The Relationship Between the Five-Factor Model of Personality and Symptoms of Clinical Disorders: A Meta-Analysis

Psychopathological Symptoms, Social Skills, and Personality Traits: A Study with Adolescents

The purpose of this study is two-fold: (a) to study the concomitant relationships between psychopathological symptoms, cooperation, social skills, and other personality traits; and (b) to identify the predictive variables of psychopathological symptoms. The sample consists of 322 adolescents aged 14 to 17 years old. This study uses correlational methodology. In order to assess psychopathological symptoms, cooperation, social skills, and personality traits, the following scales are used: the Symptom Checklist (SCL-90-R; Derogatis, 1983), the Cooperativeness Scale (CS; Rigby, Cox, & Black, 1997), the MESSY social skills scale (Matson, Rotatori, & Helsel, 1983), and the TPT Personality Test (Corral, Pamos, Pereña, & Seisdedos, 2002). Pearson coefficients suggest that adolescents with many psychopathological symptoms have low levels of cooperative behaviors and social skills. They also score high in inappropriate assertiveness, impulsiveness, overconfidence, and jealousy-withdrawal and have low levels of emotional stability, sociability, and responsibility. Through multiple regression analyses, the following variables were identified as predictors of psychopathological symptoms: jealousy-withdrawal, low social integration, impulsiveness, and low self-concept. The role played by intervention programs promoting socio-emotional development to prevent psychopathological symptoms and enhance mental health is discussed.

Consensually defined facets of personality as prospective predictors of change in depression symptoms

Depression has robust associations with personality, showing a strong relation with neuroticism and more moderate associations with extraversion and conscientiousness. In addition, each Big Five domain can be decomposed into narrower facets. However, we currently lack consensus as to the contents of Big Five facets, with idiosyncrasies across instruments; moreover, few studies have examined associations with depression. In the current study, community participants completed six omnibus personality inventories; self-reported depressive symptoms were assessed at baseline and 5 years later. Exploratory factor analyses suggested three to five facets in each domain, and these facets served as prospective predictors of depression in hierarchical regressions, after accounting for baseline and trait depression. In these analyses, high anger (from neuroticism), low positive emotionality (extraversion), low conventionality (conscientiousness), and low culture (openness to experiences) were significant prospective predictors of depression. Results are discussed in regard to personality structure and assessment, as well as personality-psychopathology associations.

Hierarchies of health: health and work-related stress of managers in municipalities and county councils in Sweden

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate the risk of poor health and stress among male and female managers working at different levels in the public sector.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study using register data. A modified Poisson regression approach was used to examine the risk of stress and illness in relation to management level and sex; 1088 managers participated and were categorized into different management levels and sexes.

RESULTS

The results showed a clear hierarchy of health in relation to managerial level and sex with several significant statistical differences. Women with lower-level management positions suffered to a greater extent from poor health and stress.

CONCLUSIONS

Organizations should focus not only on developing individuals in their managerial roles but also on improving the conditions that allow managers to remain healthy and less stressed.

Psychological factors predicting the distress to female persistent genital arousal symptoms

Symptoms of persistent genital arousal are expected to negatively affect women's sexual and emotional well-being. However, not all women who experience persistent genital arousal complain about their genital condition. Against this background, this study aimed to evaluate psychological predictors of the distress associated with persistent genital arousal symptoms, as well as psychological moderators influencing the conditions under which persistent genital arousal causes distress. A total of 117 women reporting symptoms of persistent genital arousal answered to online questionnaires measuring personality traits, sexual beliefs, and dyadic adjustment. Women have also completed a checklist measuring the frequency/severity of persistent genital arousal symptoms and the distress/impairment caused by these symptoms. Results showed that neuroticism, (low) openness, sexual conservatism, and (low) dyadic adjustment significantly predicted distress associated with genital symptoms. Furthermore, sexual conservatism was found to moderate the relation between the symptoms' severity and the distress associated with those symptoms. Overall, sexual conservatism seems to be a key differentiator factor, influencing the psychological conditions under which women may report higher levels of distress caused by persistent genital arousal. Because such findings focus on the distress to genital arousal symptoms rather than on persistent genital arousal disorder as a clinical entity, the results under consideration may or may not characterize women formally assigned to the persistent genital arousal disorder label.

Construct Validity of Adolescents’ Self-Reported Big Five Personality Traits

While there are a number of short personality trait measures that have been validated for use with adults, few are specifically validated for use with adolescents. To trust such measures, it must be demonstrated that they have adequate construct validity. According to the view of construct validity as a unifying form of validity requiring the integration of different complementary sources of information, this article reports the evaluation of content, factor, convergent, and criterion validities as well as reliability of adolescents’ self-reported personality traits. Moreover, this study sought to address an inherent potential limitation of short personality trait measures, namely their limited conceptual breadth. In this study, starting with items from a known measure, after the language-level was adjusted for use with adolescents, items tapping fundamental primary traits were added to determine the impact of added conceptual breadth on the psychometric properties of the scales. The resulting new measure was named the Big Five Personality Trait Short Questionnaire (BFPTSQ). A group of expert judges considered the items to have adequate content validity. Using data from a community sample of early adolescents, the results confirmed the factor validity of the Big Five structure in adolescence as well as its measurement invariance across genders. More important, the added items did improve the convergent and criterion validities of the scales, but did not negatively affect their reliability. This study supports the construct validity of adolescents’ self-reported personality traits and points to the importance of conceptual breadth in short personality measures.

A test of the vulnerability model: temperament and temperament change as predictors of future mental disorders - the TRAILS study

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to test the vulnerability model of the relationship between temperament and mental disorders using a large sample of adolescents from the TRacking Adolescents Individual Lives' Survey (TRAILS). The vulnerability model argues that particular temperaments can place individuals at risk for the development of mental health problems. Importantly, the model may imply that not only baseline temperament predicts mental health problems prospectively, but additionally, that changes in temperament predict corresponding changes in risk for mental health problems.

METHODS

Data were used from 1195 TRAILS participants. Adolescent temperament was assessed both at age 11 and at age 16. Onset of mental disorders between age 16 and 19 was assessed at age 19, by means of the World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview (WHO CIDI).

RESULTS

Results showed that temperament at age 11 predicted future mental disorders, thereby providing support for the vulnerability model. Moreover, temperament change predicted future mental disorders above and beyond the effect of basal temperament. For example, an increase in frustration increased the risk of mental disorders proportionally.

CONCLUSION

This study confirms, and extends, the vulnerability model. Consequences of both temperament and temperament change were general (e.g., changes in frustration predicted both internalizing and externalizing disorders) as well as dimension specific (e.g., changes in fear predicted internalizing but not externalizing disorders). These findings confirm previous studies, which showed that mental disorders have both unique and shared underlying temperamental risk factors.

The Tendency to Fall for Distracting Information While Making Judgments

Despite much research on thinking biases such as the representativeness, availability, and anchoring heuristics, a psychometrically sound measurement instrument for assessing the degree of heuristic thinking is still missing. Therefore, it was the goal of this study to develop and validate a new test to assess the degree of heuristic thinking associated with three particular thinking heuristics (i.e., the representativeness, availability, and anchoring heuristics). The resulting Objective Heuristic Thinking Test (OHTT) was evaluated with regard to its internal consistency, factor structure, construct validity, and stability in an internet sample (N = 300) and an independent laboratory sample (N = 55). Exploratory factor analyses resulted in three latent factors that represented the three OHTT subscales (i.e., representativeness, availability, and anchoring factors). Results revealed a low to sufficient internal consistency for each of the three scales. Further analyses indicated convergent correlations of the OHTT scales with related constructs such as field-independency. Furthermore, good stability of the test scores was shown. Conclusions are drawn regarding possible future applications of the OHTT as a promising tool for studying the origins of heuristic thinking processes.

Reciprocal effects of stable and temporary components of neuroticism and affective disorders: results of a longitudinal cohort study

BACKGROUND

Cross-sectional studies show that neuroticism is strongly associated with affective disorders. We investigated whether neuroticism and affective disorders mutually reinforce each other over time, setting off a potential downward spiral.

METHOD

A total of 2981 adults aged 18-65 years, consisting of healthy controls, persons with a prior history of affective disorders and persons with a current affective disorder were assessed at baseline (T1) and 2 (T2) and 4 years (T3) later. At each wave, affective disorders according to DSM-IV criteria were assessed with the Composite Interview Diagnostic Instrument (CIDI) version 2.1 and neuroticism with the Neuroticism-Extraversion-Openness Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI).

RESULTS

Using structural equation models the association of distress disorders (i.e. dysthymia, depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder) and fear disorders (i.e. social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, agoraphobia without panic) with neuroticism could be attributed to three components: (a) a strong correlation of the stable components of distress and fear disorders with the stable trait component of neuroticism; (b) a modest contemporaneous association of change in distress and fear disorders with change in neuroticism; (c) a small to modest delayed effect of change in distress and fear disorders on change in neuroticism. Moreover, neuroticism scores in participants newly affected at T2 but remitted at T3 did not differ from their pre-morbid scores at T1.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results do not support a positive feedback cycle of changes in psychopathology and changes in neuroticism. In the context of a relative stability of neuroticism and affective disorders, only modest contemporaneous and small to modest delayed effects of psychopathology on neuroticism were observed.

Negative and positive life events are associated with small but lasting change in neuroticism

BACKGROUND

High neuroticism is prospectively associated with psychopathology and physical health. However, within-subject changes in neuroticism due to life experiences (LEs) or state effects of current psychopathology are largely unexplored. In this 2-year follow-up study, four hypotheses were tested: (1) positive LEs (PLEs) decrease and negative LEs (NLEs) increase neuroticism; (2) LE-driven change in neuroticism is partly long-lasting; and (3) partly independent of LE-driven changes in anxiety/depression; and (4) childhood adversity (before age 16 years) moderates the influence of NLEs/PLEs on neuroticism scores in adult life.

METHOD

Data came from the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety [NESDA, n = 2981, mean age 41.99 years (s.d. = 13.08), 66.6% women]. At follow-up (T₂) we assessed PLEs/NLEs with the List of Threatening Experiences (LTE) over the prior 24 months and categorized them over recent and distant PLE/NLE measures (1-3 and 4-24 months prior to T₂ respectively) to distinguish distant NLE/PLE-driven change in trait neuroticism (using the Dutch version of the Neuroticism-Extroversion-Openness Five Factor Inventory, NEO-FFI) from state deviations due to changes in symptoms of depression (self-rated version of the 30-item Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology, IDS-SR30) and anxiety (Beck Anxiety Inventory, BAI).

RESULTS

Distant NLEs were associated with higher and distant PLEs with lower neuroticism scores. The effects of distant LEs were weak but long-lasting, especially for distant PLEs. Distant NLE-driven change in neuroticism was associated with change in symptoms of anxiety/depression whereas the effect of distant PLEs on neuroticism was independent of any such changes. Childhood adversity weakened the impact of distant NLEs but enhanced the impact of distant PLEs on neuroticism.

CONCLUSIONS

Distant PLEs are associated with small but long-lasting decreases in neuroticism regardless of changes in symptom levels of anxiety/depression. Long-lasting increases in neuroticism associated with distant NLEs are mediated by anxiety/depression.

Using Cloninger's temperament scales to predict substance-related behaviors in adolescents: a prospective longitudinal study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

We tested one of Cloninger's temperament theories - that high novelty seeking (NS), along with low harm avoidance (HA), reward dependence (RD), and persistence (PE), predicts early-onset substance problems.

METHODS

In a community-based sample of 777 adolescents examined at two time points (mean age 13 and 18, respectively), we examined whether Cloninger's four temperament dimensions at wave 1 predicted five substance-related outcomes at wave 2: age of initiation for cigarettes, alcohol, and illicit drugs, number of substance classes tried, and total number of DSM-IV substance use disorder (SUD) symptoms.

RESULTS

Cloninger's predicted temperament pattern did significantly predict the number of SUD symptoms at wave 2. For initiation of cigarettes/illicit drugs and number of substance classes tried, HA/NS/PE fit the pattern, but RD did not. For onset of alcohol, only NS and PE fit Cloninger's prediction. Results for NS and PE were most consistent.

CONCLUSIONS AND SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE

Overall, this study provides evidence that Cloninger's theory may hold true for predicting problem use more than for predicting "use" or experimentation. In addition, youth with high novelty seeking and low persistence may find substances especially reinforcing, and identifying these youth and intervening before initiation has occurred may reduce the risk of future substance-related problems.

[Is subjective well-being perceived by non-health care workers different from that perceived by nurses? Relation with personality and resilience]

Subjective well-being (SWB), usually called 'happiness', is influenced directly by psychological factors. Personality and resilience (capacity of recover from adversity) are included among these factors. Empirical evidence has demonstrated that resilience is an essential and inherent characteristic for the nursery staff. This study has aimed to analyze personality factors (including resilience) related with SWB (satisfaction with life, positive and negative affect) in a nursery staff sample (n=59) of intensive care and cardiological units, and a non-health care workers sample (n=50) mainly made up of government employees and teachers. Multiple regression analyses showed that SWB was associated with more resilience and less neuroticism in the nursery staff. Extraversion and conscientiousness (positively related), and neuroticism (negatively related) were the significant predictors of SWB in the non-health care workers group. Finally, mediational analyses revealed that resilience measured the relationships between extraversion (total mediation) and neuroticism (partial mediation) with SWB in the nursery staff group, but not in the group of non-health care workers. The results show the importance of resilience for nursery staff of intensive care units, since they are constantly exposed to human suffering and to a continually adverse occupational environment. Likewise, the discussion stresses that resilience is a means for nursing staff to cope with the occupational stress and that resilient nurses are a crucial element in our health care system.

Big Five personality and depression diagnosis, severity and age of onset in older adults

BACKGROUND

Personality may play an important role in late-life depression. The aim of this study is to examine the association between the Big Five personality domains and the diagnosis, severity and age of onset of late-life depression.

METHODS

The NEO-Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) was cross-sectionally used in 352 depressed and 125 non-depressed older adults participating in the Netherlands Study of Depression in Older Persons (NESDO). Depression diagnosis was determined by the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). Severity of depression was assessed by the Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (IDS). Logistic and linear regression analyses were applied. Adjustments were made for sociodemographic, cognitive, health and psychosocial variables.

RESULTS

Both the presence of a depression diagnosis and severity of depression were significantly associated with higher Neuroticism (OR=1.35, 95% CI=1.28-1.43 and B=1.06, p<.001, respectively) and lower Extraversion (OR=.79, 95% CI=.75-.83; B=-.85, p<.001) and Conscientiousness (OR=.86, 95% CI=.81.-.90; B=-.86, p<.001). Earlier onset of depression was significantly associated with higher Openness (B=-.49, p=.026).

LIMITATIONS

Due to the cross-sectional design, no causal inferences can be drawn. Further, current depression may have influenced personality measures.

CONCLUSIONS

This study confirms an association between personality and late-life depression. Remarkable is the association found between high Openness and earlier age of depression onset.

Impulsive responses to emotion as a transdiagnostic vulnerability to internalizing and externalizing symptoms

INTRODUCTION

This study explored the hypothesis that impulsive reactions to heightened emotion may reflect a transdiagnostic vulnerability to both externalizing and internalizing symptoms.

METHODS

A sample of undergraduates completed self-report measures of aggression, borderline personality disorder symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and alcohol problems, and a subset completed interviews that assessed suicidality. All participants also completed self-report measures relating to impulsivity. We predicted that emotion-reactive impulsivity, but not other aspects of impulsivity, would be related to the set of psychopathology symptoms.

RESULTS

Multiple regression analyses found that emotion-reactive impulsivity was uniquely related to each of the psychopathology scales, whereas non-emotion-relevant impulsivity was uniquely related only to alcohol problems.

CONCLUSION

Discussion focuses on limitations and clinical implications.

The associations between personality characteristics and absenteeism: a cross-sectional study in workers with and without depressive and anxiety disorders

PURPOSE

Although numerous studies have identified risk factors for sickness absence, few studies have addressed the role of personality characteristics in absenteeism. The aim of this study was to examine the associations of the Big 5 personality characteristics (neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness) and locus of control with absenteeism, taking the presence of depressive and anxiety disorders into account.

METHODS

Cross-sectional data from the baseline measurement of the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety (NESDA) were examined. NESDA includes persons with current or remitted depressive and anxiety disorders and healthy controls, of which 1883 working participants were selected. Personality characteristics were included as predictor variables, short-term (0-2 weeks) and long-term (>2 weeks) absenteeism as outcome measure. The presence of depressive and anxiety disorders was considered as modifying covariate.

RESULTS

In healthy workers, high neuroticism, external locus of control, low extraversion, low agreeableness and low conscientiousness were associated with short-term absenteeism. In addition, high neuroticism, low extraversion and low openness were related to long-term absenteeism in healthy workers. In workers with psychopathology, similar associations were found for persons with this profile (high neuroticism, external locus of control, low extraversion and low conscientiousness) with long-term absenteeism, but no associations of these characteristics were found with short-term absenteeism.

CONCLUSIONS

Personality characteristics were significantly associated with work absenteeism in both workers with and without anxiety or depression. Interventions aimed at preventing sickness absence may focus on reducing neuroticism and strengthening extraversion, conscientiousness and locus of control.

Quality of life in Parkinson's disease caregivers: the contribution of personality traits

Parkinson's disease imposes significant demands not only on patients but also on those people living and caring for them, who often have a reduction in their quality of life. The factors that may ameliorate these effects, such as an individual's personality, are not understood. Therefore, the aim of this study was to look at the relative contribution of caregiver personality on their quality of life, specifically attempting to identify those traits, which may be protective or harmful. Two hundred and seventy-four caregivers of patients with Parkinson's disease were included in this study. Caregivers were given questionnaires to complete, including the Big Five Inventory and the World Health Organisation Quality of Life BREF version. Univariate correlations demonstrated that depression and anxiety were the largest predictors of reduced quality of life amongst caregivers. However, after controlling for these potential confounds, conscientiousness was associated with enhanced psychological quality of life and openness positively predicted benefits in the environmental domain. Neuroticism was associated with reduced quality of life in the psychological domain. Thus, screening for neuroticism may help identify those caregivers who would benefit from intervention strategies, which could in the long term help reduce the need for nursing home placement of Parkinson's disease patients.

The effect of personality dimensions on functional outcomes in mood disorders

INTRODUCTION

Functional impairment associated with mood disorders may be related to a characteristic "profile" of normative personality dimensions.

METHODS

Individuals (age ≥ 18 years) with MDD (n = 400) or BD (n = 317), as defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition, text revision (DSM-IV-TR), were enrolled in the IMDCP. Personality was evaluated with the Neuroticism-Extraversion-Openness Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI), and functionality with the Sheehan Disability Scale and Endicott Work Productivity Scale. Path analysis using linear multiple regressions was performed to identify direct and indirect effects of personality on functional impairment.

RESULTS

Lower conscientiousness exerted a significant direct effect on global (p = 0.017) and family life dysfunction in individuals with MDD (p = 0.002), as well as lower work productivity in both MDD (p = 0.020) and BD (p = 0.018). Lower extraversion exerted a significant direct effect on social impairment in individuals with BD (p = 0.017). Higher neuroticism and agreeableness as well as lower extraversion exerted indirect effects on global and social dysfunction in individuals with MDD via their effects on depression severity. In BD, higher neuroticism and openness indirectly affected global dysfunction. Family dysfunction was indirectly affected by higher neuroticism and openness as well as lower extraversion in MDD and BD.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that discrete personality dimensions may exert direct and indirect effects on functional outcomes in individuals with mood disorders. Personalizing disease management approaches in mood disorders with emphasis on vocational rehabilitation may benefit from measurement and intervention targeting personality.

Integrating normal and abnormal personality structure: the Five-Factor Model

It is evident that the conceptualization, diagnosis, and classification of personality disorder (PD) is shifting toward a dimensional model. The purpose of this special issue of Journal of Personality is to indicate how the Five-Factor Model (FFM) can provide a useful and meaningful basis for an integration of the description and classification of both normal and abnormal personality functioning. This introductory article discusses its empirical support and the potential advantages of understanding personality disorders, including those included within the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and likely future PDs from the dimensional perspective of the FFM.

Association of personality, neighbourhood, and civic participation with the level of perceived social support: The HUNT study, a cross-sectional survey

Aim: The aim of the current study was to examine the association of personality, neighbourhood, and civic participation with the level of perceived social support if needed. Methods: The sample consists of a total of 35,797 men (16,035) and women (19,762) drawn from the Nord-Trøndelag Health Study 3 (HUNT3), aged 20–89, with a fully completed short version of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) including a complete response to questions regarding perceived social support. A multinomial logistic regression model was used to investigate the association between the three-category outcomes (high, medium, and low) of perceived social support. Results: The Chi-square test detected a significant ( p < 0.001) association between personality, sense of community, civic participation, self-rated health, living arrangement, age groups, gender, and perceived social support, except between perceived social support and loss of social network, in which no significance was found. The crude and adjusted multinomial logistic regression models show a relation between medium and low scores on perceived social support, personality, and sources of social support. Interactions were observed between gender and self-rated health. Conclusions: There is an association between the level of perceived social support and personality, sense of community in the neighbourhood, and civic participation. Even if the interaction between men and self-reported health decreases the odds for low and medium social support, health professionals should be aware of men with poor health and their lack of social support.

Person-environment transactions: personality traits moderate and mediate the effects of child sexual victimization on psychopathology

Personality, environmental adversity and psychopathology are related, and different models have been proposed to explain their interaction. The theory of person-environment transactions may elucidate the role of personality in these interactions beyond traditional conceptualizations. To our knowledge, hardly any studies have explored the relationships between the Five Factor Model, child sexual victimization and general psychopathology. We hypothesized (1) that neuroticism and conscientiousness will moderate the effect of sexual victimization on psychopathology and (2) that neuroticism will mediate the relationship between sexual victimization and psychopathology. Our findings partially support these hypotheses. Neuroticism, conscientiousness and sexual victimization have a direct effect on psychopathology, whereas extraversion, openness to experience and agreeableness do not. With regard to interactive effects, conscientiousness, but not neuroticism, moderates the effect of sexual victimization on psychopathology, and neuroticism does mediate the aforementioned effect. No other interactions were found with regard to extraversion, agreeableness or openness to experience. To our knowledge, the present study represents the first global test of person-environment transactions with regard to psychopathology and sexual victimization within the framework of the Five Factor Model.

Similar associations between personality dimensions and anxiety or depressive disorders in a population study of Turkish-Dutch, Moroccan-Dutch, and native Dutch subjects

It is well established that personality traits are associated with anxiety and depressive disorders in Western populations, but it is not known whether this is true also for people from non-Western cultures. In this study, we examined whether ethnicity moderates the association between personality dimensions and anxiety or depressive disorders or symptoms. In a random urban population sample, stratified by ethnicity, in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, we interviewed 309 native Dutch subjects, 203 Turkish-Dutch subjects, and 170 Moroccan-Dutch subjects. Dimensions of personality were measured using the NEO Five-Factor Inventory. Anxiety and depressive disorders and symptom levels were assessed with the Composite International Diagnostic Interview and the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised. The association between personality factors and disorders or symptoms of anxiety and depression was very similar in the three ethnic groups: all show the typical profile of high neuroticism and low extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness.

Neuroticism and common mental disorders: meaning and utility of a complex relationship

Neuroticism's prospective association with common mental disorders (CMDs) has fueled the assumption that neuroticism is an independent etiologically informative risk factor. This vulnerability model postulates that neuroticism sets in motion processes that lead to CMDs. However, four other models seek to explain the association, including the spectrum model (manifestations of the same process), common cause model (shared determinants), state and scar models (CMD episode adds temporary/permanent neuroticism). To examine their validity we reviewed literature on confounding, operational overlap, stability and change, determinants, and treatment effects. None of the models is able to account for (virtually) all findings. The state and scar model cannot explain the prospective association. The spectrum model has some relevance, especially for internalizing disorders. Common causes are most important but the vulnerability model cannot be excluded although confounding of the prospective association by baseline symptoms and psychiatric history is substantial. In fact, some of the findings, such as interactions with stress and the small decay of neuroticism's effect over time, are consistent with the vulnerability model. We describe research designs that discriminate the remaining models and plea for deconstruction of neuroticism. Neuroticism is etiologically not informative yet but useful as an efficient marker of non-specified general risk.

A controlled study of personality and affect in Tourette syndrome

OBJECTIVE

Tourette syndrome (TS) can increase the likelihood of social and emotional difficulties which may shape an individual's personality and self-perception. We investigated personality and affect in patients with TS.

METHODS

Twenty-five adults with TS (2 with co-morbid obsessive compulsive disorder, 4 with co-morbid attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and 4 with both co-morbidities), who were not clinically depressed, and 25 matched controls participated in the study. They completed the Ten-Item Personality Index, the Positive and Negative Affect Scale and the Beck Depression Inventory.

RESULTS

Adults with TS exhibited no differences from controls in reported emotional experience or depressive symptoms but did differ for four of the five assessed personality dimensions; extraversion, conscientiousness, openness and emotional stability. Individuals with pure TS (who had no co-morbid conditions) exhibited reduced extraversion and emotional stability compared to controls. Personality scores were not related to tic severity, yet lower emotional stability scores were associated with higher ratings of negative affect.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is limited by a restricted sample in terms of size and source. However, our findings indicate that in the absence of depression and common co-morbidities, people with TS differ from controls in indices of personality, which are linked to negative affectivity.

Association of five-factor model personality domains and facets with presence, onset, and treatment outcomes of major depression in older adults

OBJECTIVES

To assess the relationship of multiple domains and facets of the five-factor model of personality with presence, onset, and severity of late-life depression.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional analysis of depression status, and age of onset. Retrospective analysis of baseline severity. Longitudinal analysis of severity after 3 and 12 months of psychiatric treatment.

SETTING

Private university-affiliated medical center in the Southeastern United States.

PARTICIPANTS

One hundred twelve psychiatric patients with a current episode of unipolar major depression, and 104 nondepressed comparison subjects, age 60 and older (mean: 70, SD: 6).

MEASUREMENTS

Revised NEO Personality Inventory, Diagnostic Interview Schedule, and Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale.

RESULTS

Binary logistic regression found that depression was related to higher neuroticism (and all its facets) and to lower extraversion (and facets of assertiveness, activity, and positive emotionality) and conscientiousness (and facets of competence, order, dutifulness, and self-discipline). Multinomial logistic regression found some of these relationships held only for depression with onset before age 50 (hostility, self-consciousness, extraversion, assertiveness, positive emotions, order, and dutifulness). Linear regression found that personality was unrelated to depression severity at the beginning of treatment, but improvement after 3 months was related to lower neuroticism (and facets depressiveness and stress-vulnerability) and higher warmth and competence. Improvement after 12 months was related to lower neuroticism, depressiveness, and stress-vulnerability.

CONCLUSIONS

Specific personality facets are related with depression and treatment outcomes. Screening for certain personality traits at the start of treatment may help identify patients at risk of worse response to treatment after 3 months.

The relationship among neuroticism, extraversion, and depression in the HUNT Study: in relation to age and gender

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between personality and depression in a general population in relation to gender and age. The Nord-Trøndelag Health Study (2006-2008), a large cross-sectional survey, was used. The sample consists of 35,832 men (16,104) and women (19,728) aged 20-89 years, living in the Nord-Trøndelag County of Norway, with valid ratings on the depression subscale of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) and Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ). This study demonstrates a relationship between depression and both neuroticism and extraversion in a general population. Older people score low more often on Extraversion (E) than younger people. Interactions were observed between neuroticism and age, gender, and extraversion with depression. The interaction term indicates a high score on Neuroticism (N) enhanced by introversion, older age, and being a male with depression. The findings suggest that health professionals may need to put extra effort into the care of patients with low extraversion and high neuroticism, in order to help those patients avoid depression.

A pathway from neuroticism to depression: examining the role of emotion regulation

We examined whether the relation between neuroticism and the severity of depressive symptoms is mediated by emotion regulation. At the same time, we examined whether the type of emotion regulation strategy (maladaptive vs. adaptive) moderates the effects of neuroticism on depression severity. Community participants (N=533; 235 women and 298 men) completed a set of questionnaires over the Internet. We used structural equation modeling to examine the mediational role of emotion regulation in linking neuroticism and the levels of depressive symptoms. The well-documented relation between neuroticism and depression is mediated by individual differences in the use of different emotion regulation strategies. More specifically, the use of maladaptive forms of emotion regulation, but not reappraisal, fully mediated the association between neuroticism and the severity of depressive symptoms.

Personality profiles and health: longitudinal evidence among Finnish adults

This study investigates the associations of longitudinal Big Five personality profiles with long-term health in 304 adults (53% males). Personality traits (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness) were assessed at ages 33, 42, and 50. Subjective (self-rated health, symptoms, psychological distress) and objective (body mass index, waist-to-hip ratio, blood pressure, cholesterol, triglycerides) indicators of health were measured at ages 42 and 50. Five longitudinally stable personality profiles were extracted over 17 years by latent profile analysis. The levels of traits were the same in each profile at each age. Resilient individuals (N = 65; Neuroticism low, other traits high) had the best subjective health and Overcontrolled individuals (N = 40; Neuroticism high, other traits low) the poorest health over eight years. Reserved individuals (N = 25; high Conscientiousness, other traits low), Undercontrolled (N = 41; high Openness and Extraversion, low Conscientiousness), and Ordinary (N = 133; all traits scored medium) individuals were in the middle of these extremes in subjective health. No differences between the profiles were found in the objective indicators of health. Thus, overcontrol and resilience were most discriminative in terms of good health. Moreover, personality profiles revealed associations with health to be more nuanced than simply being composed of single traits. High Extraversion needed to be combined with high Conscientiousness (Resilients) in order to be associated with the best health; high Extraversion with low Conscientiousness (Undercontrolled) was associated with average health; and low Extraversion with high Neuroticism (Overcontrolled) was associated with the poorest health.

Physiological and affective reactivity to a 35% CO₂ inhalation challenge in individuals differing in the 5-HTTLPR genotype and trait neuroticism

The inhalation of 35% carbon dioxide (CO₂) results in an acute stress response in healthy individuals and may accordingly provide a good paradigm to examine potential vulnerability factors for stress reactivity and stress-related psychopathology. It has been proposed that CO₂ reactivity is moderated by genetic (5-HTTLPR) and personality (neuroticism) factors, yet no experimental study has investigated their effects on CO₂ reactivity simultaneously. The current study examined the singular and interactive effects of the 5-HTTLPR genotype and neuroticism in predicting the affective and physiological response to a 35% CO₂ challenge in a healthy sample of male and female students. From a large group of 771 students, 48 carriers of the low/low expressing allele (S/S, S/Lg, Lg/Lg) and 48 carriers of the high/high expressing allele (La/La) with the lowest and the highest neuroticism scores (77 females, 19 males; mean age ± SD: 20.6 ± 2 years) were selected and underwent a 35% CO₂ inhalation. Visual analogue scales for anxiety and discomfort and the Panic Symptom List were used to assess affective symptomatology, while salivary samples and heart rate were assessed to establish the physiological response. A typical pattern of responses to CO₂ was observed, characterised by increases in anxiogenic symptoms and physical panic symptomatology and a reduction in heart rate; however, no effect on salivary cortisol concentration was observed. Additionally, the CO₂ reactivity did not differ between groups divided by the 5-HTTLPR genotype or neuroticism. Findings of the current study do not support a role for singular or interactive effects of the 5-HTTLPR genotype and trait neuroticism on affective and physiological reactivity to a 35% CO₂ inhalation procedure.

Decreased heart rate variability during emotion regulation in subjects at risk for psychopathology

BACKGROUND

Dysfunctions in the regulation of emotional responses are related to poor psychological well-being and increased impact of cardiovascular disease. It has been suggested that the relationship between negative affect and higher morbidity could be mediated by a dysregulation of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), for example, of heart rate variability (HRV). Neuroticism is a personality trait associated with a maladaptive emotion regulation and also with alterations in ANS function. However, it is unknown whether subjects with high neuroticism present with specific biases in emotion regulation associated with reduced HRV.

METHOD

In total, 33 healthy subjects (n=13, highly neurotic) performed an emotion regulation task, during which they were instructed to either passively view negative pictures or attempt to down-regulate the affect elicited by the images. During the task an electrocardiogram was recorded and HRV was measured by calculation of the high frequency spectrum (HF-HRV).

RESULTS

A significant interaction between task condition and personality group was observed on HF-HRV measures (F 1,31=6.569, p=0.016). This was driven by subjects with low neuroticism presenting higher HF-HRV during down-regulation compared to passive exposure to negative stimuli, while subjects with high neuroticism reported an opposite tendency.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results show reduced HF-HRV during cognitive reappraisal of negative stimuli in high neuroticism and indicate a specific link between loss of flexibility in the parasympathetic cardiovascular tone and emotion regulation, consistent with previous work. Such findings support the importance of exploring the combination of ANS adaptability and emotional dysregulation in neuroticism as different facets of a common psychosomatic vulnerability factor.

The role of personality and traumatic events in cortisol levels--where does PTSD fit in?

BACKGROUND

Studies of cortisol in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have yielded mixed results. We hypothesize that personality traits and traumatic experiences could be the confounders of cortisol measures and disease symptoms.

METHOD

This study was a part of a broader project in which simultaneous psychological and biological investigations were carried out in hospital conditions on 400 male participants categorized by four groups: (A) 133 with current PTSD, (B) 66 with lifetime PTSD, (C) 102 trauma controls, and (D) 99 healthy controls (matched by age and education). Cortisol and ACTH were measured in blood samples taken hourly from 22:00 h to 09:00 h, with an additional sample at 07:30 h (resting state and morning rise). The next night, dexamethasone (0.5mg) suppression test was performed.

RESULTS

No significant differences in basal cortisol and ACTH were found between study groups. The trait Conscientiousness, negatively modulated by Extraversion (assessed by NEO Personality Inventory-Revised) was found to correlate with cortisol (but not with ACTH). Group differences are found on suppression. Structural equation modeling shows excellent fit only when the paths (influences) from Conscientiousness to basal cortisol and from traumatic events to suppression are present. The paths connecting suppression and PTSD symptoms do not contribute.

CONCLUSIONS

Two sources of differences of hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis functioning are implied, both only indirectly connected to PTSD. It seems that basal cortisol secretion is associated more tightly with personality (introvertively modulated Conscientiousness), while the regulation by glucocorticoid receptor system is sensitized by repeated traumatic situations.

The state effect of depressive and anxiety disorders on big five personality traits

BACKGROUND

Neuroticism and extraversion are affected by depressive disorder state. Less is known about depressive state effects on conscientiousness, agreeableness and openness. Furthermore, state effects of anxiety disorders on personality have been far less studied than those of depressive disorder. Here, we aim to determine the extent of change in all five personality traits associated with the occurrence of or recovery from depressive and anxiety disorders.

METHODS

Using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) at baseline and two-year follow-up, respondents from the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety (NESDA) were divided into four groups: unaffected at baseline and follow-up, occurrence, recovery, and affected at baseline and follow-up. Personality change (NEO-five factor inventory) was examined in the occurrence and recovery groups relative to the unaffected and affected groups, respectively. Analyses were repeated, differentiating between (specific) depressive and anxiety disorders.

RESULTS

We found small state effects of affective disorders on neuroticism, extraversion and conscientiousness. Corrected for each other, both depressive and anxiety disorders showed small state effects on neuroticism, but effects on extraversion and conscientiousness were mainly associated with depressive disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

State effects were small. When assessing neuroticism, the presence of both depressive and anxiety disorders should be taken into account, as both may independently increase neuroticism scores. However, when assessing extraversion and conscientiousness, depressive disorders but not anxiety disorders are likely to be of influence. Agreeableness and openness are influenced by neither.

Elevated appraisals of the negative impact of naturally occurring life events: a risk factor for depressive and anxiety disorders

The tendency to appraise naturally occurring life events (LEs) as having high negative impact may be a predisposing factor for the development of depression and anxiety disorders. In the current study, appraisals of the negative impact of recent LEs were examined in relationship to depressive and anxiety disorders in a sample of 653 adolescents who were administered diagnostic and life stress interviews at ages 15 and 20. Participants' appraisals of the negative impact of LEs reported at age 15 were statistically adjusted using investigator-based ratings to control for objective differences across LEs. Higher appraisals of the negative impact of LEs were associated with both past and current depressive and anxiety disorders at age 15 and predicted subsequent first onsets of depressive and anxiety disorders occurring between ages 15 and 20. In addition, appraisals of the negative impact of LEs were particularly elevated among those experiencing both a depressive and anxiety disorder over the course of the study. The findings suggest that systematically elevated appraisals of the negative impact of LEs are a predisposing factor for depression and anxiety disorders and may represent a specific risk factor for co-morbid depression and anxiety in mid-adolescence and early adulthood.

Self-other representations mediate the relationship between Five-Factor Model depression and depressive states

While it is well established that trait depression is a risk factor for experiencing increased rates of episodes of depression, it is also the case that the ways in which the self and others are perceived, and nature of the relationship between self and other, predispose individuals to frequent depressive episodes. In this study, 182 psychiatric outpatients at three treatment facilities were evaluated for Five-Factor Model depressive traits, depressive states, and self-other representations (object relations). It was hypothesized that object relations would mediate the relationship between trait and state depression. Results partially confirmed this hypothesis. While trait depression significantly predicted variance in the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II; Beck et al., 1988), two dimensions of the Bell Object Relations and Reality Testing Inventory (BORRTI; Bell, 1995)--Alienation and Insecure Attachment--partially mediated the relationship between trait and state depression. Similarly, trait depression predicted tendencies to experience frequent shifts toward depressive episodes, although the Insecure Attachment and Egocentricity scales of the BORRTI fully mediated the relationship between trait depression and depressive lability. Knowledge of self-other representations, which is being considered for inclusion in the DSM-5, allows for a more refined understanding of those factors that contribute shifts in depressive mood.

Longitudinal relationships of religion with posttreatment depression severity in older psychiatric patients: evidence of direct and indirect effects

Psychiatric patients (age 59+) were assessed before study treatment for major depressive disorder, and again after 3 months. Measures taken before study treatment included facets of religiousness (subjective religiosity, private prayer, worship attendance, and religious media use), social support, and perceived stress. Clinician-rated depression severity was assessed both before and after treatment using the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS). Structural equation modeling was used to test a path model of direct and indirect effects of religious factors via psychosocial pathways. Subjective religiousness was directly related to worse initial MADRS, but indirectly related to better posttreatment MADRS via the pathway of more private prayer. Worship attendance was directly related to better initial MADRS, and indirectly related to better post-treatment MADRS via pathways of lower stress, more social support, and more private prayer. Private prayer was directly related to better post-treatment MADRS. Religious media use was related to more private prayer, but had no direct relationship with MADRS.

Personality, Life Events and the Course of Anxiety and Depression

Using data from the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety, we examined among 1322 participants with a DSM–IV diagnosis of depression or anxiety: (i) whether positive and negative life events influence 1–year course of anxiety and depressive symptoms; (ii) whether personality traits (neuroticism and extraversion) predict symptom course and moderate the impact of life events on symptom course; and (iii) whether life events mediate relationships of neuroticism and extraversion with symptom course. Negative life events were predictive of both anxiety and depressive symptoms, while positive life events predicted the course of depressive symptoms only. Personality traits had significant predictive and moderating effects on symptom course, though these effects were rather small. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Factors associated with symptoms of anxiety and depression in five cohorts of community-based older people: the HALCyon (Healthy Ageing across the Life Course) Programme

BACKGROUND

Symptoms of anxiety and depression are common in older people, but the relative importance of factors operating in early and later life in influencing risk is unclear, particularly in the case of anxiety.

METHOD

We used data from five cohorts in the Healthy Ageing across the Life Course (HALCyon) collaborative research programme: the Aberdeen Birth Cohort 1936, the Caerphilly Prospective Study, the Hertfordshire Ageing Study, the Hertfordshire Cohort Study and the Lothian Birth Cohort 1921. We used logistic regression to examine the relationship between factors from early and later life and risk of anxiety or depression, defined as scores of 8 or more on the subscales of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, and meta-analysis to obtain an overall estimate of the effect of each.

RESULTS

Greater neuroticism, poorer cognitive or physical function, greater disability and taking more medications were associated in cross-sectional analyses with an increased overall likelihood of anxiety or depression. Associations between lower social class, either in childhood or currently, history of heart disease, stroke or diabetes and increased risk of anxiety or depression were attenuated and no longer statistically significant after adjustment for potential confounding or mediating variables. There was no association between birth weight and anxiety or depression in later life.

CONCLUSIONS

Anxiety and depression in later life are both strongly linked to personality, cognitive and physical function, disability and state of health, measured concurrently. Possible mechanisms that might underlie these associations are discussed.

Neural correlates of personality dimensions and affective measures during the anticipation of emotional stimuli

Neuroticism and extraversion are proposed personality dimensions for individual emotion processing. Neuroticism is correlated with depression and anxiety disorders, implicating a common neurobiological basis. Extraversion is rather inversely correlated with anxiety and depression. We examined neural correlates of personality in relation to depressiveness and anxiety in healthy adult subjects with functional magnetic resonance imaging during the cued anticipation of emotional stimuli. Distributed particularly prefrontal but also other cortical regions and the thalamus were associated with extraversion. Parieto-occipital and temporal regions and subcortically the caudate were correlated with neuroticism and affective measures. Neuroticism-related regions were partially cross-correlated with anxiety and depression and vice versa. Extraversion-related activity was not correlated with the other measures. The neural correlates of extraversion compared with those of neuroticism and affective measures fit with concepts of different neurobiological bases of the personality dimensions and point at predispositions for affective disorders.

Moderation of the association between childhood maltreatment and neuroticism by the corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 gene

BACKGROUND

Neuroticism is a personality trait reflecting the tendency to experience negative affect. It is a major risk for psychopathology, especially depression and anxiety disorders. Childhood maltreatment is another major risk factor for psychopathology and may influence personality. Maltreatment may interact with genotype to predict developmental outcomes. Variation in three polymorphisms of the CRHR1 gene has been found to moderate the association of childhood maltreatment with depression, and we hypothesized that it would also be linked to neuroticism.

METHODS

Variation in three CRHR1 SNPs (rs110402, rs242924, rs7209436) was assessed in 339 maltreated and 275 demographically similar nonmaltreated children, who participated in a day camp research program. Maltreated children were further categorized based on the number of types of maltreatment they had experienced and the most severe form of maltreatment experienced. Genotype and maltreatment status were used to predict the Big Five personality traits, as assessed by camp counselors following a week of interaction with children.

RESULTS

  CRHR1 genotype significantly moderated the association of maltreatment with neuroticism but none of the other traits. Having two copies of the TAT haplotype of CRHR1 was associated with higher levels of neuroticism among maltreated children relative to nonmaltreated children, with the exception of sexually abused children and children who had experienced 3 or 4 types of abuse. Effects sizes of these interactions ranged from η2=.01 (p=.02) to η2=.03 (p=.006).

CONCLUSIONS

Variation in CRHR1 moderates the association of maltreatment with neuroticism. The effects of specific types of maltreatment on neuroticism are differentially moderated by CRHR1 genotype, as are the effects of experiencing more or fewer types of maltreatment.