in contralateral circling only at the highest dose and U50, 488H (0.01, 0.1, 1.0, 10.0 nmol) produced no effect. In Expt. 2, the effects of bilateral injections of DAGO, DPDPE and U50,488H were tested in photocell activity boxes. DAGO produced a dose-dependent increase in locomotor activity and this increase was decreased by 1.0 mg/kg naltrexone. A slight increase in activity was observed with the highest dose of DPDPE, and a slight decrease was observed with the highest dose of U50,488H. These findings confirm that opiate actions in the VP contribute to opiate-induced locomotion and suggest that mu and to some extent delta receptors are involved in this behavior.

Sham transplantation protects against 6-hydroxydopamine-induced dopaminergic toxicity in rats: behavioral and morphological evidence

Administration of the neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) to rat brain causes biochemical and neuroanatomical changes to the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway similar to those observed in Parkinson's disease (PD). Although the cause of PD is unknown, it has been hypothesized that the neurodegenerative changes seen in PD might result from exposure to a neurotoxin. Therefore, strategies for limiting neurotoxin-induced dopaminergic damages, like those caused by 6-OHDA, may be of both clinical and basic interest. Accordingly, we tested the ability of both fetal neural (striatum) and fetal non-neural (liver) tissue implants to protect the rat striatum against the toxic effects of a subsequent intrastriatal injection of 6-OHDA. Non-grafted rats (lesion only) showed amphetamine-induced rotational behavior and a decrease in striatal [3H]mazindol-labeled dopamine uptake sites after 6-OHDA injection. In contrast, the animals grafted with striatum or liver showed no behavioral or biochemical changes. Interestingly, sham-transplanted control animals were also protected against the 6-OHDA-induced toxicity. These results suggest that the resistance of the dopaminergic system against 6-OHDA neurotoxicity observed in grafted and sham-transplanted animals is likely to be related to the surgical procedure itself. This observation points to a possible role for surgery-related events in the clinical improvement described in PD patients who underwent intracerebral transplantation.

Behavioural and biochemical responses following activation of midbrain dopamine pathways by receptor selective neurokinin agonists

Preferential activation of mesolimbic and nigro-striatal dopamine (DA) pathways by receptor-selective and peptidase-resistant neurokinin (NK) agonists is reported. The DA cell body region of the mesolimbic pathway appears to be activated by NK agonists selective for NK-1 and NK-3 receptors whereas the DA cell bodies in the substantia nigra are under an excitatory NK-2 receptor-mediated influence. Stimulation of the mesolimbic DA pathway by NK-1 (Ava[L-Pro9,N-Me-Leu10]SP (7-11) [GR73632]) or NK-3 (Senktide) agonists increase locomotor activity. Additional studies showed that this elevated motor response observed after intra-VTA infusion of GR73632 was accompanied by a corresponding increase in DA turnover in the terminal fields of this pathway. Similarly, unilateral activation of the nigro-striatal DA pathway by NK-2 selective agonists (Ava (D-Pro9) SP (7-11) [GR51667] or [Lys3,Gly8,R-Lac-Leu9]NKA (3-10) [GR64349]) elicit contralateral rotational activity and an increase in DA turnover in the ipsilateral striatum. The rotational response was attenuated by prior administration of an NK-2 antagonist (cyclo (Gln, Trp, Phe, Gly, Leu, Met)] L-659877]) into the nigra. Peripheral injection of haloperidol, a DA antagonist, also blocked the NK-2 agonist induced rotations.

Behavioral effects of intrastriatal caffeine mediated by adenosinergic modulation of dopamine

Although caffeine is generally classified as a psychomotor stimulant, the neurotransmitter systems mediating its effect on behavior have not yet been established. Mounting evidence suggests possible involvement of adenosinergic and/or dopaminergic (DA) systems. To evaluate these possibilities, four experiments examined circling behavior in rats following unilateral intrastriatal microinjections of: 1) caffeine alone; 2) the adenosine agonist, 2-chloroadenosine (2-CADO) alone; 3) caffeine with 2-CADO pretreatment; and 4) caffeine with pretreatment of the DA receptor antagonist, cis-flupenthixol. Each experiment consisted of seven test sessions; the first and seventh were preceded by no treatment, the second and sixth by control microinjections (saline or cis-flupenthixol) and the third, fourth and fifth by drug microinjections. Results showed that 10.0 and 20.0 but not 1.0 micrograms of caffeine produced a significant contraversive bias in circling behavior, while 2.0 and 5.0 but not 1.0 microgram doses of 2-CADO produced significant ipsiversive circling. Rats pretreated with central 2-CADO or cis-flupenthixol (in doses that did not influence circling bias when administered alone) prior to caffeine (10.0 micrograms) failed to exhibit a contraversive bias. Taken together, the present studies provide compelling support for the suggestion that the motor effects of intrastriatal caffeine are mediated by the antagonism of endogenous adenosine which, in turn, functionally increases DA.

Glutamate decarboxylase activity in the substantia nigra and the hippocampus of rats microinjected with inhibitors of the enzyme

Three inhibitors of glutamate decarboxylase (GAD), acting through different mechanisms, as well as pyridoxal phosphate (PLP), were microinjected unilaterally by stereotaxic procedures into the substantia nigra reticulata or the CA1 area of the hippocampus of the rat. The inhibitors used were thiosemicarbazide (TSC), gamma-glutamyl hydrazide and the PLP-glutamyl-hydrazone (PLPGH) formed by the combination of the latter with PLP. No behavioral alterations were observed after the administration of any of the drugs used, in any of the two brain regions studied. When measured in the absence of exogenous PLP, GAD activity in the substantia nigra injected with TSC was diminished by about 35%, and no changes were observed with the other drugs. In the CA1 hippocampal area both TSC and PLPGH inhibited GAD by more than 50%, and this inhibition was not reversed by PLP added in vitro. The results are discussed in terms of the possible explanation for the differences between the drugs used and for the lack of effects of GAD inhibition on the behavior of the animals.

Evidence that the unilateral activation of 5-HT1D receptors in the substantia nigra of the guinea-pig elicits contralateral rotation

1. The effects of various 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) receptor agonists were examined following unilateral infusion into the substantia nigra (SN) of the guinea-pig. 2. The 5-HT1 receptor agonists, 5-carboxamidotryptamine (5-CT) (2-25 micrograms), sumatriptan (10-25 micrograms) and RU24969 (25 micrograms) all induced a marked contralateral rotation. In contrast, the selective 5-HT1A receptor agonist 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin (8-OH DPAT, 10-25 micrograms) produced only a very small response, whilst the selective 5-HT1C/5-HT2 receptor agonist (+-)-1-(4-iodo-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-2-aminopropane hydrochloride ((+/-)-DOI) (25 micrograms) and the 5-HT3 receptor agonist, 2-methyl 5-HT (2-Me5-HT, 25 micrograms) were without effect. 3. The contralateral rotation induced by 5-CT (10 micrograms) was attenuated following pretreatment with the non-selective 5-HT1/5-HT2 receptor antagonists methiothepin (1 mg kg-1, s.c.) and metergoline (5-10 mg kg-1, s.c.) but not the 5-HT1C/5-HT2 antagonist ritanserin (1 mg kg-1, s.c.) or the 5-HT3 antagonist, ondansetron (0.5 mg kg-1, s.c.). An involvement of dopaminergic systems in the rotational response to 5-CT was implied by the antagonism of 5-CT-induced rotation by haloperidol (0.3 mg kg-1, s.c.). 4. At doses lower than those required to produce contralateral rotation, 5-CT (0.08-0.4 micrograms) and sumatriptan (2 micrograms) induced a small, but nonetheless consistent, ipsilateral rotation. 5. The data with agonists and antagonists taken together suggest that 5-CT-induced contralateral rotation may be mediated by 5-HTID receptor activation but definitive classification of the receptor will not be possible until selective 5-HTID-antagonists become available. This may therefore represent the first model to study this receptor subtype in vivo.

A noncholinergic action of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in the brain: from neuronal secretion to the generation of movement

1. In various brain regions, there is a puzzling disparity between large amounts of acetylcholinesterase and low levels of acetylcholine. One such area is the substantia nigra. Furthermore, within the substantia nigra, a soluble form of acetylcholinesterase is released from the dendrites of dopamine-containing nigrostriatal neurons, independent of cholinergic transmission. These two issues have prompted the hypothesis that acetylcholinesterase released in the substantia nigra has an unexpected noncholinergic function. 2. Electrophysiological studies demonstrate that this dendritic release is a function, not of the excitability of the cell from which the acetylcholinesterase is released, but of the inputs to it. In order to explore this phenomenon at the behavioral level, a novel system has been developed for detecting release of acetylcholinesterase "on-line." It can be seen that release of this protein within the substantia nigra can reflect, but is not causal to, movement. 3. Once released, the possible actions of acetylcholinesterase can be studied at both the cellular and the behavioral level. Independent of its catalytic site, acetylcholinesterase has a "modulatory" action on nigrostriatal neurons. The functional consequences of this modulation would be to enhance the sensitivity of the cells to synaptic inputs. 4. Many basic questions remain regarding the release and action of acetylcholinesterase within the substantia nigra and, indeed, within other areas of the brain. Nonetheless, tentative conclusions can be formulated that begin, in a new way, to provide a link between cellular mechanisms and the control of movement.

Pavlovian conditioning between co-administered drugs: elicitation of an apomorphine-induced antiparkinsonian response by scopolamine

Sprague-Dawley rats with unilateral 6-OHDA substantia nigra lesions were given combined scopolamine (0.5 mg/kg IP) and apomorphine (0.05 mg/kg SC) treatments. In this animal model, scopolamine, when administered separately, induces ipsilateral rotation and apomorphine, contralateral rotation. When these drugs are co-administered at 0.5 mg/kg and 0.05 mg/kg dose levels, respectively, animals rotate in the contralateral direction, creating the opportunity for the stimulus effect of scopolamine to become associated with the response effect of apomorphine. In tests with scopolamine (0.5 mg/kg), animals that previously had scopolamine and apomorphine co-administered rotated contralaterally in the test chamber, thereby behaving as if they had received apomorphine. Thus, scopolamine exhibited a functionally acquired conditioned stimulus (CS) property by eliciting the apomorphine response of contralateral rotation as a conditioned response. This acquired CS property was extinguished with separate scopolamine trials and reacquired following one scopolamine-apomorphine co-administration trial.

Left turning (swivel) in medicated chronic schizophrenic patients

34 medicated schizophrenic inpatients, 34 normal control subjects, 18 affective disorder patients (four in manic phase), nine schizoid personality disorder subjects, and nine anxiety/histrionic disorder patients were tested on a two-button task which required turning 180 degrees to collect coin reinforcers. Schizophrenic patients turned consistently left (16 times) significantly more (nine of 34) than normal controls, all of whom turned consistently right (chi 2 = 10.37, P = 0.005). Schizophrenic patients also turned left significantly more than the 18 affective disorder subjects, all of whom turned consistently right (chi 2 = 5.76, P = 0.02). All schizoid personality disorder subjects turned consistently right, and eight of nine anxiety histrionic disorder subjects turned consistently right. Left turning was not correlated with any other variables measured, including handedness, demographic, diagnostic and symptom variables. Left rotation has been previously measured during free ambulation in acute, non-medicated patients (Bracha, Biol. Psychiatry 22 (1987), 995-1003). Left turning bias in a subset of medicated, chronic schizophrenic inpatients may be linked to an underlying asymmetric striatal dopaminergic activity, specifically, an ipsilateral hypoactivity or contralateral hyperactivity, which would lead to left turning and right hemi-spatial neglect.

Cholinergic input to dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra: a double immunocytochemical study

In order to determine whether the cholinergic fibres that innervate the substantia nigra make synaptic contact with dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta, a double immunocytochemical study was carried out in the rat and ferret. Sections of perfusion-fixed mesencephalon were incubated first to reveal choline acetyltransferase immunoreactivity to label the cholinergic terminals and then tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity to label the dopaminergic neurons. Each antigen was localized using peroxidase reactions but with different chromogens. At the light microscopic level, in confirmation of previous observations, choline acetyltransferase-immunoreactive axons and axonal boutons were found throughout the substantia nigra. The highest density of these axons was found in the pars compacta where they were often seen in close apposition to tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive cell bodies and dendrites. In the ferret where the choline acetyltransferase immunostaining was particularly strong, bundles of immunoreactive fibres were seen to run through the reticulata perpendicular to the pars compacta. These bundles were associated with tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive dendrites that descended into the reticulata. The choline acetyltransferase-immunoreactive fibres made "climbing fibre"-type multiple contacts with the tyrosine hydroxylase positive dendrites. At the electron microscopic level the choline acetyltransferase-immunoreactive axons were seen to give rise to vesicle-filled boutons that formed asymmetrical synaptic specializations with nigral dendrites and perikarya. The synapses were often associated with sub-junctional dense bodies. On many occasions the postsynaptic structures contained the tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreaction product, thus identifying them as dopaminergic. It is concluded that at least one of the synaptic targets of cholinergic terminals in the substantia nigra are the dendrites and perikarya of dopaminergic neurons and that in the ferret at least, the dendrites of dopaminergic neurons that descend into the pars reticulata receive multiple synaptic inputs from individual cholinergic axons.

Changes in brain serotonin and 5-hydroxyindolacetic acid levels induced by 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic butyl ester

Brain concentrations of Serotonin (5-HT) and 5-hydroxyindolacetic acid (5-HIAA) were determined in male, mother and virgin female adult rats after exposure to 69 mg/kg body weight/day of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic butyl ester (2,4-Dbe) during 15 or 45 consecutive days. Both 5-HT and 5-HIAA concentrations were increased in the brain. These effects reverted to levels even lower than controls, when the animals were fed an untreated diet after the 2,4-Dbe treatment. High 5-HT and 5-HIAA brain concentrations were also observed in adult rats born from treated mothers (during pregnancy and lactancy) and fed with or without treated diet after weaning. Two different effects on serotoninergic system were detected: a transient effect if 2,4-Dbe was given to adult rats in a short period of time and a permanent effect if the herbicide was supplied during pre- and post birth period (rat brain development). However, in utero exposed but lactationally cross-fostered rat pups were not affected, suggesting that prenatal exposure did not have any influence on the postnatal status of the neurotransmitter(s).

Unilateral injections of a D2 but not D1 agonist into the frontal cortex of rats produce a contralateral directional bias

Unilateral manipulations of frontocortical dopamine have been found in previous studies to produce a directional bias in the circling behaviour of rats. Agonists produced contralateral circling and antagonists produced ipsilateral turning. To examine the role of dopamine receptor subtypes, the present studies investigated the ability of unilateral intrafrontal cortical microinjections of the D1 agonist, SKF 38393 or the D2 agonist, quinpirole to produce contralateral circling in rats. The antagonist, cis-flupenthixol was also tested and was expected to produce ipsilateral circling. In 3 separate experiments, rats received 7 50-min sessions in a circular arena separated by at least 48 hr. The first and final sessions were preceded by no injection, the second and sixth by saline [or the inactive trans isomer (2.5 micrograms) in the flupenthixol experiment] and the middle 3 sessions by doses of cis-flupenthixol (1, 10, 25 micrograms in 0.5 microliter), quinpirole (3, 6, 12 micrograms) or SKF 38393 (2, 4, 8 micrograms), the order being counterbalanced across rats. cis-Flupenthixol and quinpirole produced dose-dependent ipsi- and contralateral circling, respectively, whereas SKF 38393 was without significant effect. No reliable directional bias was seen in any no-injection, saline or trans-flupenthixol sessions. Results suggested that the D2 receptor may mediate the motor effects of frontal cortical dopamine.

Circling behavior exhibited by a transgenic insertional mutant

We report here of an abnormal circling behavior expressed in the TgX15 transgenic mouse line as a result of insertional mutagenesis. Homozygous transgenic mice expressed the phenotype while heterozygous transgenics were normal. We also found that the dopamine D2 receptor binding sites in the striata of the circling mice were significantly elevated by about 31% compared to normal heterozygous transgenic mice. Other transgenic lines constructed with the same transgene appeared normal suggesting that, in the TgX15 line, a genetic locus significant in mammalian motor behavior has been disrupted.

Quantitative autoradiographic changes in 5-[3H]HT-labeled 5-HT1 serotonin receptors in discrete regions of brain in the rat model of persistent dyskinesias induced by iminodipropionitrile (IDPN)

Chronic injections of iminodipropionitrile (IDPN) to rat cause a persistent motor hyperactivity, lateral and vertical sustained twisting movement of the neck, random circling and increased startle response. These abnormalities are similar to those observed after the acute administration of serotonin (5-HT) agonists in rodents. Significant changes in 5-HT concentration and in 5-HT2 receptor density in several motor-related brain regions have been observed in IDPN-treated rats. The present quantitative autoradiographic study was undertaken to assess the possibility that IDPN may also affect 5-HT1 receptors in rat brain. IDPN caused significant increases of 5-[3H]HT binding in the oriens and pyramidal layers of the CA3 field of hippocampus. In contrast, there were significant decreases of 5-[3H]HT binding in the frontal and cingulate cortices, the olfactory tubercle, the ventromedial aspect of the caudate-putamen, the nucleus accumbens, the superior colliculus, and the lateral septal nuclei. These results provide further evidence for the involvement of the 5-HT system in the development of the IDPN-induced dyskinetic syndrome.

Relation between motor asymmetry and direction of rotational behaviour under amphetamine and apomorphine in rats with unilateral degeneration of the nigrostriatal dopamine system

The study examines whether in rats with unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) lesions of the substantia nigra, the direction of amphetamine- and apomorphine-induced rotations is determined by a bias to step more frequently with one hindleg. Results show that there is a strong asymmetry in usage of hindlegs under apomorphine but a weak one under amphetamine. Moreover, under apomorphine, virtually all steps are backward. Under amphetamine, however, steps are directed both backward and forward, although backward steps are relatively more prevalent when striatal dopamine depletion is nearly total. The different styles of rotation reflect the activation of pure turning under apomorphine, and turning combined with forward progression under amphetamine. It is suggested that presence of forward progression during turning depends on the capacity to modulate striatal activation. Moreover, the different styles of rotation are inconsistent with the hypothesis that a bias in leg usage sets the direction of turning. Instead, it seems that unilateral striatal activation sets the directionality of turning, independent of any hindlimb motor asymmetries.

Anodal polarization in the substantia nigra increases rotational behavior in the rat

Rotational behavior was examined in rats after unilateral application of an anodal direct current (3 microA, 30 min) to the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNC). The current application increased contralateral rotation in two stages. One was during the period immediately after the current application, in which the increase in rotation declined within 30 min. The other period was long lasting, in which rotation increased 2 hr after the application and persisted for 24 hr or more. These results suggest that anodal direct currents induce transient and long-lasting activation of the SNC neurons, resulting in increases in rotational behavior.

Dopamine receptors mediate drug-induced but not Pavlovian conditioned contralateral rotation in the unilateral 6-OHDA animal model

Following Pavlovian conditioning treatment sessions with apomorphine, animals receiving the paired treatment showed substantial contralateral rotation when placed without drug into the test environment previously paired to the apomorphine (0.5 mg/kg) injection while animals in the unpaired control treatment showed only ipsilateral rotation. Subsequent tests with the D1 antagonist (SCH 23390), or the D2 antagonist (haloperidol) partially suppressed and the combined D1-D2 antagonists completely suppressed the apomorphine-induced response of contralateral rotation. The identical contralateral rotation response occurring as a Pavlovian conditioned response in the paired apomorphine treatment group was not attenuated by dopamine receptor blockade. In both paired and unpaired groups, the spontaneous ipsilateral rotation response was completely blocked. Thus, non-dopaminergic mechanisms mediate conditioned rotation whereas the drug-induced as well as the spontaneous rotation responses require stimulation of striatal dopamine receptors.

Injections of 6-hydroxydopamine in the substantia nigra of the rat brain: morphological and biochemical effects

Rats with unilateral injections of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) into the substantia nigra pars compacta were classified as active and inactive according to the intensity of their spontaneous and/or apomorphine-induced turning behavior (TB), and sacrificed at different survival times for morphological and biochemical analysis. In active rats, at any survival time, dopaminergic fluorescence in the nigrostriatal system as well as dopamine (DA) and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) content of the nucleus caudatus-putamen drastically decreased on the brain side ipsilateral to the injection. Dopaminergic fluorescence as well as DA and DOPAC content of the mesolimbic system ipsilateral to the injection also decreased. In inactive rats, at any survival time, 6-OHDA-induced lesions only partially involved both nigrostriatal and mesolimbic systems. Our results are indicative of a good correlation between the intensity of TB and the extent of 6-OHDA-induced lesions, as assessed by morphological and biochemical analysis.

Role of dopamine D-1 and D-2 receptors in the ventral striatum in the turning behaviour of rats

Systemically administered methamphetamine and apomorphine evoked characteristic turning when rats were pretreated with injections of D-1 and D-2 antagonists in the ventral but not in the dorsal striatum. The frequency of turning was greater for rats pretreated with D-2 antagonists (l-sulpiride and YM-09151-2) than for rats pretreated with a D-1 antagonist (SCH 23390). The responses were apparently additive when rats were pretreated with mixed D-1/D-2 antagonists, (cis(Z)-flupentixol and SCH 23390 + l-sulpiride). These results suggest that dopamine D-1 and D-2 receptors in the ventral striatum mediate turning behaviour through separate but cooperative mechanisms.

Effects of B-HT 920 on nigrostriatal and mesolimbic dopamine systems in normosensitive and supersensitive rats

1. B-HT 920, a D2 dopamine receptor agonist, was tested for its ability to exert presynaptic actions in normosensitive rats, and for possible postsynaptic actions in rats made 'supersensitive' to apomorphine. 2. In normosensitive rats, B-HT 920 (0.01-0.3 mg kg-1, i.p.) increased dopamine concentrations and lowered metabolite levels to a similar extent in all four terminal regions examined (medial prefrontal cortex, olfactory tubercle, nucleus accumbens, caudate-putamen). Analogous effects were seen for 5-hydroxytryptamine and its metabolite 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid. 3. Rats which received bilateral 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) infusions into the caudate-putamen showed signs of postsynaptic dopamine receptor activation (stereotyped behaviour) in response to B-HT 920 (0.1 and 1.0 mg kg-1, i.p.) and to apomorphine (0.2 mg kg-1, s.c.). Similarly, B-HT 920 (0.1 mg kg-1) induced contralateral circling in rats that had received unilateral 6-OHDA infusions into the medial forebrain bundle; the rate of circling increased gradually over several weeks. 4. In contrast, bilateral 6-OHDA infusions into the nucleus accumbens resulted in a supersensitive (locomotor stimulant) response to a low dose of apomorphine (0.1 mg kg-1, s.c.), but not to B-HT 920 (0.01 and 0.1 mg kg-1). 5. In intact rats, withdrawal of chronic haloperidol treatment induced behavioural supersensitivity to apomorphine but not to B-HT 920.

The effects of striatal lesion on turning behavior and globus pallidus single unit response to dopamine agonist administration

In normal rats, globus pallidus neurons are excited by the systemic administration of postsynaptically active doses of apomorphine. The role of the striatum in mediating this phenomenon was examined by investigating the effects of apomorphine on neuronal activity in the globus pallidus and on turning behavior in rats with unilateral quinolinic acid lesions of the striatum. The lesion markedly reduced striatal choline acetyltransferase activity and GABA content and significantly attenuated apomorphine's effect on the activity of pallidal neurons. Both the extent of attenuation of the electrophysiological response of pallidal neurons in lesioned animals and the neurotoxin-induced decreases in choline acetyltransferase activity and GABA content in the caudal striatum were correlated with the degree of apomorphine-induced turning. The data indicate that striatopallidal neurons contribute to apomorphine's excitatory effect on the activity of pallidal neurons in normal animals.

Measurement of spontaneous rotational movement (circling) in normal children

An asymmetry of basal ganglia dopaminergic function has been demonstrated in rats and related to both spontaneous and drug-induced rotation. An electronic device that measures the same kind of rotational movements in humans has been developed, and we have utilized this "rotometer" to study spontaneous rotational movement in prepubertal children. There was no significant difference between boys and girls in their average rate of rotation; however, left hemisphere-dominant boys were stronger rotators than left hemisphere-dominant girls. Both boys and girls made significantly more full turns to the left than to the right. These findings did not vary with age. Our observations are strikingly different from those obtained in previous studies of normal adults, in which women were stronger rotators than men, left hemisphere-dominant women turned to the left, and left hemisphere-dominant men rotated to the right. This study suggests that maturational changes in rotational behavior must occur, perhaps progressing to the adult pattern during puberty. The rotometer used in this study may provide useful information regarding the status of the basal ganglia in children with specific neurobehavioral conditions such as attention deficit disorder and Tourette's syndrome.

Circling behavior induced by intranigral administration of ruthenium red and 4-aminopyridine in the rat

We have studied the effects of the unilateral intranigral microinjection of Ruthenium Red and 4-aminopyridine in the rat, as compared with that of muscimol. The three drugs produced contralateral turning when injected into the central nigra reticulata. Muscimol was the most effective but its effect disappeared in 3-4 h, whereas that of Ruthenium Red lasted for up to 3 days. When injected into the caudoventromedial nigra, Ruthenium Red produced intense ipsiversive turning, 4-aminopyridine weak ipsiversive turning and muscimol intense contraversive turning. Pretreatment with haloperidol (i.p.) abolished the effect of Ruthenium Red after injection into the caudoventromedial nigra but only partially reduced it after administration into the central nigra. The effect of muscimol, when injected into either of the nigral regions studied, was only slightly diminished by haloperidol. The release of [3H]GABA in slices of the Ruthenium Red-injected substantia nigra was not altered. Histological examination showed that the microinjected Ruthenium Red was located mainly inside the soma of nigral neurons. It is concluded that alterations of transmitter release are probably responsible for the circling behavior induced by 4-aminopyridine, but the effects of Ruthenium Red seem to be secondary to its penetration into the neuronal somas. Dopaminergic neurons seem to play an important role in the ipsilateral turning induced by Ruthenium Red when injected into the caudoventromedial nigra.

Regional changes in brain dopamine and serotonin metabolism induced by conditioned circling in rats: effects of water deprivation, learning and individual differences in asymmetry

Rats were trained, using water reinforcement, to turn in circles (rotation) during 1 h daily test sessions. After achieving criterion performance (100 full turns per hour) for at least 10 consecutive sessions, rats were sacrificed 20 min after starting a session and levels of dopamine, DOPAC (3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid), serotonin, and 5-HIAA (5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid) were assayed in nigrostriatal (corpus striatum), mesolimbic (nucleus accumbens) and mesocortical (medial prefrontal cortex) brain regions. Other control groups of rats were comparably water deprived or satiated at the time of sacrifice. Although, as previously reported, evidence of 'two populations' of rats was again apparent with respect to the relationship between direction of spontaneous turning and asymmetry in striatal dopamine levels, there were no lateralized effects of operant rotational training on striatal dopamine and DOPAC levels nor on the DOPAC/dopamine ratio. There were, however, bilateral neurochemical effects of both rotational training and water deprivation in striatum: an increase in the 5-HIAA/serotonin ratio in both sexes was attributable to learning whereas an increase in the DOPAC/dopamine ratio in males was attributed to water deprivation. A bilateral decrease in the DOPAC/dopamine ratio in the mesolimbic and mesocortical regions of both sexes was also induced by water deprivation. The only lateralized neurochemical changes associated with learning to rotate in the operant task occurred in the medial prefrontal cortex: in both sexes, dopamine levels were higher in the ipsilateral than in the contralateral cortex and the DOPAC/dopamine ratio was greater in the contralateral than in the ipsilateral cortex.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

5-Hydroxytryptamine acts at 5-HT2 receptors to decrease potassium conductance in rat nucleus accumbens neurones

1. Intracellular recordings were made from neurones in the nucleus accumbens in slices from the rat brain maintained in vitro. 2. 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT.1-100 microM) depolarized 170 of 203 (84%) neurones and caused them to discharge action potentials. The depolarization was associated with an increase in the input resistance, and was reversed in polarity by conditioning hyperpolarization; this reversal potential was linearly related to the logarithm of the extracellular potassium concentration. 3. Application of 5-HT to neurones voltage-clamped near their resting potential (typically about -80 mV) caused an inward current and a decrease in the slope conductance. The current caused by 5-HT reversed polarity at the potassium equilibrium potential. Analysis with an equivalent circuit model of the neurone at steady state indicated that 5-HT selectively reduced the inward rectifier potassium conductance. 4. The depolarization caused by 5-HT persisted in tetrodotoxin (1 microM). It was reduced but not abolished by a solution that contained lower levels of calcium (0.24 instead of 2.4 mM), higher levels of magnesium (5 instead of 1.2 mM), and cobalt (2 mM). 5. The depolarization caused by 5-HT was competitively antagonized by the 5-HT2 antagonists ketanserin and mianserin with dissociation equilibrium constants of 3 and 45 nM respectively: spiperone (300 nM) also blocked the action of 5-HT. The depolarization was not mimicked or blocked by a number of other agonists and antagonists selective for the 5-HT1 and 5-HT3 receptor types.

Behavioral evaluation of the anti-excitotoxic properties of MK-801: comparison with neurochemical measurements

The ability of MK-801 to protect striatal neurons from the excitotoxic action of quinolinic acid was evaluated by means of apomorphine-induced rotational behavior and by measurement of striatal choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) activity, neurochemical markers for cholinergic and GABAergic neurons, respectively. Animals with a unilateral quinolinic acid lesion of the striatum exhibited a vigorous rotational response when challenged with apomorphine (0.5 mg/kg, s.c.) 6 days later and were found to have an 88 90% depletion of striatal ChAT and GAD activity. Treatment with a high dose of MK-801 (10 mg/kg, i.p.) prior to intrastriatal injection of quinolinic acid eliminated the subsequent rotational response to apomorphine and resulted in complete protection of striatal ChAT and GAD activity. Lower doses of MK-801 (1, 3 and 5 mg/kg, i.p.) failed to significantly reduce the rotational response to apomorphine but provided partial, dose-dependent protection of both ChAT and GAD activity. The rotational response to apomorphine correlated with the percent reduction in both ChAT activity (r = 0.57, P less than 0.0005) and GAD activity (r = 0.49, P less than 0.0005). Rotational behavior may thus provide a means to evaluate the functional integrity of the striatum.

Pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus-induced inhibition of muscle activity in the rat

The connections of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPN) have led us to propose that this structure mediates striatally induced inhibition of muscle activity by directing basal ganglia output to an inhibitory reticulospinal system (nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis and ventralis, nrGi-V). We conducted experiments in order to examine the effects of electrical stimulation of the PPN on the activity of selected neck and shoulder muscles. PPN stimulation at low rates (0.1 Hz) elicited bilateral muscle excitation. As the rate of stimulation was increased (e.g. to 10 Hz), less excitation was observed. Anodal DC current inactivation of the nrGi-V during concurrent 10 Hz PPN stimulation resulted in an augmentation of muscle activity above the levels observed during 10 Hz PPN stimulation alone. PPN stimulation (10 Hz) also profoundly inhibited cortically-induced muscle activity. Further support for our proposal stems from increased baseline activity (0.1 Hz PPN-induced excitation) in animals with ibotenic acid lesions of the PPN as compared to normal animals. Apparently, destruction of the PPN releases the musculature from tonic and/or phasic inhibition. A model is discussed which attempts to account for both the rate-dependent changes in excitation and the inhibition of cortically induced muscle activity.

Is there a right hemi-hyper-dopaminergic psychosis?

This selective review argues that a small subgroup among the patients meeting DSM-III-R criteria for schizophrenia appears to have an underlying right striatal hyper-dopaminergia. The subgroup is distinguished by a group of objective signs including: (1) asymmetric, usually right-sided, neuroleptic induced parkinsonian side effects; (2) asymmetric, usually left-sided, tardive dyskinesia; (3) a subclinical tendency to turn toward the left; (4) a subclinical right hemi-space sensory neglect; and (5) dopamine receptor densities greater in the right striatum than in the left.

Caudato-nigral transmission in the substantia nigra pars reticulata neurons changes with recovery from circling movements induced by microinfusion of ibotenic acid. I. Behavioral study

Following creation of a unilateral circumscribed lesion in a portion of a cat substantia nigra pars reticulata by microinfusion of ibotenic acid, circling movements toward the contralateral side of the lesion appeared within 2 days and disappeared a few days later. After recovery, the circling movements reappeared when the cats were decerebrated at the premammillary and precollicular level, suggesting that brain centers rostral to the decerebration participate in compensating the circling movements.

EMG activities of neck muscles underlying lateral flexion of the neck during head-turning induced by electrical stimulation of the caudate nucleus in cats

Patterns of EMG activities of neck muscles underlying the initiation of head-turning, induced by stimulation of the caudate nucleus, were analyzed with special reference to temporal relations between the onset of head-turning and that of changes in EMG activities. These patterns were compared with those associated with the initiation of lateral flexion of the neck which occurred without electrical stimulation of the caudate nucleus in order to examine whether the caudate-induced head-turning was initiated via the same muscular system as that used in non-caudate-induced head movements. Experiments were carried out using 5 awake, unrestrained cats which were trained to stand still with one limb on each of 4 footplates. Trains of stimulating current pulses were applied to several stimulation points in the caudate nucleus while the animal maintained a stable standing posture with its neck extended. Head movements in the horizontal plane and EMGs of 6 neck muscles (splenius, longissimus cervicis, obliquus capitis caudalis, biventer cervicis, complexus and cervical multifidus) were recorded. Patterns of EMG activities of neck muscles around the onset of the caudate-induced head-turning were characterized by an increase in activity of the splenius, the longissimus cervicis and the obliquus capitis caudalis muscles, and by a decrease in activity of the complexus, the biventer cervicis and the cervical multifidus on the side of flexion. It is suggested that an increase in activity of the splenius, the longissimus cervicis and the obliques capitis caudalis muscles was responsible for the initiation of this evoked response. In non-caudate-induced lateral flexion of the neck, patterns of activities of neck muscles were similar to those in caudate-induced head-turning. It is therefore concluded that the caudate-induced head-turning as an evoked behavioral response was initiated through a muscular system similar to that utilized for similar head movements occurring without electrical stimulation of the caudate nucleus, although the pathways involved are thought to be different.

Drug-induced dyskinesia in primates rendered hemiparkinsonian by intracarotid administration of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)

The right common carotid artery was surgically exposed under general anaesthesia in 6 cynomolgus monkeys and MPTP (0.5-2.2 mg/kg) directly infused. This produced a hemiparkinsonian syndrome in the contralateral limbs which responded to treatment with both levodopa and apomorphine. These drugs also precipitated dose-dependent contralateral rotation which reached a peak 2 weeks after MPTP infusion. A massive depletion of large, presumably dopaminergic cells was found from the ipsilateral substantia nigra pars compacta. Three animals receiving chronic therapy with apomorphine developed choreoathetoid movements of the limbs and the face contralateral to the infusion 2 weeks after the commencement of treatment. The severity of the dyskinesia gradually increased and after 4 weeks peak-dose hemiballistic movements were seen. Levodopa and the selective D-2 and D-1 dopamine agonists LY-171555 and SKF 38393 also reversed parkinsonian features and produced contralateral rotation and peak-dose dyskinesia. This unilateral model of parkinsonism in the primate will be of value in the elucidation of the mechanisms by which chronic levodopa or dopamine agonist therapy enhance involuntary movements in parkinsonism.

Continuous and intermittent levodopa differentially affect basal ganglia function

The effects of continuous and intermittent levodopa treatment on behavioral and biochemical indexes of basal ganglia function were compared in rats with unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway. Animals treated for 30 days with intermittent levodopa exhibited behavioral sensitization manifested by an enhanced rotational response to apomorphine; the rotational response of rats treated with an equivalent dose of levodopa by continuous infusion did not differ from that of saline-treated controls. Dopamine receptor up-regulation in the denervated striatum relative to the intact striatum was statistically significant for D1 but not D2 receptors: This asymmetry in dopamine receptor levels was diminished following intermittent levodopa treatment. Glutamic acid decarboxylase activity, modestly elevated in all groups in the denervated striatum relative to the intact striatum, increased substantially over control values bilaterally as a result of intermittent, but not continuous, levodopa treatment. These findings suggest a relation between the schedule of chronic levodopa administration and the development of behavioral sensitization, possibly as a consequence of alterations in neuronal systems located downstream from striatal dopamine receptors. The behavioral sensitization induced by chronic, intermittent dopaminomimetic treatment may serve as a model for motor fluctuations in Parkinson's disease.

Involvement of nigrotecto-reticulospinal pathways in the iminodipropionitrile (IDPN) model of spasmodic dyskinesias: a 2-deoxy-D-[1-14C]glucose study in the rat

Chronic administration of iminodipropionitrile (IDPN) to rats causes a persistent behavioral syndrome characterized by lateral and vertical head twitches, random circling, and increased tactile and acoustic startle responses. In order to identify brain areas which are affected in rats manifesting this syndrome, we used the autoradiographic 2-deoxy-D-[1-14C]glucose ([14C]DG) method to map cerebral glucose utilization in IDPN-treated rats. One day after the development of the dyskinetic syndrome, there were significant decreases in local glucose utilization in the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr) and compacta (SNc), the dorsal raphe, the superficial and deep layers of the superior colliculus, the inferior colliculi, the interpeduncular nucleus, the medial and dorsolateral geniculate nuclei, and the superior and lateral vestibular nuclei. There were also significant decreases in layer 2 of the cingulate cortex and in the temporal and occipital cortices. In contrast, there were no changes in the motor cortex, the caudate-putamen, the nucleus accumbens, or the median raphe. These findings suggest that deleterious effects of IDPN on the nigrotectal pathways which affect head and neck movements and circling behaviors via the brainstem reticulospinal tracts may play an important role in the IDPN-induced persistent spasmodic dyskinetic syndrome in rats.

Effect of striatal implantation of bovine adrenal chromaffin cells on turning behavior in a rat model of Parkinson's disease

Rats lesioned unilaterally with 6-hydroxydopamine, as an animal model of Parkinson's disease, were tested for D-amphetamine-induced rotation. Buffer or isolated bovine adrenal chromaffin cells were implanted into the lesioned striatum. Rats were retested for rotation 1 and 4 weeks postimplantation. Those with surviving implants rotated significantly less than controls. HPLC assay of striata showed that implants contained elevated norepinephrine and epinephrine, but not dopamine. The results show that the bovine chromaffin cell implants can function as a restorative treatment for nigrostriatal damage, that neonatal implants work better than adult implants, and that such restoration occurs independent of dopamine levels.

The iminodipropionitrile (IDPN)-induced dyskinetic syndrome: behavioral and biochemical pharmacology

Chronic administration of iminodipropionitrile causes a persistent behavioral syndrome which is characterized by lateral and vertical head shakes, random circling, hyperactivity and increased acoustic startle response in rodents. These behavioral abnormalities are similar to those observed after the acute administration of serotonin (5-HT) and dopamine (DA) agonists, and of some peptides including thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) and the enkephalins. The data available so far indicate that the 5-HT system which interacts with some other neurotransmitters such as DA and norepinephrine (NE) in both reciprocal and nonreciprocal ways may be primarily involved in the manifestations of this persistent dyskinetic syndrome. Preliminary evaluation of the peptidergic systems has also revealed possible involvement of opiate peptides in the IDPN-induced dyskinetic phenomena. More studies are needed to assess the role of specific molecular events which may occur at cortical, subcortical, and/or spinal levels to cause this interesting psychomotor syndrome.