In vivo light-induced activation of neural circuitry in transgenic mice expressing channelrhodopsin-2

Site-specific promoter caging enables optochemical gene activation in cells and animals

In cell and molecular biology, double-stranded circular DNA constructs, known as plasmids, are extensively used to express a gene of interest. These gene expression systems rely on a specific promoter region to drive the transcription of genes either constitutively (i.e., in a continually “ON” state) or conditionally (i.e., in response to a specific transcription initiator). However, controlling plasmid-based expression with high spatial and temporal resolution in cellular environments and in multicellular organisms remains challenging. To overcome this limitation, we have site-specifically installed nucleobase-caging groups within a plasmid promoter region to enable optochemical control of transcription and, thus, gene expression, via photolysis of the caging groups. Through the light-responsive modification of plasmid-based gene expression systems, we have demonstrated optochemical activation of an exogenous fluorescent reporter gene in both tissue culture and a live animal model, as well as light-induced overexpression of an endogenous signaling protein.

Photons and neurons

Methods to control neural activity by light have been introduced to the field of neuroscience. During the last decade, several techniques have been established, including optogenetics, thermogenetics, and infrared neural stimulation. The techniques allow investigators to turn-on or turn-off neural activity. This review is an attempt to show the importance of the techniques for the auditory field and provide insight in the similarities, overlap, and differences of the techniques. Discussing the mechanism of each of the techniques will shed light on the abilities and challenges for each of the techniques. The field has been grown tremendously and a review cannot be complete. However, efforts are made to summarize the important points and to refer the reader to excellent papers and reviews to specific topics. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled .

Binocular input coincidence mediates critical period plasticity in the mouse primary visual cortex

Classical studies on the development of ocular dominance (OD) organization in primary visual cortex (V1) have revealed a postnatal critical period (CP), during which visual inputs between the two eyes are most effective in shaping cortical circuits through synaptic competition. A brief closure of one eye during CP caused a pronounced shift of response preference of V1 neurons toward the open eye, a form of CP plasticity in the developing V1. However, it remains unclear what particular property of binocular inputs during CP is responsible for mediating this experience-dependent OD plasticity. Using whole-cell recording in mouse V1, we found that visually driven synaptic inputs from the two eyes to binocular cells in layers 2/3 and 4 became highly coincident during CP. Enhancing cortical GABAergic transmission activity by brain infusion with diazepam not only caused a precocious onset of the high coincidence of binocular inputs and OD plasticity in pre-CP mice, but rescued both of them in dark-reared mice, suggesting a tight link between coincident binocular inputs and CP plasticity. In Thy1-ChR2 mice, chronic disruption of this binocular input coincidence during CP by asynchronous optogenetic activation of retinal ganglion cells abolished the OD plasticity. Computational simulation using a feed-forward network model further suggests that the coincident inputs could mediate this CP plasticity through a homeostatic synaptic learning mechanism with synaptic competition. These results suggest that the high-level correlation of binocular inputs is a hallmark of the CP of developing V1 and serves as neural substrate for the induction of OD plasticity.

Neuronal activity promotes oligodendrogenesis and adaptive myelination in the mammalian brain

Myelination of the central nervous system requires the generation of functionally mature oligodendrocytes from oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs). Electrically active neurons may influence OPC function and selectively instruct myelination of an active neural circuit. In this work, we use optogenetic stimulation of the premotor cortex in awake, behaving mice to demonstrate that neuronal activity elicits a mitogenic response of neural progenitor cells and OPCs, promotes oligodendrogenesis, and increases myelination within the deep layers of the premotor cortex and subcortical white matter. We further show that this neuronal activity-regulated oligodendrogenesis and myelination is associated with improved motor function of the corresponding limb. Oligodendrogenesis and myelination appear necessary for the observed functional improvement, as epigenetic blockade of oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelin changes prevents the activity-regulated behavioral improvement.

Cascaded effects of spatial adaptation in the early visual system

Virtually all stages of the visual system exhibit adaptation: neurons adjust their responses based on the recent stimulus history. While some of these adjustments occur at specific stages, others may be inherited from earlier stages. How do adaptation effects cascade along the visual system? We measured spatially selective adaptation at two successive stages in the mouse visual system: visual thalamus (LGN) and primary visual cortex (V1). This form of adaptation affected both stages but in drastically different ways: in LGN it only changed response gain, while in V1 it also shifted spatial tuning away from the adaptor. These effects, however, are reconciled by a simple model whereby V1 neurons summate LGN inputs with a fixed, unadaptable weighting profile. These results indicate that adaptation effects cascade through the visual system, that this cascading can shape selectivity, and that the rules of integration from one stage to the next are not themselves adaptable.

•

Different stages of the visual system show different forms of spatial adaptation

•

In LGN, adaptation controls only response gain; in V1, it also controls tuning

•

These disparate effects are reconciled by a summation model with fixed weights

•

The cascade of adaptation shapes tuning without affecting the summation rules

Behavioral flexibility is increased by optogenetic inhibition of neurons in the nucleus accumbens shell during specific time segments

Behavioral flexibility is vital for survival in an environment of changing contingencies. The nucleus accumbens may play an important role in behavioral flexibility, representing learned stimulus–reward associations in neural activity during response selection and learning from results. To investigate the role of nucleus accumbens neural activity in behavioral flexibility, we used light-activated halorhodopsin to inhibit nucleus accumbens shell neurons during specific time segments of a bar-pressing task requiring a win–stay/lose–shift strategy. We found that optogenetic inhibition during action selection in the time segment preceding a lever press had no effect on performance. However, inhibition occurring in the time segment during feedback of results—whether rewards or nonrewards—reduced the errors that occurred after a change in contingency. Our results demonstrate critical time segments during which nucleus accumbens shell neurons integrate feedback into subsequent responses. Inhibiting nucleus accumbens shell neurons in these time segments, during reinforced performance or after a change in contingencies, increases lose–shift behavior. We propose that the activity of nucleus shell accumbens shell neurons in these time segments plays a key role in integrating knowledge of results into subsequent behavior, as well as in modulating lose–shift behavior when contingencies change.

A magnetic rotary optical fiber connector for optogenetic experiments in freely moving animals

BACKGROUND

Performing optogenetic experiments in a behaving animal presents a unique technical challenge. In order to provide an optical path between a fixed light source and a chronically implanted fiber in a freely moving animal, a typical experimental setup includes a detachable connection between the light source and the head of the animal, as well as a rotary joint to relieve torsional stress during movement.

NEW METHOD

We have combined the functionality of the head mounted connector and the rotary joint into a single integrated device that is inexpensive, simple to build, and easy to use.

RESULTS

A typical rotary connector has a transmission efficiency of 80% with a rotational variability of 4%, but can be configured to have a rotational variability of 2% at the expense of a reduced transmission efficiency. Depending on configuration, rotational torque ranges from 14 to 180μNm, making the rotary connector suitable for use with small animals such as mice.

COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS

Benchmark tests demonstrate that our connectors perform similarly to commercially available solutions in terms of transmission efficiency, rotational variability, and torque but at a fraction of the cost. Unlike currently available solutions, our unique design requires a single optical junction which significantly reduces overall light loss. In addition, magnets allow the connectors and caps to "snap into place" for quick yet reliable connection and disconnection.

CONCLUSIONS

Our rotary connector system offers superior performance, reduced cost, and is easily incorporated into existing optogenetic setups.

Utilization and control of bioactuators across multiple length scales

In this review, we summarize the recent developments in the emerging field of bioactuators across a multitude of length scales. First, we discuss the use and control of biomolecules as nanoscale actuators. Molecular motors, such as DNA, kinesin, myosin, and F1-ATPase, have been shown to exert forces in the range between 1 pN to 45 pN. Second, we discuss the use and control of single and small clusters of cells to power microscale devices. Microorganisms, such as flagellated bacteria, protozoa, and algae, can naturally swim at speeds between 20 μm s(-1) to 2 mm s(-1) and produce thrust forces between 0.3 pN to 200 pN. Individual and clustered mammalian cells, such as cardiac and skeletal cells, can produce even higher contractile forces between 80 nN to 3.5 μN. Finally, we discuss the use and control of 2D- and 3D-assembled muscle tissues and muscle tissue explants as bioactuators to power devices. Depending on the size, composition, and organization of these hierarchical tissue constructs, contractile forces have been demonstrated to produce between 25 μN to 1.18 mN.

Chemical synaptic transmission onto superficial stellate cells of the mouse dorsal cochlear nucleus

The dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN) is a cerebellum-like auditory brain stem region whose functions include sound localization and multisensory integration. Although previous in vivo studies have shown that glycinergic and GABAergic inhibition regulate the activity of several DCN cell types in response to sensory stimuli, data regarding the synaptic inputs onto DCN inhibitory interneurons remain limited. Using acute DCN slices from mice, we examined the properties of excitatory and inhibitory synapses onto the superficial stellate cell, a poorly understood cell type that provides inhibition to DCN output neurons (fusiform cells) as well as to local inhibitory interneurons (cartwheel cells). Excitatory synapses onto stellate cells activated both NMDA receptors and fast-gating, Ca(2+)-permeable AMPA receptors. Inhibition onto superficial stellate cells was mediated by glycine and GABAA receptors with different temporal kinetics. Paired recordings revealed that superficial stellate cells make reciprocal synapses and autapses, with a connection probability of ∼ 18-20%. Unexpectedly, superficial stellate cells co-released both glycine and GABA, suggesting that co-transmission may play a role in fine-tuning the duration of inhibitory transmission.

Optogenetic stimulation of the auditory pathway

Auditory prostheses can partially restore speech comprehension when hearing fails. Sound coding with current prostheses is based on electrical stimulation of auditory neurons and has limited frequency resolution due to broad current spread within the cochlea. In contrast, optical stimulation can be spatially confined, which may improve frequency resolution. Here, we used animal models to characterize optogenetic stimulation, which is the optical stimulation of neurons genetically engineered to express the light-gated ion channel channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2). Optogenetic stimulation of spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs) activated the auditory pathway, as demonstrated by recordings of single neuron and neuronal population responses. Furthermore, optogenetic stimulation of SGNs restored auditory activity in deaf mice. Approximation of the spatial spread of cochlear excitation by recording local field potentials (LFPs) in the inferior colliculus in response to suprathreshold optical, acoustic, and electrical stimuli indicated that optogenetic stimulation achieves better frequency resolution than monopolar electrical stimulation. Virus-mediated expression of a ChR2 variant with greater light sensitivity in SGNs reduced the amount of light required for responses and allowed neuronal spiking following stimulation up to 60 Hz. Our study demonstrates a strategy for optogenetic stimulation of the auditory pathway in rodents and lays the groundwork for future applications of cochlear optogenetics in auditory research and prosthetics.

Neural circuit interactions between the dorsal raphe nucleus and the lateral hypothalamus: an experimental and computational study

Orexinergic/hypocretinergic (Ox) neurotransmission plays an important role in regulating sleep, as well as in anxiety and depression, for which the serotonergic (5-HT) system is also involved in. However, little is known regarding the direct and indirect interactions between 5-HT in the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) and Ox neurons in the lateral hypothalamus (LHA). In this study, we report the additional presence of 5-HT1BR, 5-HT2AR, 5-HT2CR and fast ligand-gated 5-HT3AR subtypes on the Ox neurons of transgenic Ox-enhanced green fluorescent protein (Ox-EGFP) and wild type C57Bl/6 mice using single and double immunofluorescence (IF) staining, respectively, and quantify the colocalization for each 5-HT receptor subtype. We further reveal the presence of 5-HT3AR and 5-HT1AR on GABAergic neurons in LHA. We also identify NMDAR1, OX1R and OX2R on Ox neurons, but none on adjacent GABAergic neurons. This suggests a one-way relationship between LHA's GABAergic and Ox neurons, wherein GABAergic neurons exerts an inhibitory effect on Ox neurons under partial DRN's 5-HT control. We also show that Ox axonal projections receive glutamatergic (PSD-95 immunopositive) and GABAergic (Gephyrin immunopositive) inputs in the DRN. We consider these and other available findings into our computational model to explore possible effects of neural circuit connection types and timescales on the DRN-LHA system's dynamics. We find that if the connections from 5-HT to LHA's GABAergic neurons are weakly excitatory or inhibitory, the network exhibits slow oscillations; not observed when the connection is strongly excitatory. Furthermore, if Ox directly excites 5-HT neurons at a fast timescale, phasic Ox activation can lead to an increase in 5-HT activity; no significant effect with slower timescale. Overall, our experimental and computational approaches provide insights towards a more complete understanding of the complex relationship between 5-HT in the DRN and Ox in the LHA.

Cell type-specific and time-dependent light exposure contribute to silencing in neurons expressing Channelrhodopsin-2

Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) has quickly gained popularity as a powerful tool for eliciting genetically targeted neuronal activation. However, little has been reported on the response kinetics of optogenetic stimulation across different neuronal subtypes. With excess stimulation, neurons can be driven into depolarization block, a state where they cease to fire action potentials. Herein, we demonstrate that light-induced depolarization block in neurons expressing ChR2 poses experimental challenges for stable activation of specific cell types and may confound interpretation of experiments when ‘activated’ neurons are in fact being functionally silenced. We show both ex vivo and in vivo that certain neuronal subtypes targeted for ChR2 expression become increasingly susceptible to depolarization block as the duration of light pulses are increased. We find that interneuron populations have a greater susceptibility to this effect than principal excitatory neurons, which are more resistant to light-induced depolarization block. Our results highlight the need to empirically determine the photo-response properties of targeted neurons when using ChR2, particularly in studies designed to elicit complex circuit responses in vivo where neuronal activity will not be recorded simultaneous to light stimulation.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01481.001

The brain is a highly complex structure composed of trillions of interconnecting nerve cells. The pattern of connections between these cells gives rise to the various brain circuits that govern how the brain functions. Understanding how the brain is wired together is important for determining how ‘faulty circuits’ contribute to various neurological disorders.

New optogenetic technique tools allow neuroscientists to turn on specific neurons simply by shining light on them. These techniques involve genetically manipulating the organisms so that their neurons express proteins that are activated when they are exposed to light of a particular wavelength. However, it is important to understand the limitations of this approach—including the possibility that the light might actually turn off some neurons—when using it to study animal behavior.

Now, Herman, Huang et al. show that shining light pulses for long durations onto neurons expressing a light-activated protein called channelrhodopsin-2 causes the neurons to become silenced rather than activated. Moreover, certain types of neurons, called interneurons, are more susceptible to this effect—termed ‘depolarization block’—than the other types of neurons.

Researchers need to be mindful of this effect when channelrhodopsin-2 is used in optogenetic experiments to study the behavior of living animals. However, this silencing property could be useful in experiments that investigate situations in which depolarization block is thought to contribute to brain function and health: such as in the treatments of schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01481.002

Ministrokes in channelrhodopsin-2 transgenic mice reveal widespread deficits in motor output despite maintenance of cortical neuronal excitability

We evaluated the effects of ministrokes targeted to individual pial arterioles on motor function in Thy-1 line 18 channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) transgenic mice within the first hours after ischemia. Using optogenetics, we directly assessed both the excitability and motor output of cortical neurons in a manner independent of behavioral state or training. Occlusion of individual arterioles within the motor cortex led to a ministroke that was verified using laser speckle contrast imaging. Surprisingly, ministrokes targeted to a relatively small region of the forelimb motor map, with an ischemic core of 0.07 ± 0.03 mm(2), impaired motor responses evoked from points across widespread areas of motor cortex even 1.5 mm away. Contrasting averaged ChR2-evoked electroencephalographic, spinal (ChR2 evoked potential), and electromyographic responses revealed a mismatch between measures of cortical excitability and motor output within 60 min after stroke. This mismatch suggests that apparently excitable cortical neurons (even >1 mm into peri-infarct areas, away from the infarct core) were impaired in their capacity to generate spinal potentials leading to even more severe deficits in motor output at muscles. We suggest that ischemia, targeted to a subset of motor cortex, leads to relatively small reductions in excitability within motor cortex, and cumulative depression of both descending spinal circuits and motor output in response to the activation of widespread cortical territories even outside of the area directly affected by the ischemia.

Optogenetic micro-electrocorticography for modulating and localizing cerebral cortex activity

OBJECTIVE

Spatial localization of neural activity from within the brain with electrocorticography (ECoG) and electroencephalography remains a challenge in clinical and research settings, and while microfabricated ECoG (micro-ECoG) array technology continues to improve, complementary methods to simultaneously modulate cortical activity while recording are needed.

APPROACH

We developed a neural interface utilizing optogenetics, cranial windowing, and micro-ECoG arrays fabricated on a transparent polymer. This approach enabled us to directly modulate neural activity at known locations around micro-ECoG arrays in mice expressing Channelrhodopsin-2. We applied photostimuli varying in time, space and frequency to the cortical surface, and we targeted multiple depths within the cortex using an optical fiber while recording micro-ECoG signals.

MAIN RESULTS

Negative potentials of up to 1.5 mV were evoked by photostimuli applied to the entire cortical window, while focally applied photostimuli evoked spatially localized micro-ECoG potentials. Two simultaneously applied focal stimuli could be separated, depending on the distance between them. Photostimuli applied within the cortex with an optical fiber evoked more complex micro-ECoG potentials with multiple positive and negative peaks whose relative amplitudes depended on the depth of the fiber.

SIGNIFICANCE

Optogenetic ECoG has potential applications in the study of epilepsy, cortical dynamics, and neuroprostheses.

Fast hemodynamic responses in the visual cortex of the awake mouse

Hemodynamic responses in mice and other species are typically measured under anesthesia. However, anesthesia could influence their relationship to neural activity. To investigate this relationship, we used optical imaging in mouse primary visual cortex (V1). Hemodynamic responses yielded clear maps of retinotopy in both anesthetized and awake mice. However, during wakefulness, responses were four times larger and twice as fast. These differences held whether we induced anesthesia with urethane or isoflurane and whether awake mice were stationary or running on a treadmill. With electrode recordings, we established that the effects of wakefulness reflect changes in neurovascular coupling, not in neural activity. By activating V1 directly via optogenetics, we replicated the effects of wakefulness in terms of timing but not of amplitude. We conclude that neurovascular coupling depends critically on anesthesia and wakefulness: during wakefulness, neural activity is followed by much stronger and quicker hemodynamic responses.

How might novel technologies such as optogenetics lead to better treatments in epilepsy?

Recent technological advances open exciting avenues for improving the understanding of mechanisms in a broad range of epilepsies. This chapter focuses on the development of optogenetics and on-demand technologies for the study of epilepsy and the control of seizures. Optogenetics is a technique which, through cell-type selective expression of light-sensitive proteins called opsins, allows temporally precise control via light delivery of specific populations of neurons. Therefore, it is now possible not only to record interictal and ictal neuronal activity, but also to test causality and identify potential new therapeutic approaches. We first discuss the benefits and caveats to using optogenetic approaches and recent advances in optogenetics related tools. We then turn to the use of optogenetics, including on-demand optogenetics in the study of epilepsies, which highlights the powerful potential of optogenetics for epilepsy research.

Acute brain slice methods for adult and aging animals: application of targeted patch clamp analysis and optogenetics

The development of the living acute brain slice preparation for analyzing synaptic function roughly a half century ago was a pivotal achievement that greatly influenced the landscape of modern neuroscience. Indeed, many neuroscientists regard brain slices as the gold-standard model system for detailed cellular, molecular, and circuitry level analysis and perturbation of neuronal function. A critical limitation of this model system is the difficulty in preparing slices from adult and aging animals, and over the past several decades few substantial methodological improvements have emerged to facilitate patch clamp analysis in the mature adult stage. In this chapter we describe a robust and practical protocol for preparing brain slices from mature adult mice that are suitable for patch clamp analysis. This method reduces swelling and damage in superficial layers of the slices and improves the success rate for targeted patch clamp recordings, including recordings from fluorescently labeled populations in slices derived from transgenic mice. This adult brain slice method is suitable for diverse experimental applications, including both monitoring and manipulating neuronal activity with genetically encoded calcium indicators and optogenetic actuators, respectively. We describe the application of this adult brain slice platform and associated methods for screening kinetic properties of Channelrhodopsin (ChR) variants expressed in genetically defined neuronal subtypes.

A roadmap to applying optogenetics in neuroscience

Optogenetics allows for the specific manipulation of the activity of genetically defined cell populations in the CNS. Yet, it requires effective gene delivery, light stimulation, and readout strategies. Here, we provide a roadmap aimed at guiding the experimenter in the process of establishing an optogenetic approach tailored to a given research hypothesis in the field of neuroscience.

Functional connectivity of the entorhinal-hippocampal space circuit

The mammalian space circuit is known to contain several functionally specialized cell types, such as place cells in the hippocampus and grid cells, head-direction cells and border cells in the medial entorhinal cortex (MEC). The interaction between the entorhinal and hippocampal spatial representations is poorly understood, however. We have developed an optogenetic strategy to identify functionally defined cell types in the MEC that project directly to the hippocampus. By expressing channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) selectively in the hippocampus-projecting subset of entorhinal projection neurons, we were able to use light-evoked discharge as an instrument to determine whether specific entorhinal cell groups--such as grid cells, border cells and head-direction cells--have direct hippocampal projections. Photoinduced firing was observed at fixed minimal latencies in all functional cell categories, with grid cells as the most abundant hippocampus-projecting spatial cell type. We discuss how photoexcitation experiments can be used to distinguish the subset of hippocampus-projecting entorhinal neurons from neurons that are activated indirectly through the network. The functional breadth of entorhinal input implied by this analysis opens up the potential for rich dynamic interactions between place cells in the hippocampus and different functional cell types in the entorhinal cortex (EC).

Regulation of interneuron excitability by gap junction coupling with principal cells

Electrical coupling of inhibitory interneurons can synchronize activity across multiple neurons, thereby enhancing the reliability of inhibition onto principal cell targets. It is unclear whether downstream activity in principal cells controls the excitability of such inhibitory networks. Using paired patch-clamp recordings, we show that excitatory projection neurons (fusiform cells) and inhibitory stellate interneurons of the dorsal cochlear nucleus form an electrically coupled network through gap junctions containing connexin36 (Cxc36, also called Gjd2). Remarkably, stellate cells were more strongly coupled to fusiform cells than to other stellate cells. This heterologous coupling was functionally asymmetric, biasing electrical transmission from the principal cell to the interneuron. Optogenetically activated populations of fusiform cells reliably enhanced interneuron excitability and generated GABAergic inhibition onto the postsynaptic targets of stellate cells, whereas deep afterhyperpolarizations following fusiform cell spike trains potently inhibited stellate cells over several hundred milliseconds. Thus, the excitability of an interneuron network is bidirectionally controlled by distinct epochs of activity in principal cells.

Transgene expression in target-defined neuron populations mediated by retrograde infection with adeno-associated viral vectors

Tools enabling the manipulation of well defined neuronal subpopulations are critical for probing complex neuronal networks. Cre recombinase (Cre) mouse driver lines in combination with the Cre-dependent expression of proteins using viral vectors--in particular, recombinant adeno-associated viral vectors (rAAVs)--have emerged as a widely used platform for achieving transgene expression in specified neural populations. However, the ability of rAAVs to further specify neuronal subsets on the basis of their anatomical connectivity has been reported as limited or inconsistent. Here, we systematically tested a variety of widely used neurotropic rAAVs for their ability to mediate retrograde gene transduction in the mouse brain. We tested pseudotyped rAAVs of several common serotypes (rAAV 2/1, 2/5, and 2/9) as well as constructs both with and without Cre-dependent expression switches. Many of the rAAVs tested--in particular, though not exclusively, Cre-dependent vectors--showed a robust capacity for retrograde infection and transgene expression. Retrograde expression was successful over distances as large as 6 mm and in multiple neuron types, including olfactory projection neurons, neocortical pyramidal cells projecting to distinct targets, and corticofugal and modulatory projection neurons. Retrograde infection using transgenes such as ChR2 allowed for optical control or optically assisted electrophysiological identification of neurons defined genetically as well as by their projection target. These results establish a widely accessible tool for achieving combinatorial specificity and stable, long-term transgene expression to isolate precisely defined neuron populations in the intact animal.

Next-generation transgenic mice for optogenetic analysis of neural circuits

Here we characterize several new lines of transgenic mice useful for optogenetic analysis of brain circuit function. These mice express optogenetic probes, such as enhanced halorhodopsin or several different versions of channelrhodopsins, behind various neuron-specific promoters. These mice permit photoinhibition or photostimulation both in vitro and in vivo. Our results also reveal the important influence of fluorescent tags on optogenetic probe expression and function in transgenic mice.

Light-controlled inhibition of malignant glioma by opsin gene transfer

Glioblastomas are aggressive cancers with low survival rates and poor prognosis because of their highly proliferative and invasive capacity. In the current study, we describe a new optogenetic strategy that selectively inhibits glioma cells through light-controlled membrane depolarization and cell death. Transfer of the engineered opsin ChETA (engineered Channelrhodopsin-2 variant) gene into primary human glioma cells or cell lines, but not normal astrocytes, unexpectedly decreased cell proliferation and increased mitochondria-dependent apoptosis, upon light stimulation. These optogenetic effects were mediated by membrane depolarization-induced reductions in cyclin expression and mitochondrial transmembrane potential. Importantly, the ChETA gene transfer and light illumination in mice significantly inhibited subcutaneous and intracranial glioma growth and increased the survival of the animals bearing the glioma. These results uncover an unexpected effect of opsin ion channels on glioma cells and offer the opportunity for the first time to treat glioma using a light-controllable optogenetic approach.

Optical control of neuronal excitation and inhibition using a single opsin protein, ChR2

The effect of electrical stimulation on neuronal membrane potential is frequency dependent. Low frequency electrical stimulation can evoke action potentials, whereas high frequency stimulation can inhibit action potential transmission. Optical stimulation of channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) expressed in neuronal membranes can also excite action potentials. However, it is unknown whether optical stimulation of ChR2-expressing neurons produces a transition from excitation to inhibition with increasing light pulse frequencies. Here we report optical inhibition of motor neuron and muscle activity in vivo in the cooled sciatic nerves of Thy1-ChR2-EYFP mice. We also demonstrate all-optical single-wavelength control of neuronal excitation and inhibition without co-expression of inhibitory and excitatory opsins. This all-optical system is free from stimulation-induced electrical artifacts and thus provides a new approach to investigate mechanisms of high frequency inhibition in neuronal circuits in vivo and in vitro.

Optogenetic control of fly optomotor responses

When confronted with a large-field stimulus rotating around the vertical body axis, flies display a following behavior called "optomotor response." As neural control elements, the large tangential horizontal system (HS) cells of the lobula plate have been prime candidates for long. Here, we applied optogenetic stimulation of HS cells to evaluate their behavioral role in Drosophila. To minimize interference of the optical activation of channelrhodopsin-2 with the visual perception of the flies, we used a bistable variant called ChR2-C128S. By applying pulses of blue and yellow light, we first demonstrate electrophysiologically that lobula plate tangential cells can be activated and deactivated repeatedly with no evident change in depolarization strength over trials. We next show that selective optogenetic activation of HS cells elicits robust yaw head movements and yaw turning responses in fixed and tethered flying flies, respectively.

Glutamate release from astrocyte cell-line GL261 via alterations in the intracellular ion environment

Astrocytes modify and maintain neural activity and functions via gliotransmitter release such as, glutamate. They also change their properties and functions in response to alterations of ion environment resulting from neurotransmission; however, the direct evidence for whether intracellular ion alteration in astrocytes triggers gliotransmitter release is not indicated. Recent studies have reported that channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) is useful for alteration of intracellular ion environment in several types of cells with blue light exposure. Here, we show that ChR2-expressing GL261 (GLChR2) cells, clonal astrocytes, change their properties by photo-activation. Increased intracellular sodium and calcium ion concentrations and an altered membrane potential were observed in GLChR2 cells with blue light exposure. Alterations in the intracellular ion environment caused intracellular acidification and the inhibition of proliferation. In addition, it triggered glutamate release from GLChR2 cells. Glutamate from GLChR2 cells acted on N18 cells, clonal neuronal cells, as both a transmitter and neurotoxin depending on photo-activation. Our results show that the properties of ChR2-expressing astrocytes can be controlled by blue light exposure, and cation influx through photo-activated ChR2 might trigger functional cation influx via endogenous channels and result in the increase of glutamate release. Further, our results suggest that ChR2-expressing glial cells could become a useful tool in understanding the roles of glial cell activation and neural communication in the regulation of brain functions.

Motor maps and the cortical control of movement

The brain's cortical maps serve as a macroscopic framework upon which additional levels of detail can be overlaid. Unlike sensory maps generated by measuring the brain's responses to incoming stimuli, motor maps are made by directly stimulating the brain itself. To understand the significance of motor maps and the functions they represent, it is necessary to consider the relationship between the natural operation of the motor system and the pattern of activity evoked in it by artificial stimulation. We review recent findings from the study of the cortical motor system and new insights into the control of movement based on its mapping within cortical space.

Thy1-expressing neurons in the basolateral amygdala may mediate fear inhibition

Research has identified distinct neuronal circuits within the basolateral amygdala (BLA) that differentially mediate fear expression versus inhibition; however, molecular markers of these populations remain unknown. Here we examine whether optogenetic activation of a cellular subpopulation, which may correlate with the physiologically identified extinction neurons in the BLA, would differentially support fear conditioning versus fear inhibition/extinction. We first molecularly characterized Thy1-channelrhodopsin-2 (Thy1-ChR2-EYFP)-expressing neurons as a subpopulation of glutamatergic pyramidal neurons within the BLA. Optogenetic stimulation of these neurons inhibited a subpopulation of medial central amygdala neurons and shunted excitation from the lateral amygdala. Brief activation of these neurons during fear training disrupted later fear memory in male mice. Optogenetic activation during unreinforced stimulus exposure enhanced extinction retention, but had no effect on fear expression, locomotion, or open-field behavior. Together, these data suggest that the Thy1-expressing subpopulation of BLA pyramidal neurons provide an important molecular and pharmacological target for inhibiting fear and enhancing extinction and for furthering our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of fear processing.

Odor representations in the olfactory bulb evolve after the first breath and persist as an odor afterimage

Rodents can discriminate odors in one breath, and mammalian olfaction research has thus focused on the first breath. However, sensory representations dynamically change during and after stimuli. To investigate these dynamics, we recorded spike trains from the olfactory bulb of awake, head-fixed mice and found that some mitral cells' odor representations changed following the first breath and others continued after odor cessation. Population analysis revealed that these postodor responses contained odor- and concentration-specific information--an odor afterimage. Using calcium imaging, we found that most olfactory glomerular activity was restricted to the odor presentation, implying that the afterimage is not primarily peripheral. The odor afterimage was not dependent on odorant physicochemical properties. To artificially induce aftereffects, we photostimulated mitral cells using channelrhodopsin and recorded centrally maintained persistent activity. The strength and persistence of the afterimage was dependent on the duration of both artificial and natural stimulation. In summary, we show that the odor representation evolves after the first breath and that there is a centrally maintained odor afterimage, similar to other sensory systems. These dynamics may help identify novel odorants in complex environments.

Optogenetic control of targeted peripheral axons in freely moving animals

Optogenetic control of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) would enable novel studies of motor control, somatosensory transduction, and pain processing. Such control requires the development of methods to deliver opsins and light to targeted sub-populations of neurons within peripheral nerves. We report here methods to deliver opsins and light to targeted peripheral neurons and robust optogenetic modulation of motor neuron activity in freely moving, non-transgenic mammals. We show that intramuscular injection of adeno-associated virus serotype 6 enables expression of channelrhodopsin (ChR2) in motor neurons innervating the injected muscle. Illumination of nerves containing mixed populations of axons from these targeted neurons and from neurons innervating other muscles produces ChR2-mediated optogenetic activation restricted to the injected muscle. We demonstrate that an implanted optical nerve cuff is well-tolerated, delivers light to the sciatic nerve, and optically stimulates muscle in freely moving rats. These methods can be broadly applied to study PNS disorders and lay the groundwork for future therapeutic application of optogenetics.

Resistance of optogenetically evoked motor function to global ischemia and reperfusion in mouse in vivo

Recently we have shown that despite reperfusion, sensory processing exhibits persistent deficits after global ischemia in a mouse in vivo model. We now address how motor output, specifically cortically evoked muscle activity, stimulated by channelrhodopsin-2 is affected by global ischemia and reperfusion. We find that the light-based optogenetic motor map recovers to 80% within an hour. Moreover, motor output recovers relatively faster and more completely than the sensory processing after 5-minute period of global ischemia. Our results suggest a differential sensitivity of sensory and motor systems to the effects of global ischemia and reperfusion that may have implications for rehabilitation.

Light scattering properties vary across different regions of the adult mouse brain

Recently developed optogenetic tools provide powerful approaches to optically excite or inhibit neural activity. In a typical in-vivo experiment, light is delivered to deep nuclei via an implanted optical fiber. Light intensity attenuates with increasing distance from the fiber tip, determining the volume of tissue in which optogenetic proteins can successfully be activated. However, whether and how this volume of effective light intensity varies as a function of brain region or wavelength has not been systematically studied. The goal of this study was to measure and compare how light scatters in different areas of the mouse brain. We delivered different wavelengths of light via optical fibers to acute slices of mouse brainstem, midbrain and forebrain tissue. We measured light intensity as a function of distance from the fiber tip, and used the data to model the spread of light in specific regions of the mouse brain. We found substantial differences in effective attenuation coefficients among different brain areas, which lead to substantial differences in light intensity demands for optogenetic experiments. The use of light of different wavelengths additionally changes how light illuminates a given brain area. We created a brain atlas of effective attenuation coefficients of the adult mouse brain, and integrated our data into an application that can be used to estimate light scattering as well as required light intensity for optogenetic manipulation within a given volume of tissue.

Temporal processing in the olfactory system: can we see a smell?

Sensory processing circuits in the visual and olfactory systems receive input from complex, rapidly changing environments. Although patterns of light and plumes of odor create different distributions of activity in the retina and olfactory bulb, both structures use what appears on the surface similar temporal coding strategies to convey information to higher areas in the brain. We compare temporal coding in the early stages of the olfactory and visual systems, highlighting recent progress in understanding the role of time in olfactory coding during active sensing by behaving animals. We also examine studies that address the divergent circuit mechanisms that generate temporal codes in the two systems, and find that they provide physiological information directly related to functional questions raised by neuroanatomical studies of Ramon y Cajal over a century ago. Consideration of differences in neural activity in sensory systems contributes to generating new approaches to understand signal processing.

Convergence of cortical and sensory driver inputs on single thalamocortical cells

Ascending and descending information is relayed through the thalamus via strong, “driver” pathways. According to our current knowledge, different driver pathways are organized in parallel streams and do not interact at the thalamic level. Using an electron microscopic approach combined with optogenetics and in vivo physiology, we examined whether driver inputs arising from different sources can interact at single thalamocortical cells in the rodent somatosensory thalamus (nucleus posterior, POm). Both the anatomical and the physiological data demonstrated that ascending driver inputs from the brainstem and descending driver inputs from cortical layer 5 pyramidal neurons converge and interact on single thalamocortical neurons in POm. Both individual pathways displayed driver properties, but they interacted synergistically in a time-dependent manner and when co-activated, supralinearly increased the output of thalamus. As a consequence, thalamocortical neurons reported the relative timing between sensory events and ongoing cortical activity. We conclude that thalamocortical neurons can receive 2 powerful inputs of different origin, rather than only a single one as previously suggested. This allows thalamocortical neurons to integrate raw sensory information with powerful cortical signals and transfer the integrated activity back to cortical networks.

Optical control and study of biological processes at the single-cell level in a live organism

Living organisms are made of cells that are capable of responding to external signals by modifying their internal state and subsequently their external environment. Revealing and understanding the spatio-temporal dynamics of these complex interaction networks is the subject of a field known as systems biology. To investigate these interactions (a necessary step before understanding or modelling them) one needs to develop means to control or interfere spatially and temporally with these processes and to monitor their response on a fast timescale (< minute) and with single-cell resolution. In 2012, an EMBO workshop on 'single-cell physiology' (organized by some of us) was held in Paris to discuss those issues in the light of recent developments that allow for precise spatio-temporal perturbations and observations. This review will be largely based on the investigations reported there. We will first present a non-exhaustive list of examples of cellular interactions and developmental pathways that could benefit from these new approaches. We will review some of the novel tools that have been developed for the observation of cellular activity and then discuss the recent breakthroughs in optical super-resolution microscopy that allow for optical observations beyond the diffraction limit. We will review the various means to photo-control the activity of biomolecules, which allow for local perturbations of physiological processes. We will end up this review with a report on the current status of optogenetics: the use of photo-sensitive DNA-encoded proteins as sensitive reporters and efficient actuators to perturb and monitor physiological processes.

Displacement of sensory maps and disorganization of motor cortex after targeted stroke in mice

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Recovery from stroke is hypothesized to involve the reorganization of surviving cortical areas. To study the functional organization of sensorimotor cortex at multiple time points before and after stroke, we performed longitudinal light-based motor mapping of transgenic mice expressing light-sensitive channelrhodopsin-2 in layer 5 cortical neurons.

METHODS

Pulses of light stimulation were targeted to an array of cortical points, whereas evoked forelimb motor activity was recorded using noninvasive motion sensors. Intrinsic optical signal imaging produced maps of the forelimb somatosensory cortex. The resulting motor and sensory maps were repeatedly generated for weeks before and after small (0.2 mm3) photothrombotic infarcts were targeted to forelimb motor or sensory cortex.

RESULTS

Infarcts targeted to forelimb sensory or motor areas caused decreased motor output in the infarct area and spatial displacement of sensory and motor maps. Strokes in sensory cortex caused the sensory map to move into motor cortex, which adopted a more diffuse structure. Stroke in motor cortex caused a compensatory increase in peri-infarct motor output, but did not affect the position or excitability of sensory maps.

CONCLUSIONS

After stroke in motor cortex, decreased motor output from the infarcted area was offset by peri-infarct excitability. Sensory stroke caused a new sensory map to form in motor cortex, which maintained its center position, despite becoming more diffuse. These data suggest that surviving regions of cortex are able to assume functions from stroke-damaged areas, although this may come at the cost of alterations in map structure.

Two-way communication with neural networks in vivo using focused light

Neuronal networks process information in a distributed, spatially heterogeneous manner that transcends the layout of electrodes. In contrast, directed and steerable light offers the potential to engage specific cells on demand. We present a unified framework for adapting microscopes to use light for simultaneous in vivo stimulation and recording of cells at fine spatiotemporal resolutions. We use straightforward optics to lock onto networks in vivo, to steer light to activate circuit elements and to simultaneously record from other cells. We then actualize this 'free' augmentation on both an 'open' two-photon microscope and a leading commercial one. By following this protocol, setup of the system takes a few days, and the result is a noninvasive interface to brain dynamics based on directed light, at a network resolution that was not previously possible and which will further improve with the rapid advance in development of optical reporters and effectors. This protocol is for physiologists who are competent with computers and wish to extend hardware and software to interface more fluidly with neuronal networks.

Transgenic mouse lines for non-invasive ratiometric monitoring of intracellular chloride

Chloride is the most abundant physiological anion and participates in a variety of cellular processes including trans-epithelial transport, cell volume regulation, and regulation of electrical excitability. The development of tools to monitor intracellular chloride concentration ([Cli]) is therefore important for the evaluation of cellular function in normal and pathological conditions. Recently, several Cl-sensitive genetically encoded probes have been described which allow for non-invasive monitoring of [Cli]. Here we describe two mouse lines expressing a CFP-YFP-based Cl probe called Cl-Sensor. First, we generated transgenic mice expressing Cl-Sensor under the control of the mouse Thy1 mini promoter. Cl-Sensor exhibited good expression from postnatal day two (P2) in neurons of the hippocampus and cortex, and its level increased strongly during development. Using simultaneous whole-cell monitoring of ionic currents and Cl-dependent fluorescence, we determined that the apparent EC 50 for Cli was 46 mM, indicating that this line is appropriate for measuring neuronal [Cli] in postnatal mice. We also describe a transgenic mouse reporter line for Cre-dependent conditional expression of Cl-Sensor, which was targeted to the Rosa26 locus and by incorporating a strong exogenous promoter induced robust expression upon Cre-mediated recombination. We demonstrate high levels of tissue-specific expression in two different Cre-driver lines targeting cells of the myeloid lineage and peripheral sensory neurons. Using these mice the apparent EC 50 for Cli was estimated to be 61 and 54 mM in macrophages and DRG, respectively. Our data suggest that these mouse lines will be useful models for ratiometric monitoring of Cli in specific cell types in vivo.

Olfactory cortical neurons read out a relative time code in the olfactory bulb

Odor stimulation evokes complex spatiotemporal activity in the olfactory bulb, suggesting that the identity of activated neurons as well as the timing of their activity convey information about odors. However, whether and how downstream neurons decipher these temporal patterns remains debated. We addressed this question by measuring the spiking activity of downstream neurons while optogenetically stimulating two foci in the olfactory bulb with varying relative timing in mice. We found that the overall spike rates of piriform cortex neurons were sensitive to the relative timing of activation. Posterior piriform cortex neurons showed higher sensitivity to relative input times than neurons in the anterior piriform cortex. In contrast, olfactory bulb neurons rarely showed such sensitivity. Thus, the brain can transform a relative time code in the periphery into a firing-rate-based representation in central brain areas, providing evidence for the relevance of relative time-based code in the olfactory bulb.

Making waves: initiation and propagation of corticothalamic Ca2+ waves in vivo

Corticothalamic slow oscillations of neuronal activity determine internal brain states. At least in the cortex, the electrical activity is associated with large neuronal Ca(2+) transients. Here we implemented an optogenetic approach to explore causal features of the generation of slow oscillation-associated Ca(2+) waves in the in vivo mouse brain. We demonstrate that brief optogenetic stimulation (3-20 ms) of a local group of layer 5 cortical neurons is sufficient for the induction of global brain Ca(2+) waves. These Ca(2+) waves are evoked in an all-or-none manner, exhibit refractoriness during repetitive stimulation, and propagate over long distances. By local optogenetic stimulation, we demonstrate that evoked Ca(2+) waves initially invade the cortex, followed by a secondary recruitment of the thalamus. Together, our results establish that synchronous activity in a small cluster of layer 5 cortical neurons can initiate a global neuronal wave of activity suited for long-range corticothalamic integration.

Channelrhodopsins: visual regeneration and neural activation by a light switch

The advent of optogenetics provides a new direction for the field of neuroscience and biotechnology, serving both as a refined investigative tool and as potential cure for many medical conditions via genetic manipulation. Although still in its infancy, recent advances in optogenetics has made it possible to remotely manipulate in vivo cellular functions using light. Coined Nature Methods' 'Method of the Year' in 2010, the optogenetic toolbox has the potential to control cell, tissue and even animal behaviour. This optogenetic toolbox consists of light-sensitive proteins that are able to modulate membrane potential in response to light. Channelrhodopsins (ChR) are light-gated microbial ion channels, which were first described in green algae. ChR2 (a subset of ChR) is a seven transmembrane α helix protein, which evokes membrane depolarization and mediates an action potential upon photostimulation with blue (470 nm) light. By contrast to other seven-transmembrane proteins that require second messengers to open ion channels, ChR2 form ion channels themselves, allowing ultrafast depolarization (within 50 milliseconds of illumination). It has been shown that integration of ChR2 into various tissues of mice can activate neural circuits, control heart muscle contractions, and even restore breathing after spinal cord injury. More compellingly, a plethora of evidence has indicated that artificial expression of ChR2 in retinal ganglion cells can reinstate visual perception in mice with retinal degeneration.

Optogenetics in the cerebellum: Purkinje cell-specific approaches for understanding local cerebellar functions

The cerebellum consists of the cerebellar cortex and the cerebellar nuclei. Although the basic neuronal circuitry of the cerebellar cortex is uniform everywhere, anatomical data demonstrate that the input and output relationships of the cortex are spatially segregated between different cortical areas, which suggests that there are functional distinctions between these different areas. Perturbation of cerebellar cortical functions in a spatially restricted fashion is thus essential for investigating the distinctions among different cortical areas. In the cerebellar cortex, Purkinje cells are the sole output neurons that send information to downstream cerebellar and vestibular nuclei. Therefore, selective manipulation of Purkinje cell activities, without disturbing other neuronal types and passing fibers within the cortex, is a direct approach to spatially restrict the effects of perturbations. Although this type of approach has for many years been technically difficult, recent advances in optogenetics now enable selective activation or inhibition of Purkinje cell activities, with high temporal resolution. Here we discuss the effectiveness of using Purkinje cell-specific optogenetic approaches to elucidate the functions of local cerebellar cortex regions. We also discuss what improvements to current methods are necessary for future investigations of cerebellar functions to provide further advances.

Hypothalamic survival circuits: blueprints for purposive behaviors

Neural processes that direct an animal's actions toward environmental goals are critical elements for understanding behavior. The hypothalamus is closely associated with motivated behaviors required for survival and reproduction. Intense feeding, drinking, aggressive, and sexual behaviors can be produced by a simple neuronal stimulus applied to discrete hypothalamic regions. What can these "evoked behaviors" teach us about the neural processes that determine behavioral intent and intensity? Small populations of neurons sufficient to evoke a complex motivated behavior may be used as entry points to identify circuits that energize and direct behavior to specific goals. Here, I review recent applications of molecular genetic, optogenetic, and pharmacogenetic approaches that overcome previous limitations for analyzing anatomically complex hypothalamic circuits and their interactions with the rest of the brain. These new tools have the potential to bridge the gaps between neurobiological and psychological thinking about the mechanisms of complex motivated behavior.

Optogenetic dissection of entorhinal-hippocampal functional connectivity

We used a combined optogenetic-electrophysiological strategy to determine the functional identity of entorhinal cells with output to the place-cell population in the hippocampus. Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) was expressed selectively in the hippocampus-targeting subset of entorhinal projection neurons by infusing retrogradely transportable ChR2-coding recombinant adeno-associated virus in the hippocampus. Virally transduced ChR2-expressing cells were identified in medial entorhinal cortex as cells that fired at fixed minimal latencies in response to local flashes of light. A large number of responsive cells were grid cells, but short-latency firing was also induced in border cells and head-direction cells, as well as cells with irregular or nonspatial firing correlates, which suggests that place fields may be generated by convergence of signals from a broad spectrum of entorhinal functional cell types.

Optogenetic approaches for functional mouse brain mapping

To better understand the connectivity of the brain, it is important to map both structural and functional connections between neurons and cortical regions. In recent years, a set of optogenetic tools have been developed that permit selective manipulation and investigation of neural systems. These tools have enabled the mapping of functional connections between stimulated cortical targets and other brain regions. Advantages of the approach include the ability to arbitrarily stimulate brain regions that express opsins, allowing for brain mapping independent of behavior or sensory processing. The ability of opsins to be rapidly and locally activated allows for investigation of connectivity with spatial resolution on the order of single neurons and temporal resolution on the order of milliseconds. Optogenetic methods for functional mapping have been applied in experiments ranging from in vitro investigation of microcircuits, to in vivo probing of inter-regional cortical connections, to examination of global connections within the whole brain. We review recently developed functional mapping methods that use optogenetic single-point stimulation in the rodent brain and employ cellular electrophysiology, evoked motor movements, voltage sensitive dyes (VSDs), calcium indicators, or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to assess activity. In particular we highlight results using red-shifted organic VSDs that permit high temporal resolution imaging in a manner spectrally separated from Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) activation. VSD maps stimulated by ChR2 were dependent on intracortical synaptic activity and were able to reflect circuits used for sensory processing. Although the methods reviewed are powerful, challenges remain with respect to finding approaches that permit selective high temporal resolution assessment of stimulated activity in animals that can be followed longitudinally.

Optogenetic manipulation of neural and non-neural functions

Optogenetic manipulation of the neuronal activity enables one to analyze the neuronal network both in vivo and in vitro with precise spatio-temporal resolution. Channelrhodopsins (ChRs) are light-sensitive cation channels that depolarize the cell membrane, whereas halorhodopsins and archaerhodopsins are light-sensitive Cl(-) and H(+) transporters, respectively, that hyperpolarize it when exogenously expressed. The cause-effect relationship between a neuron and its function in the brain is thus bi-directionally investigated with evidence of necessity and sufficiency. In this review we discuss the potential of optogenetics with a focus on three major requirements for its application: (i) selection of the light-sensitive proteins optimal for optogenetic investigation, (ii) targeted expression of these selected proteins in a specific group of neurons, and (iii) targeted irradiation with high spatiotemporal resolution. We also discuss recent progress in the application of optogenetics to studies of non-neural cells such as glial cells, cardiac and skeletal myocytes. In combination with stem cell technology, optogenetics may be key to successful research using embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) derived from human patients through optical regulation of differentiation-maturation, through optical manipulation of tissue transplants and, furthermore, through facilitating survival and integration of transplants.

In vivo optogenetic tracing of functional corticocortical connections between motor forelimb areas

Interactions between distinct motor cortical areas are essential for coordinated motor behaviors. In rodents, the motor cortical forelimb areas are divided into at least two distinct areas: the rostral forelimb area (RFA) and the caudal forelimb area (CFA). The RFA is thought to be an equivalent of the premotor cortex (PM) in primates, whereas the CFA is believed to be an equivalent of the primary motor cortex. Although reciprocal connections between the RFA and the CFA have been anatomically identified in rats, it is unknown whether there are functional connections between these areas that can induce postsynaptic spikes. In this study, we used an in vivo Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) photostimulation method to trace the functional connections between the mouse RFA and CFA. Simultaneous electrical recordings were utilized to detect spiking activities induced by synaptic inputs originating from photostimulated areas. This method, in combination with anatomical tracing, demonstrated that the RFA receives strong functional projections from layer 2/3 and/or layer 5a, but not from layer 5b (L5b), of the CFA. Further, the CFA receives strong projections from L5b neurons of the RFA. The onset latency of electrical responses evoked in remote areas upon photostimulation of the other areas was approximately 10 ms, which is consistent with the synaptic connectivity between these areas. Our results suggest that neuronal activities in the RFA and the CFA during movements are formed through asymmetric reciprocal connections.