From lab to life: Evaluating the reliability and validity of psychophysiological data from wearable devices in laboratory and ambulatory settings

Despite the increasing popularity of ambulatory assessment, the reliability and validity of psychophysiological signals from wearable devices is unproven in daily life settings. We evaluated the reliability and validity of physiological signals (electrocardiogram, ECG; photoplethysmography, PPG; electrodermal activity, EDA) collected from two wearable devices (Movisens EcgMove4 and Empatica E4) in the lab (N = 67) and daily life (N = 20) among adults aged 18-64 with Mindware as the laboratory gold standard. Results revealed that both wearable devices' valid data rates in daily life were lower than in the laboratory (Movisens ECG 82.94 vs. 93.10%, Empatica PPG 8.79 vs. 26.14%, and Empatica EDA 41.16 vs. 42.67%, respectively). The poor valid data rates of Empatica PPG signals in the laboratory could be partially attributed to participants' hand movements (r = - .27, p = .03). In laboratory settings, heart rate (HR) derived from both wearable devices exhibited higher concurrent validity than heart rate variability (HRV) metrics (ICCs 0.98-1.00 vs. 0.75-0.97). The number of skin conductance responses (SCRs) derived from Empatica showed higher concurrent validity than skin conductance level (SCL, ICCs 0.38 vs. 0.09). Movisens EcgMove4 provided more reliable and valid HRV measurements than Empatica E4 in both laboratory (split-half reliability: 0.95-0.99 vs. 0.85-0.98; concurrent validity: 0.95-1.00 vs. 0.75-0.98; valid data rate: 93.10 vs. 26.14%) and ambulatory settings (split-half reliability: 0.99-1.00 vs. 0.89-0.98; valid data rate: 82.94 vs. 8.79%). Although the reliability and validity of wearable devices are improving, findings suggest researchers should select devices that yield consistently robust and valid data for their measures of interest.

I'm Still Spending: Financial Contingency of Self-Worth Predicts Financial Motivational Conflict and Compulsive Buying

People with financially contingent self-worth (FCSW) base their self-esteem on money and feel pressured to achieve financial success. However, the present research suggests such individuals may be vulnerable to compulsive buying and experiencing distress and impairment in their lives from engaging in this maladaptive behavior (Study 1a-1b). Study 2 identified a key mechanism: People with FCSW experience more motivational conflict between wanting to spend (vs. not spend) their money, which predicts greater compulsive buying intentions and anticipated distress from making excessive purchases. A 5-week diary study revealed that FCSW-on average and at a weekly level-predicted greater perceived financial motivational conflict and more compulsive buying, distress, and impairment in life (Study 3). People with FCSW experience more financial motivational conflict, independent of beliefs about spending implying wealth or feeling pressured to spend to display one's wealth to others (Study 4). Implications and future directions are discussed.

Principles and procedures for revising the hierarchical taxonomy of psychopathology

Quantitative, empirical approaches to establishing the structure of psychopathology hold promise to improve on traditional psychiatric classification systems. The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) is a framework that summarizes the substantial and growing body of quantitative evidence on the structure of psychopathology. To achieve its aims, HiTOP must incorporate emerging research in a systematic, ongoing fashion. In this article, we describe the historical context and grounding of the principles and procedures for revising the HiTOP framework. Informed by strengths and shortcomings of previous classification systems, the proposed revisions protocol is a formalized system focused around three pillars: (a) prioritizing systematic evaluation of quantitative evidence by a set of transparent criteria and processes, (b) balancing stability with flexibility, and (c) promoting inclusion over gatekeeping in all aspects of the process. We detail how the revisions protocol will be applied in practice, including the scientific and administrative aspects of the process. Additionally, we describe areas of the HiTOP structure that will be a focus of early revisions and outline challenges for the revisions protocol moving forward. The proposed revisions protocol is designed to ensure that the HiTOP framework reflects the current state of scientific knowledge on the structure of psychopathology and fulfils its potential to advance clinical research and practice. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Decentering from Emotions in Daily Life: Dynamic Associations with Affect, Symptoms, and Wellbeing

Decentering is thought to be protective against a range of psychological symptoms, but little is known about the outcomes of decentering as a momentary state in daily life. We used ecological momentary assessment (42 reports across one week) to examine the temporal ordering of the associations of decentering with affect, dysphoria, participant-specific idiographic symptoms, and wellbeing. We also hypothesized that greater decentering predicts less inertia (persistence) of each variable, and weakens the association of affect with dysphoria, idiographic symptoms, and wellbeing. Results in 345 community participants indicated that decentering and these variables were mutually reinforcing over time, and that greater decentering was associated with less inertia of negative affect and dysphoria. Decentering generally predicted reduced impact of positive and negative affect on dysphoria symptoms, but results were mixed when predicting idiographic symptoms or wellbeing. Clinical implications and refinements for theory on decentering are discussed.

Validation of different forms of present-moment awareness using cognitive and behavioral outcomes

The recently developed Multidimensional Awareness Scale (MAS) consists of three subscales assessing individual differences in present-moment awareness of internal states (meta-awareness; MAS-MA), present-moment awareness of the external world (external awareness; MAS-EA), and in the adoption of a detached, observer perspective on one's current internal states (decentered awareness; MAS-DA). The present article examines whether the constructs identified during the development of the MAS manifest during behavioral laboratory tasks. Study 1 (N = 242) examined participants' memory for incidentally encountered external stimuli (criterion for external awareness) and reports of awareness of mind wandering during a lengthy vigilance task (criterion for meta-awareness), and Study 2 (N = 230) examined tolerance of a painful stimulus and concurrent and retrospective reports of pain (criteria for decentered awareness). Results supported the constructs of meta-awareness and decentered awareness and the corresponding validity of the MAS-MA and MAS-DA but incidental memory was not related to MAS-EA. Findings generally remained after controlling for previously established measures of mindfulness or decentering. Results are discussed with respect to theory on awareness-related concepts and potential uses of the MAS subscales. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The Nature and Neurobiology of Fear and Anxiety: State of the Science and Opportunities for Accelerating Discovery

Fear and anxiety play a central role in mammalian life, and there is considerable interest in clarifying their nature, identifying their biological underpinnings, and determining their consequences for health and disease. Here we provide a roundtable discussion on the nature and biological bases of fear- and anxiety-related states, traits, and disorders. The discussants include scientists familiar with a wide variety of populations and a broad spectrum of techniques. The goal of the roundtable was to take stock of the state of the science and provide a roadmap to the next generation of fear and anxiety research. Much of the discussion centered on the key challenges facing the field, the most fruitful avenues for future research, and emerging opportunities for accelerating discovery, with implications for scientists, funders, and other stakeholders. Understanding fear and anxiety is a matter of practical importance. Anxiety disorders are a leading burden on public health and existing treatments are far from curative, underscoring the urgency of developing a deeper understanding of the factors governing threat-related emotions.

Happiness-To enjoy now or later? Consequences of delaying happiness and living in the moment beliefs

How do people think about happiness? Is it something best enjoyed as an investment over time, or is it something fleeting that should be savored? When people view happiness as an investment, they may endorse delaying happiness (DH)-the belief that working hard and sacrificing opportunities for happiness now will contribute to greater future happiness. When people view happiness as fleeting, they may endorse living in the moment (LM)-the belief that one should seize proximal opportunities to experience happiness now, rather than later. Using a mix of cross-sectional, meta-analytic (Studies 1, 2a, 2b, 2c), experimental (Study 3), and daily diary methods (Study 4), people who endorsed DH or LM beliefs anticipated more positive affect upon goal attainment and experienced greater well-being, but only DH was related to more negative affect when pursuing nonfocal goals and less delay discounting of future rewards. Implications for self-regulation and emotion are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Clarifying the Relationship Between Self-Compassion and Mindfulness: an Ecological Momentary Assessment Study

Objectives

Self-compassion entails relating to one's negative experiences with awareness, acceptance, and kindness, and it is associated with greater well-being. The Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) includes mindfulness, which is theorized as a necessary precursor to a self-compassionate response. The present study examined associations of the SCS and its subscales with mindfulness and decentering at baseline and in daily life to clarify the measure's construct validity. We also tested whether self-compassion moderates the association between mindfulness and eudaimonic well-being in daily life during occasions of increased negative affect.

Method

The sample of 172 community adults completed the SCS at baseline and a 7-day ecological momentary assessment. The SCS's construct validity was tested with multilevel correlations and regressions. We tested the interaction of momentary mindfulness, momentary negative affect, and dispositional self-compassion in predicting momentary well-being.

Results

Results generally supported the construct validity of the SCS, but SCS mindfulness subscales were most closely associated with decentering scales in daily life. Higher dispositional self-compassion, higher momentary mindful awareness, and lower momentary negative affect predicted higher momentary eudaimonic well-being. However, self-compassion did not interact with momentary mindful awareness and negative affect.

Conclusions

The SCS generally related to measures of mindfulness and decentering as expected, but further work should be done to clarify subscale construct validity. Self-compassion was predictive of higher momentary eudaimonic well-being in people's daily lives, supportive of ecological validity, but trait levels of self-compassion did not affect the relationship between momentary mindfulness and eudaimonic well-being.

Dysphoria and well-being in daily life: Development and validation of ecological momentary assessment scales

Assessment of internalizing symptoms has generally relied on cross-sectional and retrospective self-reports, but ecological momentary assessment (EMA) is increasingly used to capture quick fluctuations in symptoms, enhance ecological validity, and improve recall accuracy. However, there are very few measures of internalizing symptoms that have been validated for use in EMA designs. In Study 1, we chose candidate items for EMA short forms of the Dysphoria and Well-Being scales from the Inventory of Depression and Anxiety Symptoms (IDAS), based on principal factor analyses and internal consistency analyses conducted on aggregated cross-sectional datasets (total N = 8,876). In Study 2, we tested the items using an EMA design in a sample of college students (N = 279) oversampled for elevated neuroticism. Scale structure, reliability, and convergent and discriminant validity (regarding baseline IDAS scales, baseline affect, and EMA affect) were evaluated at the within- and between-person levels using multilevel structural equation modeling. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses in separate subsamples revealed the expected two-factor structure, yielding a four-item Well-Being scale and a five-item Dysphoria scale. Both scales showed acceptable to good internal consistency, strong convergent validity, and generally adequate discriminant validity. However, some associations of the new scales with EMA affect (i.e., Dysphoria with negative affect; Well-Being with positive affect) were very strong at the between-person level, such that they were not empirically distinct. Overall, this study provides an initial validation of brief EMA-IDAS Dysphoria and Well-Being scales that can be used in research or clinical settings, with particular utility for capturing within-person, dynamic effects. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Individual Differences in the Contents and Form of Present-Moment Awareness: The Multidimensional Awareness Scale

Decentering, a detached, observer perspective on one's mental activity, is an important concept for understanding mental health. Meta-awareness, people's awareness of their own current mental activity, is thought to facilitate decentering. However, trait measures of these concepts are not available or have validity concerns. We sought to create a theoretically derived measure of meta-awareness and decentering that allowed an exploration of questions in the literature regarding whether there are multiple forms of decentered awareness and whether meta-awareness and external awareness are distinct. Across six samples and 2,480 participants, we developed the 25-item Multidimensional Awareness Scale, with subscales assessing meta-awareness (present moment awareness of mental activity), decentered awareness (meta-awareness from a psychologically distant perspective), and external awareness (present moment awareness of the world outside of oneself). The scales demonstrated acceptable reliability and validity. Results are discussed in terms of the conceptual implications of the scale structure and its potential uses.

Decentring as a moderator of the associations of anticipatory and post-event processing with social anxiety

Recent studies have shown that decentring protects against social anxiety, but no research to date has explored the way it interacts with cognitive risk factors for social anxiety. The present study aimed to examine decentring as a moderator of the association of anticipatory and post-event processing with social anxiety. An unselected student sample (N = 444) completed questionnaires assessing anticipatory/post-event processing, decentring, and social anxiety. The data were analysed with structural equation modelling and the latent moderated structural equations (LMS) method. Results supported the moderating role of decentring in the relationship of anticipatory processing and social anxiety, but did not find evidence of moderation for the association of post-event processing and social anxiety, after accounting for the role of anticipatory processing. Limitations and clinical implications for the protective effects of decentring on social anxiety are discussed.

The Structure of Distress Tolerance and Neighboring Emotion Regulation Abilities

Distress tolerance has fuzzy boundaries with neighboring emotion regulation abilities. In the present study, we probed the structure of this domain and examined its link to emotional disorder outcomes. We recruited mental health patient (ns = 225 and 210) and university student (n = 1,525) samples to report on diverse components of distress tolerance, emotion dysregulation, experiential avoidance, and anxiety sensitivity. Confirmatory factor analysis supported a one-factor model of these individual differences; this broad dimension was closely related to depressive symptoms (standardized effect range = .63 to .74) and suicide risk (.42 to .50), and it was almost perfectly associated with a latent dimension representing borderline personality disorder features (.93-.97). We conclude that a reformulation of this domain-with special attention to discriminant validity-would help understand how distress tolerance is so intimately intertwined with emotional health. The data sets and analysis code for this study are published at https://osf.io/8ab2v/.

Ecological validity of trait emotion regulation strategy measures

Research on emotion regulation (ER) strategies has often relied on trait self-report measures, where individuals retrospectively report their tendency to engage in a specific strategy. Although this method is convenient and useful in many clinical and research settings, it is subject to a number of response and memory biases and may not accurately reflect ER as it is naturalistically employed in daily life. We examined the ecological validity of 10 self-report measures of ER strategies (i.e., acceptance, behavioral avoidance, experiential avoidance, expressive suppression, procrastination, reappraisal, reflection, rumination, savoring, social support) with their reported daily use in intensive longitudinal designs in two samples (109 students, 135 treatment-seeking adults). Zero-order correlations revealed convergence between most trait measures and their daily ER strategy counterparts. However, analyses evaluating the specificity of trait measures in their associations with daily ER strategies (both zero-order and multivariate) did not support trait measures' discriminant validity. Rather, correlations between trait measures and factors of the between-person variance in daily ER strategies suggest that most ER trait measures may reflect broader tendencies to use or not use avoidance strategies in daily life. Implications for research using trait measures of ER strategies and recommendations for ER strategy assessment are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Can't Buy Me Love (or Friendship): Social Consequences of Financially Contingent Self-Worth

Although people may think that money improves one's relationships, research suggests otherwise. Focusing on money is associated with spending less time maintaining relationships and less desire to rely on others for help. But why does focusing on money relate to worse social outcomes? We propose that when people base their self-esteem on financial success-that is, have financially contingent self-worth-they are likely to feel pressured to pursue success in this domain, which may come at the expense of spending time with close others. Consistent with this idea, results of four cross-sectional studies (N = 2,439) and a daily diary study (N = 246) revealed that basing one's self-worth on financial success is associated with greater feelings of loneliness and social disconnection, and this may be related to experiencing less autonomy and spending less time with family and friends.

Is more emotional clarity always better? An examination of curvilinear and moderated associations between emotional clarity and internalising symptoms

Low emotional clarity has been a target for psychological interventions due to its association with increased internalising symptoms. However, theory suggests that very high emotional clarity may also lead to increased symptoms, particularly in combination with high levels of neuroticism. As an initial empirical test of this hypothesis, the present study examined curvilinear associations of emotional clarity with internalising symptoms (i.e. dysphoria, social anxiety, panic, traumatic intrusions) and a moderating role of neuroticism/negative affect in the association across two student samples and two clinical samples (total N = 920). Evidence of curvilinear associations and moderation varied across samples, with some supporting evidence in three samples. Specifically, neuroticism/negative affect moderated the curvilinear association of emotional clarity with traumatic intrusions in Clinical Sample 2 as well as the linear association between emotional clarity and dysphoria in Student Sample 2 and Clinical Sample 1. Simple slope analyses indicated that high emotional clarity was not consistently associated with lower symptoms. Also, the hypothesised quadratic effects of emotional clarity were found in Student Sample 2 and Clinical Sample 1 for panic, and in Clinical Sample 1 for dysphoria. Implications and limitations of these findings for conceptualisations of emotional clarity and current treatments were discussed.

The contributions of affective traits and emotion regulation to internalizing disorders: Current state of the literature and measurement challenges

Dysfunctional affective processes are central to the experience of internalizing disorders (e.g., depression, anxiety, and related disorders). Specifically, extreme positive affect and elevated negative affect each have unique and robust patterns of associations with internalizing symptoms. This article examines affect as both an individual difference and a within-person dynamic process that unfolds over time. Recent research is reviewed that clarifies the hierarchical structure of affect and facet-level associations with symptoms, affect-laden traits that confer risk for internalizing psychopathology, models of emotion regulation, and how emotion regulation abilities and strategies contribute to or detract from psychological well-being. Several measurement challenges in this literature are identified and discussed, including possible conceptual and content overlap, mood-state distortion, naturalistic assessment in daily life, and the benefits and limitations of self-reported affective experience. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

A comparison of decentering across demographic groups and meditation experience: Support for the measurement invariance of the Experiences Questionnaire

Theory and prior research suggests that decentering-an objective, distanced perspective on one's internal experiences-may vary based upon characteristics such as age, gender, race/ethnicity, and meditation experience. However, little is known about whether decentering measures are comparable in their meaning and interpretation when administered to individuals with different group membership (e.g., men or women; younger or older adults, etc.). The current study examined the measurement invariance of the Experiences Questionnaire (Fresco et al., 2007), a commonly used measure of decentering, evaluating age, gender, race/ethnicity, and meditation experience in three samples (students, community members, and clinical participants). Each sample was tested separately to assess the generalizability of results. The Experiences Questionnaire demonstrated full or partial measurement invariance in all cases, suggesting that scores are not biased based upon group membership and may be compared across individuals who vary in age, race/ethnicity, gender, and meditation experience. The current study also examined mean differences in decentering by groups, finding some evidence that decentering scores are higher for men, racial/ethnic minorities, older adults, and individuals with more meditation experiences. Implications are discussed for assessing decentering in diverse samples. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Coping trajectories in emerging adulthood: The influence of temperament and gender

OBJECTIVE

The study of coping has far-reaching implications for understanding psychopathology and resilience, as well as for the treatment of psychological disorders. Developmental work has examined how the ability to cope changes across time in children and adolescents; however, work in emerging adulthood is still lacking. Coping is thought to emerge from basic biological and psychological processes, such as temperament and gender, which may influence the trajectory of coping use over time.

METHOD

Using a sample of college students (N = 1,000), our 4-year longitudinal study with yearly assessments sought to (a) examine the trajectory of coping styles in emerging adulthood and to (b) examine the influence of temperament and gender on these coping trajectories.

RESULTS

Our findings suggest that young adults' use of avoidance strategies decreased slightly over college, whereas the use of approach strategies and social support seeking remained stable. Temperament (BIS/BAS) and gender were related to certain coping styles at baseline and appeared to have an influence on some of these trajectories over time, though these associations were complex.

CONCLUSIONS

This work may inform intervention research attempting to promote adaptive coping because it may help identify young adults most in need of such interventions.

Affective models of depression and anxiety: Extension to within-person processes in daily life

BACKGROUND

Affective models (e.g., tripartite model) delineate shared and unique components of depression and anxiety. Specifically, negative affect is broadly associated with these symptoms, whereas low positive affect is relatively specific to depression and social anxiety. However, it is unknown how affect relates to symptoms as they occur naturalistically in daily life or as a within-person dynamic process.

METHOD

135 treatment-seeking adults completed a baseline assessment of trait affect and then rated current affect and symptoms (depression, social anxiety, panic, worry) three times per day for 10 days. Multilevel structural equation modeling was used, and prospective analyses held constant current symptoms.

RESULTS

Baseline trait negative affect and individual differences in momentary negative affect predicted all four symptoms in daily life, whereas low positive affect predicted greater depression only. Similar results were found for within-person concurrent analyses. Prospectively, momentary negative affect predicted increased depression up to 24 h later, and increased panic or worry up to 8-16 h later. Low momentary positive affect predicted greater depression only (8 h later).

LIMITATIONS

All data were self-reported, and some relevant anxiety and mood symptoms were excluded. The timing of reports was random and may have missed notable symptoms. Given the novelty of the study, replication is important.

CONCLUSIONS

Affective models of depression and anxiety derived from retrospective assessments demonstrated strong ecological validity. With the exception of PA and social anxiety, associations found at the between-person level generally applied to within-person processes, which may be amenable to tracking and targeting in therapy.

Decentering constructs predict experience and tolerance of pain: evidence from a cold pressor study / Constructos relacionados con el descentramiento predicen la experiencia y la tolerancia al dolor: evidencia obtenida mediante la prueba del frío

Decentering is a detached, observer perspective on one's current mental contents. Recent work has identified two potential aspects of decentering, Observer Perspective (OP) and Reduced Struggle (RS), that independently predict the effects of decentering. Specifically, both OP and RS predict reduced psychological distress in response to negative affect, with some variability in predictive utility across outcomes. In this study, we sought to extend previous work by examining OP and RS as predictors of responses to an external source of distress, a painful stimulus. Participants completed measures of decentering, followed by a cold pressor task for up to 4 minutes. We recorded time that participants were able to withstand the cold water bath and the intensity of the pain experienced. We found that both OP and RS predicted participants' pain tolerance and pain intensity, but that only RS did so uniquely. Results are discussed with respect to theory on decentering.

Daily experiences of emotional clarity and their association with internalizing symptoms in naturalistic settings

Although emotional clarity contributes to effective emotion regulation and has been suggested as a target for transdiagnostic interventions, little is known about how emotional clarity impacts symptoms and emotion regulation success in daily life. The present study examined the association of emotional clarity with internalizing symptoms (i.e., depression, social anxiety, panic, and worry) in a clinical sample assessed in naturalistic settings over the course of 10 days, examining both within-person and between-person models. In addition, emotion regulation success was tested as a mediator of the association between emotional clarity and symptoms. The sample consisted of 129 diagnostically heterogeneous adults currently seeking or receiving mental health treatment. Multilevel structural equation modeling indicated that momentary emotional clarity was not significantly associated with subsequent momentary internalizing symptoms at either level, with the exception of a negative association with panic at the between-person level. However, lower momentary emotional clarity was indirectly associated with greater subsequent momentary internalizing symptoms via less successful momentary emotion regulation at both levels, and for some symptoms there was evidence of a bidirectional feedback loop. Overall, the present study provides support for the transdiagnostic nature of emotional clarity and clarifies the mechanisms by which emotional clarity may impact symptoms over time in daily life. Theoretical and clinical implications for the role of emotional clarity in psychopathology are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Clinical Utility of the Inventory of Depression and Anxiety Symptoms (IDAS)

Depressive and anxiety disorders are severe and disabling conditions that result in substantial cost and global societal burden. Accurate and efficient identification is thus vital to proper diagnosis and treatment of these disorders. The Inventory of Depression and Anxiety Symptoms (IDAS) is a reliable and well-validated measure that provides dimensional assessment of both mood and anxiety disorder symptoms. The current study examined the clinical utility of the IDAS by establishing diagnostic cutoff scores and severity ranges using a large mixed sample (N = 5,750). Results indicated that the IDAS scales are good to excellent predictors of their associated Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV diagnoses. These findings were replicated using Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fifth edition (DSM-5) criteria assessed via the Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview. We provide three cutoff scores for each scale that can be used differentially depending on the goal of their use: screening, efficiency, or diagnosis confirmation. The identified severity ranges allow users to characterize individuals as mild, moderate, or severe, providing clinical information beyond diagnostic status. Finally, the 10-item IDAS Dysphoria scale and 20-item General Depression scale demonstrate strong ability to predict internalizing diagnoses and may represent an efficient way to screen for the presence of internalizing psychopathology.

It's All About the Money (For Some): Consequences of Financially Contingent Self-Worth

Financial success is an important goal, yet striving for it is often associated with negative outcomes. One reason for this paradox is that financial pressures may be tied to basing self-worth on financial success. Studies 1a to 1c developed a measure of Financial Contingency of Self-Worth (Financial CSW), and found that it predicted more financial social comparisons, financial hassles, stress, anxiety, and less autonomy. In response to a financial (vs. academic) threat, higher Financial CSW participants experienced less autonomy, perceived financial problems more negatively, and disengaged from their financial problems (Study 2). When given an opportunity to self-affirm, however, Financial CSW participants did not show diminished autonomy in response to a financial (vs. academic) threat (Study 3). Finally, participants with higher Financial CSW were less likely to make extravagant spending decisions following a financial (vs. health) threat (Study 4). Together, these studies demonstrate the many consequences of staking self-worth on financial success.

The structure of common emotion regulation strategies: A meta-analytic examination

Emotion regulation has been examined extensively with regard to important outcomes, including psychological and physical health. However, the literature includes many different emotion regulation strategies but little examination of how they relate to one another, making it difficult to interpret and synthesize findings. The goal of this meta-analysis was to examine the underlying structure of common emotion regulation strategies (i.e., acceptance, behavioral avoidance, distraction, experiential avoidance, expressive suppression, mindfulness, problem solving, reappraisal, rumination, worry), and to evaluate this structure in light of theoretical models of emotion regulation. We also examined how distress tolerance-an important emotion regulation ability -relates to strategy use. We conducted meta-analyses estimating the correlations between emotion regulation strategies (based on 331 samples and 670 effect sizes), as well as between distress tolerance and strategies. The resulting meta-analytic correlation matrix was submitted to confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses. None of the confirmatory models, based on prior theory, was an acceptable fit to the data. Exploratory factor analysis suggested that 3 underlying factors best characterized these data. Two factors-labeled Disengagement and Aversive Cognitive Perseveration-emerged as strongly correlated but distinct factors, with the latter consisting of putatively maladaptive strategies. The third factor, Adaptive Engagement, was a less unified factor and weakly related to the other 2 factors. Distress tolerance was most closely associated with low levels of repetitive negative thought and experiential avoidance, and high levels of acceptance and mindfulness. We discuss the theoretical implications of these findings and applications to emotion regulation assessment. (PsycINFO Database Record

Three-way Interaction of Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Conscientiousness in the Internalizing Disorders: Evidence of Disorder Specificity in a Psychiatric Sample

It is well-established that neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness are individually associated with internalizing disorders, but research suggests that these main effects may be qualified by a three-way interaction when predicting depression. The current study was the first to examine this three-way interaction in a psychiatric sample (N=463) with a range of internalizing symptoms as the outcomes. Using two omnibus personality inventories and a diagnostic interview, the expected three-way interaction emerged most consistently for symptoms of major depression, and there was also evidence of synergistic effects for post-traumatic stress disorder and generalized anxiety disorder. Findings indicate that, even in a clinically-distressed and currently-disordered sample, high levels of extraversion and conscientiousness protect against distress disorders for those with high levels of neuroticism.

A comparison and integration of structural models of depression and anxiety in a clinical sample: Support for and validation of the tri-level model

Prominent structural models of depression and anxiety arise from 2 traditions: (a) the tripartite/integrative hierarchical model based on symptom dimensions, and (b) the fear/anxious-misery model based on diagnostic comorbidity data. The tri-level model of depression and anxiety was developed to synthesize these structural models, postulating that narrow (disorder-specific), intermediate (fear and anxious-misery), and broad (general distress) structural factors are needed to most fully account for covariation among these symptoms. Although this model has received preliminary support (Prenoveau et al., 2010), the current study compares it with the above established models and seeks to validate the best-fitting structure. We evaluated the tri-level model and alternative structural models in a large clinical sample (N = 1,000) using bifactor analysis. In exploratory and confirmatory subsamples, the tri-level model provided a good fit to the data and each of the 3 levels (narrow, intermediate, and broad) accounted for substantial variance; this model provided a superior fit relative to more parsimonious competing structural models. Furthermore, impairment was independently associated with all 3 levels of the tri-level model, comorbidity was most closely linked to the broad tri-level dimensions, and the factors generally showed the expected convergent/discriminant associations with diagnoses. Results suggested several revisions to prior research: (a) worry may be best modeled at the broadest structural level, rather than as an indicator of anxious-misery or fear; (b) social interaction anxiety may belong with anxious-misery, rather than fear; and (c) obsessive-compulsive disorder is generally associated with fear disorders, but hoarding is associated with both fear and anxious-misery. (PsycINFO Database Record

The psychological importance of collective assembly: Development and validation of the Tendency for Effervescent Assembly Measure (TEAM)

Although previous research suggests that connection to large, mostly anonymous groups is important for the fulfillment of psychological needs and a sense of psychological well-being, no measure exists to assess individual differences in this area. In 5 studies, we developed and provided support for the validity of the Tendency for Effervescent Assembly Measure (TEAM). Utilizing data from student and community samples, we conducted exploratory factor analyses to guide item selection for the scale (Study 1), evaluated the structure of the scale in an independent sample (Study 2), examined the convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity of the scale (Study 3), and assessed measurement invariance of the scale across different demographic groups (Study 4). Study 5 explored the role of social needs fulfillment in effervescent assembly, as well as examined the relationship of the scale with recent collective effervescence experiences. Results revealed that our final 11-item scale was unidimensional, with excellent internal consistency and good test-retest reliability over 2 months. Measurement invariance was established across gender, ethnicity, and religion, providing support for the validity of the measure across demographic subgroups. Importantly, the TEAM predicted decreased loneliness, increased positive feelings, a sense of meaning in one's life, self-awareness, and spiritual transcendence, above and beyond the effects of the big 5 factors of personality and collective and relational interdependence. Furthermore, results suggested that positive outcomes associated with the TEAM are because of social need fulfillment. (PsycINFO Database Record

Clarifying the Links of Conscientiousness With Internalizing and Externalizing Psychopathology

OBJECTIVE

Although Conscientiousness/disinhibition plays a substantial role in internalizing and externalizing psychopathology, the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. We aim to clarify facet-level associations and to examine whether (a) impairment mediates the link of Conscientiousness with internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and (b) demoralization (assessed via Neuroticism) accounts for their associations.

METHOD

A total of 450 participants (M_age  = 42; primarily female and Caucasian) who reported current/recent psychiatric treatment completed two measures of domain- and facet-level traits (i.e., NEO-PI-3, PID-5), as well as interview measures of impairment and disorders. Correlation, regression, and mediation analyses were conducted.

RESULTS

Internalizing disorders (and particularly, the distress disorders) were uniquely associated with facets related to low self-efficacy, whereas externalizing disorders were uniquely associated with risk-taking and disregarding rules. For the internalizing disorders only, these associations were reduced after accounting for Neuroticism, though associations with distress disorders remained significant. Impairment mediated the link between Conscientiousness and symptoms for internalizing disorders, but not consistently for externalizing disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

The internalizing and externalizing disorders are associated with Conscientiousness due to different facet-level content. Demoralization and impairment both contribute to the link between internalizing disorders and Conscientiousness, whereas neither process accounts substantially for the relation of externalizing disorders with Conscientiousness.

Structure and validity of measures of decentering and defusion

Defusion and decentering are related constructs that describe an objective, distanced, and open approach toward one's internal experiences. These constructs are thought to play important protective roles in models of psychopathology, and several common therapeutic interventions include techniques to increase levels of defusion and decentering. However, little research has examined the construct validity or the underlying structure of measures of these constructs. Across 4 samples-3 unselected student samples and 1 clinical sample-we examined 5 self-report measures of defusion/decentering. We found that measures of decentering and defusion were only weakly to modestly associated with each other. Item-level analyses revealed a 2-factor structure, consisting of "Observer Perspective" and "Reduced Struggle with Inner Experience," which generally showed expected and distinct patterns of convergent and discriminant validity, although the latter factor had questionable discriminant validity namely a-namely indices of psychological distress (e.g., neuroticism, negative affect, internalizing symptoms, rumination). The factors also related differently to believability of positive versus negative thoughts, which was partially explained by the overrepresentation of negative items in the measures. Implications for the structure and validity of these constructs, as well as for their assessment and use in clinical settings, are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

What Lies Beyond Neuroticism? An Examination of the Unique Contributions of Social-Cognitive Vulnerabilities to Internalizing Disorders

Extensive research has identified various social-cognitive vulnerabilities for internalizing disorders. However, few studies have assessed multiple disorders simultaneously, so it is unclear whether these vulnerabilities are transdiagnostic or specific risk factors. Their unique associations with disorders are also uncertain, given that they correlate strongly with neuroticism and one other. Psychiatric outpatients completed self-report and interview measures of six disorders (depression, generalized anxiety disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, social anxiety, panic, obsessive-compulsive disorder), and personality (the Big Five, neuroticism facets, and four vulnerabilities: anxiety sensitivity, intolerance of uncertainty, perfectionism, experiential avoidance). All constructs were modeled as latent variables using structural equation modeling. All four vulnerabilities were closely associated with neuroticism, loading on its anxiety facet in factor analyses. Furthermore, after accounting for the contribution of neuroticism facets, intolerance of uncertainty and experiential avoidance were not uniquely associated with any disorders, and perfectionism was only related to obsessive-compulsive disorder. However, anxiety sensitivity accounted for substantial unique variance in several disorders (i.e., depression, social anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, and panic). We discuss theoretical and clinical implications of these results.

Development and Validation of the Temperament and Affectivity Inventory (TAI)

Trait affect scales have been a mainstay of the assessment literature for more than 50 years. These scales have demonstrated impressive construct validity, including substantial relations with personality, satisfaction, and psychopathology. However, the accumulating evidence has exposed several limitations, including (a) problems associated with retrospective biases, (b) lower temporal stability because of enhanced susceptibility to transient error, and (c) reduced self–other agreement. These limitations motivated the creation of the Temperament and Affectivity Inventory (TAI), which uses a traditional personality format (i.e., full sentences rather than single words or short phrases). The 12 TAI scales were created based on factor analyses in two samples and validated in four additional samples. The scales are internally consistent, highly stable over time, and show strong convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity in relation to self-report and interview-based measures of personality and psychopathology. Thus, the TAI provides a promising new approach to assessing trait affectivity.

Personality, Emotions, and the Emotional Disorders

We examined symptom-level relations between the emotional disorders and general traits within the five-factor model of personality. Neuroticism correlated strongly with the general distress/negative affectivity symptoms (depressed mood, anxious mood, worry) that are central to these disorders; more moderately with symptoms of social phobia, affective lability, panic, posttraumatic stress disorder, lassitude, checking, and obsessive intrusions; and more modestly with agoraphobia, specific phobia, and other symptoms of depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Extraversion was negatively correlated with symptoms of social anxiety/social phobia and was positively related to scales assessing expansive positive mood and increased social engagement in bipolar disorder. Conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness showed weaker associations and generally added little to the prediction of these symptoms. It is noteworthy, moreover, that our key findings replicated well across (a) self-rated versus (b) interview-based symptom measures. We conclude by discussing the diagnostic and assessment implications of these data.

A longitudinal examination of psychosocial impairment across the anxiety disorders

BACKGROUND

Anxiety disorders are highly prevalent disorders associated with substantial psychosocial impairment, but few studies have examined impairment within specific anxiety disorders. Furthermore, it is unclear how change in different types of anxiety has an impact on change in impairment, particularly given high rates of co-morbidity. The current study assessed the temporal associations of impairment and symptoms of three common anxiety disorders in a large, diagnostically heterogeneous clinical sample.

METHOD

Data were collected from 606 treatment-seeking individuals at an anxiety clinic, most of whom subsequently enrolled in cognitive-behavioral therapy. Symptoms of panic, social anxiety and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), as well as levels of impairment, were assessed three times over 2 years. In addition to examining levels of impairment across diagnostic groups, latent growth modeling was used to evaluate the longitudinal associations of anxiety symptoms and impairment.

RESULTS

Those with a principal diagnosis of GAD reported higher levels of impairment in some domains at baseline; however, at follow-up assessments individuals with social anxiety disorder reported greater impairment than those with panic disorder. Anxiety symptoms and impairment both declined over time. Change in all three anxiety symptoms was closely associated with change in impairment, but only GAD remained a significant (positive) predictor of change in impairment after accounting for co-morbidity.

CONCLUSIONS

Impairment and all three anxiety disorders were closely associated, both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Because change in GAD was most specifically related to change in impairment, treatment for those with multiple anxiety disorders could focus on treating GAD symptoms first or treating transdiagnostic processes.

The interaction of extraversion and anxiety sensitivity on social anxiety: evidence of specificity relative to depression

Neuroticism and extraversion have been linked to the etiologies and course of anxiety and mood disorders, such that neuroticism is broadly associated with numerous disorders and extraversion is most strongly associated with social anxiety and depression. While previous research has established the broad associations between temperament and emotional disorders, less is known about the specific, proximal factors that are associated with them, and very few studies have situated these risk factors into a larger etiological model that specifies how they may relate to one another. The current study examined the interaction of extraversion and anxiety sensitivity (AS) in predicting social anxiety symptoms in a large, diagnostically diverse clinical sample (N=826). Symptoms were assessed with self-report and dimensional interview measures, and regression analyses were performed examining the main effects and interaction of extraversion and AS (examining both total and lower-order components) on social anxiety. Results showed that at higher levels of AS, the inverse relationship between extraversion and social anxiety was stronger, and the social concerns component of AS is responsible for this effect. This interaction was also observed with regard to depression symptoms, but the interaction was not present after accounting for shared variance (i.e., comorbidity) between depression and social anxiety symptoms. Clinical and theoretical implications of the results are discussed.

Stable "trait" variance of temperament as a predictor of the temporal course of depression and social phobia

A large body of research has found robust associations between dimensions of temperament (e.g., neuroticism, extraversion) and the mood and anxiety disorders. However, mood-state distortion (i.e., the tendency for current mood state to bias ratings of temperament) likely confounds these associations, rendering their interpretation and validity unclear. This issue is of particular relevance to clinical populations who experience elevated levels of general distress. The current study used the "trait-state-occasion" latent variable model (D. A. Cole, N. C. Martin, & J. H. Steiger, 2005) to separate the stable components of temperament from transient, situational influences such as current mood state. We examined the predictive power of the time-invariant components of temperament on the course of depression and social phobia in a large, treatment-seeking sample with mood and/or anxiety disorders (N = 826). Participants were assessed 3 times over the course of 1 year, using interview and self-report measures; most participants received treatment during this time. Results indicated that both neuroticism/behavioral inhibition (N/BI) and behavioral activation/positive affect (BA/P) consisted largely of stable, time-invariant variance (57% to 78% of total variance). Furthermore, the time-invariant components of N/BI and BA/P were uniquely and incrementally predictive of change in depression and social phobia, adjusting for initial symptom levels. These results suggest that the removal of state variance bolsters the effect of temperament on psychopathology among clinically distressed individuals. Implications for temperament-psychopathology models, psychopathology assessment, and the stability of traits are discussed.

Consensually defined facets of personality as prospective predictors of change in depression symptoms

Depression has robust associations with personality, showing a strong relation with neuroticism and more moderate associations with extraversion and conscientiousness. In addition, each Big Five domain can be decomposed into narrower facets. However, we currently lack consensus as to the contents of Big Five facets, with idiosyncrasies across instruments; moreover, few studies have examined associations with depression. In the current study, community participants completed six omnibus personality inventories; self-reported depressive symptoms were assessed at baseline and 5 years later. Exploratory factor analyses suggested three to five facets in each domain, and these facets served as prospective predictors of depression in hierarchical regressions, after accounting for baseline and trait depression. In these analyses, high anger (from neuroticism), low positive emotionality (extraversion), low conventionality (conscientiousness), and low culture (openness to experiences) were significant prospective predictors of depression. Results are discussed in regard to personality structure and assessment, as well as personality-psychopathology associations.

Perceived Control is a Transdiagnostic Predictor of Cognitive-Behavior Therapy Outcome for Anxiety Disorders

Perceived control has been proposed to be a general psychological vulnerability factor that confers an elevated risk for developing anxiety disorders, but there is limited research examining perceived control during cognitive-behavioral therapies (CBT). The present study examined whether treatment resulted in improvements in perceived control, and the indirect effects of CBT on changes in symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder, social phobia, generalized anxiety disorder, and panic disorder via changes in perceived control. Participants (n = 606) were a large clinical sample presenting for treatment at an outpatient anxiety disorders clinic. Participants completed a series of self-report questionnaires and a structured clinical interview at an intake evaluation and at two follow-up assessments 12 and 24 months later, with the majority of participants initiating CBT between the first two assessments. Results of latent growth curve models indicated that individuals initiating CBT subsequently reported large increases in perceived control and significant indirect effects of treatment on intraindividual changes in each of the four anxiety disorders examined via intraindividual changes in perceived control. These results suggest that the promotion of more adaptive perceptions of control is associated with recovery from anxiety disorders. Furthermore, the consistent finding of indirect effects across the four anxiety disorders examined underscores the transdiagnostic importance of perceived control in predicting CBT outcomes.

Pathological eating behaviors, BMI, and facet-level traits: the roles of conscientiousness, neuroticism, and impulsivity

The current study examined the bivariate and multivariate associations of personality with Body Mass Index (BMI) and several eating behavior inventories, focusing on facets of Neuroticism, Conscientiousness, and Impulsivity. Simultaneous multiple regressions showed that the facets Traditionalism, Urgency, and low Vulnerability were significant predictors of BMI. A factor analysis of the eating behavior scales revealed two dimensions: (a) Food and Body Preoccupation and (b) Cued Eating; Neuroticism, low Conscientiousness, and Perfectionism were significant predictors of both eating behavior factors. In addition, the Depression facet predicted Food and Body Preoccupation, and low Temperance predicted Cued Eating. Implications are discussed for the structure of eating pathology and the specificity of facet traits to eating behaviors and obesity.

Stable "trait" variance of temperament as a predictor of the temporal course of depression and social phobia

A large body of research has found robust associations between dimensions of temperament (e.g., neuroticism, extraversion) and the mood and anxiety disorders. However, mood-state distortion (i.e., the tendency for current mood state to bias ratings of temperament) likely confounds these associations, rendering their interpretation and validity unclear. This issue is of particular relevance to clinical populations who experience elevated levels of general distress. The current study used the "trait-state-occasion" latent variable model (D. A. Cole, N. C. Martin, & J. H. Steiger, 2005) to separate the stable components of temperament from transient, situational influences such as current mood state. We examined the predictive power of the time-invariant components of temperament on the course of depression and social phobia in a large, treatment-seeking sample with mood and/or anxiety disorders (N = 826). Participants were assessed 3 times over the course of 1 year, using interview and self-report measures; most participants received treatment during this time. Results indicated that both neuroticism/behavioral inhibition (N/BI) and behavioral activation/positive affect (BA/P) consisted largely of stable, time-invariant variance (57% to 78% of total variance). Furthermore, the time-invariant components of N/BI and BA/P were uniquely and incrementally predictive of change in depression and social phobia, adjusting for initial symptom levels. These results suggest that the removal of state variance bolsters the effect of temperament on psychopathology among clinically distressed individuals. Implications for temperament-psychopathology models, psychopathology assessment, and the stability of traits are discussed.

Evaluation of the unique and specific contributions of dimensions of the triple vulnerability model to the prediction of DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorder constructs

The triple vulnerability model (Barlow, 2000, 2002) posits that three vulnerabilities contribute to the etiology of emotional disorders: (1) general biological vulnerability (i.e., dimensions of temperament such as neuroticism and extraversion); (2) general psychological vulnerability (i.e., perceived control over life stress and emotional states); (3) disorder-specific psychological vulnerability (e.g., thought-action fusion for OCD). Despite the prominence of this model, a comprehensive empirical evaluation has not yet been undertaken. The current study used structural equation modeling to test the triple vulnerability model in a large clinical sample (N=700), focusing on vulnerabilities for depression, social phobia, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), and OCD. Specifically, we examined the incremental prediction of each level of the triple vulnerability model for each disorder, with the following putative disorder-specific psychological vulnerabilities: thought-action fusion (TAF) for OCD, the dysfunctional attitudes (DAS) for depression, and intolerance of uncertainty (IoU) for GAD. In the final model that included all three levels of vulnerabilities, neuroticism had significant direct effects on all four disorder constructs, and extraversion was inversely associated with depression and social phobia. However, perceived control was significantly associated with GAD and OCD only. Of the disorder-specific psychological vulnerabilities, TAF was significantly and specifically related to OCD. In contrast, DAS and IoU were not significant predictors of depression and GAD respectively, instead contributing to other disorders. The results are discussed in regard to structural models of the emotional disorders and the various roles of general and specific vulnerability dimensions in the onset, severity, and temporal course of psychopathology.

Core OCD symptoms: exploration of specificity and relations with psychopathology

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a heterogeneous condition, comprised of multiple symptom domains. This study used aggregate composite scales representing three core OCD dimensions (Checking, Cleaning, and Rituals), as well as Hoarding, to examine the discriminant validity, diagnostic specificity, and predictive ability of OCD symptom scales. The core OCD scales demonstrated strong patterns of convergent and discriminant validity - suggesting that these dimensions are distinct from other self-reported symptoms - whereas hoarding symptoms correlated just as strongly with OCD and non-OCD symptoms in most analyses. Across analyses, our results indicated that Checking is a particularly strong, specific marker of OCD diagnosis, whereas the specificity of Cleaning and Hoarding to OCD was less strong. Finally, the OCD Checking scale was the only significant predictor of OCD diagnosis in logistic regression analyses. Results are discussed with regard to the importance of assessing OCD symptom dimensions separately and implications for classification.

Distress symptoms and high-risk behaviors prospectively associated with treatment use among returning veterans

OBJECTIVE

Distress symptoms and high-risk behaviors among Iraq and Afghanistan veterans were examined as predictors of treatment utilization.

METHODS

Veterans (N=618) completed self-report measures upon treatment enrollment (2005-2008). Two-year utilization data were obtained for five settings: primary care, mental health within primary care, outpatient mental health, emergency room, and inpatient psychiatric.

RESULTS

Pain was associated with primary care use; depression, panic, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), alcohol misuse, and aggression were associated with use of other settings. After adjustment for comorbidity, veterans with high levels of PTSD and depression symptoms had more treatment visits across several settings than veterans with lower levels. Specialty mental health utilization was low among those reporting elevated psychiatric symptoms (for example, a mean of 8.8 outpatient visits over two years).

CONCLUSIONS

Symptoms and high-risk behaviors were differentially associated with treatment settings; PTSD and depression predicted greater treatment use. Veterans may have overutilized emergency care while underutilizing specialty mental health services.

Development and validation of new anxiety and bipolar symptom scales for an expanded version of the IDAS (the IDAS-II)

The original Inventory of Depression and Anxiety Symptoms (IDAS) contains 11 nonoverlapping scales assessing specific depression and anxiety symptoms. In creating the expanded version of the IDAS (the IDAS-II), our goal was to create new scales assessing other important aspects of the anxiety disorders as well as key symptoms of bipolar disorder. Factor analyses of the IDAS-II item pool led to the creation of seven new scales (Traumatic Avoidance, Checking, Ordering, Cleaning, Claustrophobia, Mania, Euphoria) plus an expanded version of Social Anxiety. These scales are internally consistent and show strong convergent and significant discriminant validity in relation to other self-report and interview-based measures of anxiety, depression, and mania. Furthermore, the scales demonstrate substantial criterion and incremental validity in relation to interview-based measures of DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition) symptoms and disorders. Thus, the expanded IDAS-II now assesses a broad range of depression, anxiety, and bipolar symptoms.