Safety and Efficacy of BIND-014, a Docetaxel Nanoparticle Targeting Prostate-Specific Membrane Antigen for Patients With Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer: A Phase 2 Clinical Trial

A systematic review of nanocarriers for treatment of urologic cancers

Nanocarriers (NCs) are a form of nanotechnology widely investigated in cancer treatment to improve the safety and efficacy of systemic therapies by increasing tumor specificity. Numerous clinical trials have explored the use of NCs in urologic cancers since the approval of the first NCs for cancer treatment over 20 years ago. The objective of this systematic review is to examine the effectiveness and safety of NCs in treating urological cancers. This paper summarizes the state of the field by investigating peer-reviewed, published results from 43 clinical trials involving the use of NCs in bladder, prostate, and kidney cancer patients with a focus on safety and efficacy data. Among the 43 trials, 16 were phase I, 20 phase II, and 4 phase I/II. No phase III trials have been reported. While both novel and classic NCs have been explored in urologic cancers, NCs already approved for the treatment of other cancers were more widely represented. Trials in prostate cancer and mixed trials involving both urologic and non-urologic cancer patients were the most commonly reported trials. Although NCs have demonstrable efficacy with adequate safety in non-urologic cancer patient populations, current clinical stage NC options appear to be less beneficial in the urologic cancer setting. For example, nab-paclitaxel and liposomal doxorubicin have proven ineffective in the treatment of urologic cancers despite successes in other cancers. However, several ongoing pre-clinical studies using targeted and locally applied improved NCs may eventually improve their utility.

Nanotherapeutics for prostate cancer treatment: A comprehensive review

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most prevalent solid organ malignancy and seriously affects male health. The adverse effects of prostate cancer therapeutics can cause secondary damage to patients. Nanotherapeutics, which have special targeting abilities and controlled therapeutic release profiles, may serve as alternative agents for PCa treatment. At present, many nanotherapeutics have been developed to treat PCa and have shown better treatment effects in animals than traditional therapeutics. Although PCa nanotherapeutics are highly attractive, few successful cases have been reported in clinical practice. To help researchers design valuable nanotherapeutics for PCa treatment and avoid useless efforts, herein, we first reviewed the strategies and challenges involved in prostate cancer treatment. Subsequently, we presented a comprehensive review of nanotherapeutics for PCa treatment, including their targeting methods, controlled release strategies, therapeutic approaches and mechanisms. Finally, we proposed the future prospects of nanotherapeutics for PCa treatment.

Overcoming drug resistance with specific nano scales to targeted therapy: Focused on metastatic cancers

Metastatic cancer, which accounts for the majority of cancer fatalities, is a difficult illness to treat. Currently used cancer treatments include radiation therapy, chemotherapy, surgery, and targeted treatment (immune, gene, and hormonal). The disadvantages of these treatments include a high risk of tumor recurrence and surgical complications that may result in permanent deformities. On the other hand, most chemotherapy drugs are small molecules, which usually have unfavorable side effects, low absorption, poor selectivity, and multi-drug resistance. Anticancer drugs can be delivered precisely to the cancer spot by encapsulating them to reduce side effects. Stimuli-responsive nanocarriers can be used for drug release at cancer sites and provide target-specific delivery. As previously stated, metastasis is the primary cause of cancer-related mortality. We have evaluated the usage of nano-medications in the treatment of some metastatic tumors.

Nanomedicine Tumor Targeting

Nanomedicines are extensively explored for cancer therapy. By delivering drug molecules more efficiently to pathological sites and by attenuating their accumulation in healthy organs and tissues, nanomedicine formulations aim to improve the balance between drug efficacy and toxicity. More than 20 cancer nanomedicines are approved for clinical use, and hundreds of formulations are in (pre)clinical development. Over the years, several key pitfalls have been identified as bottlenecks in nanomedicine tumor targeting and translation. These go beyond materials- and production-related issues, and particularly also encompass biological barriers and pathophysiological heterogeneity. In this manuscript, the author describes the most important principles, progress, and products in nanomedicine tumor targeting, delineates key current problems and challenges, and discuss the most promising future prospects to create clinical impact.

Molecular biomarkers in prostate cancer tumorigenesis and clinical relevance

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the second most frequent type of cancer in men and assessing circulating tumor cells (CTCs) by liquid biopsy is a promising tool to help in cancer early detection, staging, risk of recurrence evaluation, treatment prediction and monitoring. Blood-based liquid biopsy approaches enable the enrichment, detection and characterization of CTCs by biomarker analysis. Hence, comprehending the molecular markers, their role on each stage of cancer development and progression is essential to provide information that can help in future implementation of these biomarkers in clinical assistance. In this review, we studied the molecular markers most associated with PCa CTCs to better understand their function on tumorigenesis and metastatic cascade, the methodologies utilized to analyze these biomarkers and their clinical significance, in order to summarize the available information to guide researchers in their investigations, new hypothesis formulation and target choice for the development of new diagnostic and treatment tools.

Advances in functional lipid nanoparticles: from drug delivery platforms to clinical applications

Since Doxil's first clinical approval in 1995, lipid nanoparticles have garnered great interest and shown exceptional therapeutic efficacy. It is clear from the licensure of two RNA treatments and the mRNA-COVID-19 vaccination that lipid nanoparticles have immense potential for delivering nucleic acids. The review begins with a list of lipid nanoparticle types, such as liposomes and solid lipid nanoparticles. Then it moves on to the earliest lipid nanoparticle forms, outlining how lipid is used in a variety of industries and how it is used as a versatile nanocarrier platform. Lipid nanoparticles must then be functionally modified. Various approaches have been proposed for the synthesis of lipid nanoparticles, such as High-Pressure Homogenization (HPH), microemulsion methods, solvent-based emulsification techniques, solvent injection, phase reversal, and membrane contractors. High-pressure homogenization is the most commonly used method. All of the methods listed above follow four basic steps, as depicted in the flowchart below. Out of these four steps, the process of dispersing lipids in an aqueous medium to produce liposomes is the most unpredictable step. A short outline of the characterization of lipid nanoparticles follows discussions of applications for the trapping and transporting of various small molecules. It highlights the use of rapamycin-coated lipid nanoparticles in glioblastoma and how lipid nanoparticles function as a conjugator in the delivery of anticancer-targeting nucleic acids. High biocompatibility, ease of production, scalability, non-toxicity, and tailored distribution are just a meager of the enticing allowances of using lipid nanoparticles as drug delivery vehicles. Due to the present constraints in drug delivery, more research is required to utterly realize the potential of lipid nanoparticles for possible clinical and therapeutic purposes.

Preparation, Optimization, and In-Vitro Evaluation of Brusatol- and Docetaxel-Loaded Nanoparticles for the Treatment of Prostate Cancer

Challenges to docetaxel use in prostate cancer treatment include several resistance mechanisms as well as toxicity. To overcome these challenges and to improve the therapeutic efficacy in heterogeneous prostate cancer, the use of multiple agents that can destroy different subpopulations of the tumor is required. Brusatol, a multitarget inhibitor, has been shown to exhibit potent anticancer activity and play an important role in drug response and chemoresistance. Thus, the combination of brusatol and docetaxel in a nanoparticle platform for the treatment of prostate cancer is expected to produce synergistic effects. In this study, we reported the development of polymeric nanoparticles for the delivery of brusatol and docetaxel in the treatment of prostate cancer. The one-factor-at-a-time method was used to screen for formulation and process variables that impacted particle size. Subsequently, factors that had modifiable effects on particle size were evaluated using a 24 full factorial statistical experimental design followed by the optimization of drug loading. The optimization of blank nanoparticles gave a formulation with a mean size of 169.1 nm ± 4.8 nm, in agreement with the predicted size of 168.333 nm. Transmission electron microscopy showed smooth spherical nanoparticles. The drug release profile showed that the encapsulated drugs were released over 24 h. Combination index data showed a synergistic interaction between the drugs. Cell cycle analysis and the evaluation of caspase activity showed differences in PC-3 and LNCaP prostate cancer cell responses to the agents. Additionally, immunoblots showed differences in survivin expression in LNCaP cells after treatment with the different agents and formulations for 24 h and 72 h. Therefore, the nanoparticles are potentially suitable for the treatment of advanced prostate cancer.

Multistage Self-Assembled Nanomaterials for Cancer Immunotherapy

Advances in nanotechnology have brought innovations to cancer therapy. Nanoparticle-based anticancer drugs have achieved great success from bench to bedside. However, insufficient therapy efficacy due to various physiological barriers in the body remains a key challenge. To overcome these biological barriers and improve the therapeutic efficacy of cancers, multistage self-assembled nanomaterials with advantages of stimuli-responsiveness, programmable delivery, and immune modulations provide great opportunities. In this review, we describe the typical biological barriers for nanomedicines, discuss the recent achievements of multistage self-assembled nanomaterials for stimuli-responsive drug delivery, highlighting the programmable delivery nanomaterials, in situ transformable self-assembled nanomaterials, and immune-reprogramming nanomaterials. Ultimately, we perspective the future opportunities and challenges of multistage self-assembled nanomaterials for cancer immunotherapy.

Lipid-Based Nanoparticles for Drug/Gene Delivery: An Overview of the Production Techniques and Difficulties Encountered in Their Industrial Development

Over the past decade, the therapeutic potential of nanomaterials as novel drug delivery systems complementing conventional pharmacology has been widely acknowledged. Among these nanomaterials, lipid-based nanoparticles (LNPs) have shown remarkable pharmacological performance and promising therapeutic outcomes, thus gaining substantial interest in preclinical and clinical research. In this review, we introduce the main types of LNPs used in drug formulations such as liposomes, nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, and lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles, focusing on their main physicochemical properties and therapeutic potential. We discuss computational studies and modeling techniques to enhance the understanding of how LNPs interact with therapeutic cargo and to predict the potential effectiveness of such interactions in therapeutic applications. We also analyze the benefits and drawbacks of various LNP production techniques such as nanoprecipitation, emulsification, evaporation, thin film hydration, microfluidic-based methods, and an impingement jet mixer. Additionally, we discuss the major challenges associated with industrial development, including stability and sterilization, storage, regulatory compliance, reproducibility, and quality control. Overcoming these challenges and facilitating regulatory compliance represent the key steps toward LNP's successful commercialization and translation into clinical settings.

Specific interaction based drug loading strategies

Drug carriers have been commonly used for drug control release, enhancing drug efficacy and/or minimizing side-effects. However, it is still difficult to get a high loading efficiency when encapsulating super hydrophilic drugs with a narrow therapeutic index, such as many neurotoxins. Increasing the carrier proportion can improve drug loading to a certain degree, while the burst released drug when the formulation enters the body may cause overdose side-effects. Moreover, high-dose carriers themselves may increase the metabolic burden of the body. Hence, new drug carriers and/or loading strategies are urgently needed to promote the applications of these drugs. This minireview will introduce drug loading strategies based on specific interactions (between drugs and carriers) and will discuss the challenges and perspectives of these strategies. This work is expected to provide alternative inspiration for the delivery of hydrophilic drugs.

Recent advances and future perspectives in the therapeutics of prostate cancer

Prostate cancer (PC) is one of the most common cancers in males and the fifth leading reason of death. Age, ethnicity, family history, and genetic defects are major factors that determine the aggressiveness and lethality of PC. The African population is at the highest risk of developing high-grade PC. It can be challenging to distinguish between low-risk and high-risk patients due to the slow progression of PC. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a revolutionary discovery for the identification of PC. However, it has led to an increase in over diagnosis and over treatment of PC in the past few decades. Even if modifications are made to the standard PSA testing, the specificity has not been found to be significant. Our understanding of PC genetics and proteomics has improved due to advances in different fields. New serum, urine, and tissue biomarkers, such as PC antigen 3 (PCA3), have led to various new diagnostic tests, such as the prostate health index, 4K score, and PCA3. These tests significantly reduce the number of unnecessary and repeat biopsies performed. Chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and prostatectomy are standard treatment options. However, newer novel hormone therapy drugs with a better response have been identified. Androgen deprivation and hormonal therapy are evolving as new and better options for managing hormone-sensitive and castration-resistant PC. This review aimed to highlight and discuss epidemiology, various risk factors, and developments in PC diagnosis and treatment regimens.

Biomolecule-functionalized nanoformulations for prostate cancer theranostics

BACKGROUND

Even with the advancement in the areas of cancer nanotechnology, prostate cancer still poses a major threat to men's health. Nanomaterials and nanomaterial-derived theranostic systems have been explored for diagnosis, imaging, and therapy for different types of cancer still, for prostate cancer they have not delivered at full potential because of the limitations like in vivo biocompatibility, immune responses, precise targetability, and therapeutic outcome associated with the nanostructured system.

AIM OF REVIEW

Functionalizing nanomaterials with different biomolecules and bioactive agents provides advantages like specificity towards cancerous tumors, improved circulation time, and modulation of the immune response leading to early diagnosis and targeted delivery of cargo at the site of action.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

In this review, we have emphasized the classification and comparison of various nanomaterials based on biofunctionalization strategy and source of biomolecules such that it can be used for possible translation in clinical settings and future developments. This review highlighted the opportunities for embedding highly specific biological targeting moieties (antibody, aptamer, oligonucleotides, biopolymer, peptides, etc.) on nanoparticles which can improve the detection of prostate cancer-associated biomarkers at a very low limit of detection, direct visualization of prostate tumors and lastly for its therapy. Lastly, special emphasis was given to biomimetic nanomaterials which include functionalization with extracellular vesicles, exosomes and viral particles and their application for prostate cancer early detection and drug delivery. The present review paves a new pathway for next-generation biofunctionalized nanomaterials for prostate cancer theranostic application and their possibility in clinical translation.

Nanomedicine and epigenetics: New alliances to increase the odds in pancreatic cancer survival

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is among the deadliest cancers worldwide, primarily due to its robust desmoplastic stroma and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME), which facilitate tumor progression and metastasis. In addition, fibrous tissue leads to sparse vasculature, high interstitial fluid pressure, and hypoxia, thereby hindering effective systemic drug delivery and immune cell infiltration. Thus, remodeling the TME to enhance tumor perfusion, increase drug retention, and reverse immunosuppression has become a key therapeutic strategy. In recent years, targeting epigenetic pathways has emerged as a promising approach to overcome tumor immunosuppression and cancer progression. Moreover, the progress in nanotechnology has provided new opportunities for enhancing the efficacy of conventional and epigenetic drugs. Nano-based drug delivery systems (NDDSs) offer several advantages, including improved drug pharmacokinetics, enhanced tumor penetration, and reduced systemic toxicity. Smart NDDSs enable precise targeting of stromal components and augment the effectiveness of immunotherapy through multiple drug delivery options. This review offers an overview of the latest nano-based approaches developed to achieve superior therapeutic efficacy and overcome drug resistance. We specifically focus on the TME and epigenetic-targeted therapies in the context of PDAC, discussing the advantages and limitations of current strategies while highlighting promising new developments. By emphasizing the immense potential of NDDSs in improving therapeutic outcomes in PDAC, our review paves the way for future research in this rapidly evolving field.

Evolution of nanomedicine formulations for targeted delivery and controlled release

Nanotechnology research over the past several decades has been aimed primarily at improving the physicochemical properties of small molecules to produce druggable candidates as well as for tumor targeting of cytotoxic molecules. The recent focus on genomic medicine and the success of lipid nanoparticles for mRNA vaccines have provided additional impetus for the development of nanoparticle drug carriers for nucleic acid delivery, including siRNA, mRNA, DNA, and oligonucleotides, to create therapeutics that can modulate protein deregulation. Bioassays and characterizations, including trafficking assays, stability, and endosomal escape, are key to understanding the properties of these novel nanomedicine formats. We review historical nanomedicine platforms, characterization methodologies, challenges to their clinical translation, and key quality attributes for commercial translation with a view to their developability into a genomic medicine. New nanoparticle systems for immune targeting, as well as in vivo gene editing and in situ CAR therapy, are also highlighted as emerging areas.

Nanomedicine in cancer therapy

Cancer remains a highly lethal disease in the world. Currently, either conventional cancer therapies or modern immunotherapies are non-tumor-targeted therapeutic approaches that cannot accurately distinguish malignant cells from healthy ones, giving rise to multiple undesired side effects. Recent advances in nanotechnology, accompanied by our growing understanding of cancer biology and nano-bio interactions, have led to the development of a series of nanocarriers, which aim to improve the therapeutic efficacy while reducing off-target toxicity of the encapsulated anticancer agents through tumor tissue-, cell-, or organelle-specific targeting. However, the vast majority of nanocarriers do not possess hierarchical targeting capability, and their therapeutic indices are often compromised by either poor tumor accumulation, inefficient cellular internalization, or inaccurate subcellular localization. This Review outlines current and prospective strategies in the design of tumor tissue-, cell-, and organelle-targeted cancer nanomedicines, and highlights the latest progress in hierarchical targeting technologies that can dynamically integrate these three different stages of static tumor targeting to maximize therapeutic outcomes. Finally, we briefly discuss the current challenges and future opportunities for the clinical translation of cancer nanomedicines.

The role of nanotherapy in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma by targeting tumor microenvironment

Head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCCs) refers to a group of highly malignant and pathogenically complex tumors. Traditional treatment methods include surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. However, with advancements in genetics, molecular medicine, and nanotherapy, more effective and safer treatments have been developed. Nanotherapy, in particular, has the potential to be an alternative therapeutic option for HNSCC patients, given its advantageous targeting capabilities, low toxicity and modifiability. Recent research has highlighted the important role of the tumor microenvironment (TME) in the development of HNSCC. The TME is composed of various cellular components, such as fibroblasts, vascular endothelial cells, and immune cells, as well as non-cellular agents such as cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, extracellular matrix (ECM), and extracellular vesicles (EVs). These components greatly influence the prognosis and therapeutic efficacy of HNSCC, making the TME a potential target for treatment using nanotherapy. By regulating angiogenesis, immune response, tumor metastasis and other factors, nanotherapy can potentially alleviate HNSCC symptoms. This review aims to summarize and discuss the application of nanotherapy that targets HNSCC's TME. We highlight the therapeutic value of nanotherapy for HNSCC patients.

PSMA-heterogeneity in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer: Circulating tumor cells, metastatic tumor burden, and response to targeted radioligand therapy

BACKGROUND

We explored the interrelation between prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) expression on circulating tumor cells (CTCs) and that of solid metastatic lesions as determined by whole-body PSMA-targeted positron emission tomography (PET) to refine the prediction of response to subsequent PSMA-targeted radioligand therapy (RLT).

METHODS

A prospective study was performed in 20 patients with advanced mCRPC. Of these, 16 underwent subsequent RLT with [¹⁷⁷ Lu]Lu-PSMA-617 at a dose of 7.4 GBq every 6-8 weeks. PSMA expression on CTCs using the CellSearch system was compared to clinical and serological results, and to marker expression in targeted imaging and available histological sections of prostatectomy specimens (19% of RLT patients). Clinical outcome was obtained after two cycles of RLT.

RESULTS

Marked heterogeneity of PSMA expression was observed already at first diagnosis in available histological specimens. Targeted whole-body imaging also showed heterogeneous inter- and intra-patient PSMA expression between metastases. Heterogeneity of CTC PSMA expression was partially paralleled by heterogeneity of whole-body tumor burden PSMA expression. Twenty percent of CTC samples showed no PSMA expression, despite unequivocal PSMA expression of solid metastases at PET. A high fraction of PSMA-negative CTCs emerged as the sole predictor of poor RLT response (odds ratio [OR]: 0.9379 [95% confidence interval, CI, 0.8558-0.9902]; p = 0.0160), and was prognostic for both shorter progression-free survival (OR: 1.236 [95% CI, 1.035-2.587]; p = 0.0043) and overall survival (OR: 1.056 [95% CI, 1.008-1.141]; p = 0.0182).

CONCLUSION

This proof-of-principle study suggests that liquid biopsy for CTC PSMA expression is complementary to PET for individual PSMA phenotyping of mCRPC.

Preparation and in vitro investigation of prostate-specific membrane antigen targeted Lycopene loaded niosomes on prostate cancer cells

In this study, it's aimed to develop prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) targeted niosomes with a multifunctional theranostic approach. With this aim, PSMA-targeted niosomes were synthesized by a thin-film hydration method followed by bath sonication. Drug-loaded niosomes (Lyc-ICG-Nio) were coated with DSPE-PEG-COOH (Lyc-ICG-Nio-PEG) and subsequently anti-PSMA antibody conjugated to niosomes (Lyc-ICG-Nio-PSMA) with amide bond formation. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis showed that the hydrodynamic diameter of Lyc-ICG-Nio-PSMA was approximately 285 nm and it was found with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) that the niosome formulation was spherical. Encapsulation efficiency was 45% and %65 upon dual encapsulation of ICG and lycopene. The results of fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) demonstrated that PEG coating and antibody coupling were successfully done. In vitro studies showed that cell viability decreased when lycopene was entrapped into niosomes applied while the total apoptotic cell population rose slightly. When Lyc-ICG-Nio-PSMA was applied to cells, decreased cell viability and enhanced apoptotic effect were seen compared to those for Lyc-ICG-Nio. In conclusion, it was demonstrated that targeted niosomes displayed improved cellular association and decreased cell viability on PSMA+ cells.

The interactions of docetaxel with tumor microenvironment

There are several interactions within the tumor microenvironment (TME) that affect the response of cancer cells to therapy. There are also a large number of cells and secretions in TME that increase resistance to therapy. Following the release of immunosuppressive, pro-angiogenic, and metastatic molecules by certain cells such as tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), and cancer cells, immune evasion, angiogenesis, and metastasis may be induced. However, natural killer (NK) cells and cytotoxic CD8 + T lymphocytes (CTLs) can responsively release anticancer molecules. In addition, anticancer drugs can modulate these cells and their interactions in favor of either cancer resistance or therapy. Docetaxel belongs to taxanes, a class of anti-tumor drugs, which acts through the polymerization of tubulin and the induction of cell cycle arrest. Also, it has been revealed that taxanes including docetaxel affect cancer cells and the other cells within TME through some other mechanisms such as modulation of immune system responses, angiogenesis, and metastasis. In this paper, we explain the basic mechanisms of docetaxel interactions with malignant cells. Besides, we review the diverse effects of docetaxel on TME and cancer cells in consequence. Lastly, the modulatory effects of docetaxel alone or in conjunction with other anticancer agents on anti-tumor immunity, cancer cell resistance, angiogenesis, and metastasis will be discussed.

Utilization of Circulating Tumor Cells in the Management of Solid Tumors

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are tumor cells shed from the primary tumor into circulation, with clusters of CTCs responsible for cancer metastases. CTC detection and isolation from the bloodstream are based on properties distinguishing CTCs from normal blood cells. Current CTC detection techniques can be divided into two main categories: label dependent, which depends upon antibodies that selectively bind cell surface antigens present on CTCs, or label-independent detection, which is detection based on the size, deformability, and biophysical properties of CTCs. CTCs may play significant roles in cancer screening, diagnosis, treatment navigation, including prognostication and precision medicine, and surveillance. In cancer screening, capturing and evaluating CTCs from peripheral blood could be a strategy to detect cancer at its earliest stage. Cancer diagnosis using liquid biopsy could also have tremendous benefits. Full utilization of CTCs in the clinical management of malignancies may be feasible in the near future; however, several challenges still exist. CTC assays currently lack adequate sensitivity, especially in early-stage solid malignancies, due to low numbers of detectable CTCs. As assays improve and more trials evaluate the clinical utility of CTC detection in guiding therapies, we anticipate increased use in cancer management.

PEGylated Erlotinib HCl Injectable Nanoformulation for Improved Bioavailability

The present study was undertaken to synthesize PEGylated monomethoxy poly (ethylene glycol)-poly (ε-Caprolactone) (mPEG-PCL) block copolymer and formulate Erlotinib HCl-loaded mPEG-PCL nanoparticles for enhancing the bioavailability of the drug. Using the ring-opening polymerization technique, PEGylated mPEG-PCL block copolymer was synthesized, and the structure of the copolymer was characterized using FTIR, ¹H-NMR, and DSC techniques. The solvent evaporation approach was used to effectively encapsulate Erlotinib HCl within block copolymeric nanoparticles. Erlotinib HCl-loaded mPEG-PCL nanoparticles had a mean particle size of 146.5 ± 2.37 nm and a zeta potential of -27.8 ± 2.77 mV. The nanoparticles had a percent entrapment efficiency of 80.78 ± 0.09%. The in vitro drug release of Erlotinib HCl-loaded copolymeric nanoparticles showed a slow and sustained release behavior which could be maintained for up to 72 h. The Korsmeyer-Peppas fitting findings indicated that the drug release process followed a non-Fickian diffusion mechanism. The pharmacokinetic (PK) behavior of the developed nanoformulation was studied in albino Wistar rats, and the relative bioavailability of the optimized NP formulation given by intravenous route was found to be 187.33%. The PK data suggested that Erlotinib HCl-loaded mPEG-PCL copolymeric nanoparticles can dramatically alter the PK behavior of Erlotinib HCl and greatly improve the drug's bioavailability by as much as three times when compared to the oral formulation. As a result, it was established that the block copolymeric nanoparticles have promise for the effective encapsulation of Erlotinib HCL for an injectable formulation with increased bioavailability.

Exploring the Application of Micellar Drug Delivery Systems in Cancer Nanomedicine

Various formulations of polymeric micelles, tiny spherical structures made of polymeric materials, are currently being investigated in preclinical and clinical settings for their potential as nanomedicines. They target specific tissues and prolong circulation in the body, making them promising cancer treatment options. This review focuses on the different types of polymeric materials available to synthesize micelles, as well as the different ways that micelles can be tailored to be responsive to different stimuli. The selection of stimuli-sensitive polymers used in micelle preparation is based on the specific conditions found in the tumor microenvironment. Additionally, clinical trends in using micelles to treat cancer are presented, including what happens to micelles after they are administered. Finally, various cancer drug delivery applications involving micelles are discussed along with their regulatory aspects and future outlooks. As part of this discussion, we will examine current research and development in this field. The challenges and barriers they may have to overcome before they can be widely adopted in clinics will also be discussed.

Head-to-head comparisons of [68Ga]Ga-PSMA-11 PET/CT, multiparametric MRI, and prostate-specific antigen for the evaluation of therapeutic responses to neoadjuvant chemohormonal therapy in high-risk non-metastatic prostate cancer patients: a prospective study

PURPOSE

The optimal tool to evaluate the tumour therapeutic responses to neoadjuvant chemohormonal therapy (NCHT) in patients with high-risk non-metastatic prostate cancer (PCa) remains uncertain. We compared the role of [⁶⁸Ga]-labeled prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA)-11 positron emission tomography/computerized tomography ([⁶⁸Ga]Ga-PSMA-11 PET/CT), multiparametric MRI (mpMRI), and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and assessed the practical value of the recent European Association of Urology and European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EAU/EANM) recommended criteria of PSMA PET/CT to evaluate the therapeutic responses to NCHT in patients with high-risk non-metastatic PCa.

METHODS

This prospective study included 72 high-risk non-metastatic PCa patients receiving NCHT followed by radical prostatectomy from June 2021 to March 2022. PSA testing, [⁶⁸Ga]Ga-PSMA-11 PET/CT, and mpMRI scanning were conducted in all patients before and after NCHT. Therapeutic responses to NCHT were evaluated with PSA, RECIST 1.1, PERCIST 1.0, and EAU/EANM recommended criteria. Postoperative pathological results were considered the reference standard. A favourable pathological response was defined as pathologic complete remission (pCR) or minimal residual disease (MRD). Diagnostic accuracy was assessed by sensitivity, specificity, positive likelihood ratio (PLR), negative likelihood ratio (NLR), positive predictive value (PPV), negative predictive value (NPV), and Cohen's kappa index. Logistic regression analysis was used to determine the independent predictive value of [⁶⁸Ga]Ga-PSMA-11 PET/CT-derived parameters.

RESULTS

All cases experienced a marked decrease in PSA levels after NCHT. Twenty-four (33.33%) cases experienced a favourable pathological response, including five (6.94%) cases of pCR and 19 (26.39%) cases of MRD. According to the results of [⁶⁸Ga]Ga-PSMA-11 PET/CT, EAU/EANM recommended criteria indicated that 20 (27.78%) cases had a CR, whereas PERCIST 1.0 criteria indicated that 23 (31.94%) cases had a CR. There was a strong association between EAU/EANM recommended criteria and PERCIST 1.0 criteria (Pearson's R=0.857). The sensitivity (75.00%, 79.17% vs. 58.33%, 58.33%), specificity (95.83%, 91.67% vs. 83.33%, 68.75%), PLR (18.00, 9.50 vs. 3.50, 1.87), NLR (0.26, 0.23 vs. 0.50, 0.61), PPV (90.0%, 82.6% vs. 63.6%, 48.3%), and NPV (88.5%, 89.8% vs. 80.0%, 76.7%) of [⁶⁸Ga]Ga-PSMA-11 PET/CT (including EAU/EANM recommended criteria and PERCIST 1.0 criteria) to predict favourable pathological responses were all superior to those of mpMRI and nadir PSA. The kappa index to predict a favourable pathological response was 0.257 for PSA, 0.426 for RECIST 1.1, 0.716 for PERCIST 1.0, and 0.739 for EAU/EANM recommended criteria. Multivariate logistic analysis revealed that the post-NCHT maximum standardized uptake value (SUVmax) before radical prostatectomy was an independent predictor of a favourable pathological response to NCHT.

CONCLUSIONS

[⁶⁸Ga]Ga-PSMA-11 PET/CT had a better concordance with a favourable pathological response to NCHT compared with nadir PSA and mpMRI. EAU/EANM recommended criteria and PERCIST 1.0 criteria performed equally to identify pathological responders when [⁶⁸Ga]Ga-PSMA-11 PET/CT was used as a therapeutic response assessment tool.

Nanoparticles in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer metastases: Current and future perspectives

Metastasis accounts for greater than 90% of cancer-related deaths. Despite recent advancements in conventional chemotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, and their rational combinations, metastatic cancers remain essentially untreatable. The distinct obstacles to treat metastases include their small size, high multiplicity, redundancy, therapeutic resistance, and dissemination to multiple organs. Recent advancements in nanotechnology provide the numerous applications in the diagnosis and prophylaxis of metastatic diseases, including the small particle size to penetrate cell membrane and blood vessels and their capacity to transport complex molecular 'cargo' particles to various metastatic regions such as bones, brain, liver, lungs, and lymph nodes. Indeed, nanoparticles (NPs) have demonstrated a significant ability to target specific cells within these organs. In this regard, the purpose of this review is to summarize the present state of nanotechnology in terms of its application in the diagnosis and treatment of metastatic cancer. We intensively reviewed applications of NPs in fluorescent imaging, PET scanning, MRI, and photoacoustic imaging to detect metastasis in various cancer models. The use of targeted NPs for cancer ablation in conjunction with chemotherapy, photothermal treatment, immuno therapy, and combination therapy is thoroughly discussed. The current review also highlights the research opportunities and challenges of leveraging engineering technologies with cancer cell biology and pharmacology to fabricate nanoscience-based tools for treating metastases.

Thermal immuno-nanomedicine in cancer

Immunotherapy has revolutionized the treatment of patients with cancer. However, promoting antitumour immunity in patients with tumours that are resistant to these therapies remains a challenge. Thermal therapies provide a promising immune-adjuvant strategy for use with immunotherapy, mostly owing to the capacity to reprogramme the tumour microenvironment through induction of immunogenic cell death, which also promotes the recruitment of endogenous immune cells. Thus, thermal immunotherapeutic strategies for various cancers are an area of considerable research interest. In this Review, we describe the role of the various thermal therapies and provide an update on attempts to combine these with immunotherapies in clinical trials. We also provide an overview of the preclinical development of various thermal immuno-nanomedicines, which are capable of combining thermal therapies with various immunotherapy strategies in a single therapeutic platform. Finally, we discuss the challenges associated with the clinical translation of thermal immuno-nanomedicines and emphasize the importance of multidisciplinary and inter-professional collaboration to facilitate the optimal translation of this technology from bench to bedside.

Application of conventional metallic nanoparticles on male reproductive system - challenges and countermeasures

The application of nanotechnology in the present era has substantial impact on different industrial and medical fields. However, the advancement in nanotechnology for potential therapeutic and consumer benefits has been an anxious cause regarding the probable hazardous consequences of these molecules in biological systems and the environment. The toxic effects can perturb the physiologic system broadly and reproductive function and fertility specifically. Despite engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) having a wide range of applications, toxicological investigations of the probable ramifications of ENMs on the reproductive systems of mammals and fertility remains in its nascence. Complication in the male reproductive system is quite a pertinent issue in today's world which comprises of benign prostatic enlargement, prostate cancer, and unhealthy sperm production. The therapeutic drugs should not only be active in minimum dose but also site-specific in action, criteria being met by nanomedicines. Nanomedicine therapy is promising but encompasses the chances of adverse effects of being cytotoxic and generating oxidative stress. These hurdles can be overcome by creating coated nanoparticles with organic substances, modification of shape and size, and synthesizing biocompatible green nanoparticles. This review attempts to look into the applications of most widely used metals like zinc, titanium, silver, and gold nanoparticles in the therapy of the male reproductive system, their prospective harmful effects, and the way out to create a safe therapeutic system by specific modifications of these metal and metal oxide nanoparticles.

Functionalized Carbon Nanoparticles as Theranostic Agents and Their Future Clinical Utility in Oncology

Over the years, research of nanoparticle applications in pre-clinical and clinical applications has greatly advanced our therapeutic and imaging approaches to many diseases, most notably neoplastic disorders. In particular, the innate properties of inorganic nanomaterials, such as gold and iron oxide, as well as carbon-based nanoparticles, have provided the greatest opportunities in cancer theranostics. Carbon nanoparticles can be used as carriers of biological agents to enhance the therapeutic index at a tumor site. Alternatively, they can also be combined with external stimuli, such as light, to induce irreversible physical damaging effects on cells. In this review, the recent advances in carbon nanoparticles and their use in cancer theranostics will be discussed. In addition, the set of evaluations that will be required during their transition from laboratory investigations toward clinical trials will be addressed.

Ultrasmall Folate Receptor Alpha Targeted Enzymatically Cleavable Silica Nanoparticle Drug Conjugates Augment Penetration and Therapeutic Efficacy in Models of Cancer

To address the key challenges in the development of next-generation drug delivery systems (DDS) with desired physicochemical properties to overcome limitations regarding safety, in vivo efficacy, and solid tumor penetration, an ultrasmall folate receptor alpha (FRα) targeted silica nanoparticle (C'Dot) drug conjugate (CDC; or folic acid CDC) was developed. A broad array of methods was employed to screen a panel of CDCs and identify a lead folic acid CDC for clinical development. These included comparing the performance against antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) in three-dimensional tumor spheroid penetration ability, assessing in vitro/ex vivo cytotoxic efficacy, as well as in vivo therapeutic outcome in multiple cell-line-derived and patient-derived xenograft models. An ultrasmall folic acid CDC, EC112002, was identified as the lead candidate out of >500 folic acid CDC formulations evaluated. Systematic studies demonstrated that the lead formulation, EC112002, exhibited highly specific FRα targeting, multivalent binding properties that would mediate the ability to outcompete endogenous folate in vivo, enzymatic responsive payload cleavage, stability in human plasma, rapid in vivo clearance, and minimal normal organ retention organ distribution in non-tumor-bearing mice. When compared with an anti-FRα-DM4 ADC, EC112002 demonstrated deeper penetration into 3D cell-line-derived tumor spheroids and superior specific cytotoxicity in a panel of 3D patient-derived tumor spheroids, as well as enhanced efficacy in cell-line-derived and patient-derived in vivo tumor xenograft models expressing a range of low to high levels of FRα. With the growing interest in developing clinically translatable, safe, and efficacious DDSs, EC112002 has the potential to address some of the critical limitations of the current systemic drug delivery for cancer management.

Advanced nanomaterial for prostate cancer theranostics

Prostate cancer (PC) has the second highest incidence in men, according to global statistical data. The symptoms of PC in the early stage are not obvious, causing late diagnosis in most patients, which is the cause for missing the optimal treatment time. Thus, highly sensitive and precise early diagnosis methods are very important. Additionally, precise therapy regimens for good targeting and innocuous to the body are indispensable to treat cancer. This review first introduced two diagnosis methods, containing prostate-specific biomarkers detection and molecular imaging. Then, it recommended advanced therapy approaches, such as chemotherapy, gene therapy, and therapeutic nanomaterial. Afterward, we summarized the development of nanomaterial in PC, highlighting the importance of integration of diagnosis and therapy as the future direction against cancer.

Prostate Cancer Review: Genetics, Diagnosis, Treatment Options, and Alternative Approaches

Simple Summary

Prostate cancer affects men of all racial and ethnic groups and leads to higher rates of mortality in those belonging to a lower socioeconomic status due to late detection of the disease. There is growing evidence that suggests the contribution of an individual’s genetic profile to prostate cancer. Currently used prostate cancer treatments have serious adverse effects; therefore, new research is focusing on alternative treatment options such as the use of genetic biomarkers for targeted gene therapy, nanotechnology for controlled targeted treatment, and further exploring medicinal plants for new anticancer agents. In this review, we describe the recent advances in prostate cancer research.

Abstract

Prostate cancer is one of the malignancies that affects men and significantly contributes to increased mortality rates in men globally. Patients affected with prostate cancer present with either a localized or advanced disease. In this review, we aim to provide a holistic overview of prostate cancer, including the diagnosis of the disease, mutations leading to the onset and progression of the disease, and treatment options. Prostate cancer diagnoses include a digital rectal examination, prostate-specific antigen analysis, and prostate biopsies. Mutations in certain genes are linked to the onset, progression, and metastasis of the cancer. Treatment for localized prostate cancer encompasses active surveillance, ablative radiotherapy, and radical prostatectomy. Men who relapse or present metastatic prostate cancer receive androgen deprivation therapy (ADT), salvage radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. Currently, available treatment options are more effective when used as combination therapy; however, despite available treatment options, prostate cancer remains to be incurable. There has been ongoing research on finding and identifying other treatment approaches such as the use of traditional medicine, the application of nanotechnologies, and gene therapy to combat prostate cancer, drug resistance, as well as to reduce the adverse effects that come with current treatment options. In this article, we summarize the genes involved in prostate cancer, available treatment options, and current research on alternative treatment options.

Detection of circulating tumor cells: opportunities and challenges

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are cells that shed from a primary tumor and travel through the bloodstream. Studying the functional and molecular characteristics of CTCs may provide in-depth knowledge regarding highly lethal tumor diseases. Researchers are working to design devices and develop analytical methods that can capture and detect CTCs in whole blood from cancer patients with improved sensitivity and specificity. Techniques using whole blood samples utilize physical prosperity, immunoaffinity or a combination of the above methods and positive and negative enrichment during separation. Further analysis of CTCs is helpful in cancer monitoring, efficacy evaluation and designing of targeted cancer treatment methods. Although many advances have been achieved in the detection and molecular characterization of CTCs, several challenges still exist that limit the current use of this burgeoning diagnostic approach. In this review, a brief summary of the biological characterization of CTCs is presented. We focus on the current existing CTC detection methods and the potential clinical implications and challenges of CTCs. We also put forward our own views regarding the future development direction of CTCs.

A Systematic Review of Circulating Tumor Cells Clinical Application in Prostate Cancer Diagnosis

Simple Summary

Cell-dependent and cell-independent information drawn from the blood stream were merged into the attractive term “liquid biopsy” and tentatively applied to most segments of cancer management: detection, risk-stratification, personalization of care and follow-up. However, the robust science behind liquid biopsies has not been widely used, thereby remaining a latent and possibly undervalued instrument. Here, we conducted a systematic review of CTCs in prostate cancer management to summarize their use in clinical practice.

Abstract

The purpose of the review is to summarize the recent data on circulating tumor cells (CTC) use in clinical practice. We performed a systematic literature search using two databases (Medline and Scopus) over the past five years and the following terms: (CTC OR “circulating tumor cells” OR “liquid biopsy”) AND prostate. The primary outcome was CTC predictive value for prostate cancer (PC) progression and survival. The secondary outcomes were the CTC predictive value for therapy response and the results of CTC detection depending on the assessment method. In metastatic PC, the CTC count showed itself to be a prognostic marker in terms of clinically important features, namely survival rates and response to treatment. CTC concentration was significantly associated with the overall survival and progression-free survival rates. A strong association between the overall survival or progression-free survival rate and CTC concentration could be observed. Variant-7 androgen receptors-positive (AR-V7-positive) patients showed a poor response to androgen receptor signaling (ARS) inhibitors, but this did not compromise their response to taxanes. In localized PC, only positive Cluster of Differentiantion 82 protein (CD82+) correlated with a higher survival rate. CTC count and AR-V7 expression showed itself to be a valuable biomarker for survival in metastatic PC and response to ARS-inhibitors. CTC diagnostic performance for localized PC or for screening and early detection is not high enough to show additional value over the other biomarkers.

Nanoparticles-Based Strategies to Improve the Delivery of Therapeutic Small Interfering RNA in Precision Oncology

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) can selectively suppress the expression of disease-causing genes, holding great promise in the treatment of human diseases, including malignant cancers. In recent years, with the development of chemical modification and delivery technology, several siRNA-based therapeutic drugs have been approved for the treatment of non-cancerous liver diseases. Nevertheless, the clinical development of siRNA-based cancer therapeutics remains a major translational challenge. The main obstacles of siRNA therapeutics in oncology include both extracellular and intracellular barriers, such as instability under physiological conditions, insufficient tumor targeting and permeability (particularly for extrahepatic tumors), off-target effects, poor cellular uptake, and inefficient endosomal escape. The development of clinically suitable and effective siRNA delivery systems is expected to overcome these challenges. Herein, we mainly discuss recent strategies to improve the delivery and efficacy of therapeutic siRNA in cancer, including the application of non-viral nanoparticle-based carriers, the selection of target genes for therapeutic silencing, and the combination with other therapeutic modalities. In addition, we also provide an outlook on the ongoing challenges and possible future developments of siRNA-based cancer therapeutics during clinical translation.

The in vivo fate of polymeric micelles

This review aims to provide a systemic analysis of the in vivo, as well as subcellular, fate of polymeric micelles (PMs), starting from the entry of PMs into the body. Few PMs are able to cross the biological barriers intact and reach the circulation. In the blood, PMs demonstrate fairly good stability mainly owing to formation of protein corona despite controversial results reported by different groups. Although the exterior hydrophilic shells render PMs "long-circulating", the biodistribution of PMs into the mononuclear phagocyte systems (MPS) is dominant as compared with non-MPS organs and tissues. Evidence emerges to support that the copolymer poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(lactic acid) (PEG-PLA) is first broken down into pieces of PEG and PLA and then remnants to be eliminated from the body finally. At the cellular level, PMs tend to be internalized via endocytosis due to their particulate nature and disassembled and degraded within the cell. Recent findings on the effect of particle size, surface characteristics and shape are also reviewed. It is envisaged that unraveling the in vivo and subcellular fate sheds light on the performing mechanisms and gears up the clinical translation of PMs.

Targeting signaling pathways in prostate cancer: mechanisms and clinical trials

Prostate cancer (PCa) affects millions of men globally. Due to advances in understanding genomic landscapes and biological functions, the treatment of PCa continues to improve. Recently, various new classes of agents, which include next-generation androgen receptor (AR) signaling inhibitors (abiraterone, enzalutamide, apalutamide, and darolutamide), bone-targeting agents (radium-223 chloride, zoledronic acid), and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors (olaparib, rucaparib, and talazoparib) have been developed to treat PCa. Agents targeting other signaling pathways, including cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)4/6, Ak strain transforming (AKT), wingless-type protein (WNT), and epigenetic marks, have successively entered clinical trials. Furthermore, prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) targeting agents such as ¹⁷⁷Lu-PSMA-617 are promising theranostics that could improve both diagnostic accuracy and therapeutic efficacy. Advanced clinical studies with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have shown limited benefits in PCa, whereas subgroups of PCa with mismatch repair (MMR) or CDK12 inactivation may benefit from ICIs treatment. In this review, we summarized the targeted agents of PCa in clinical trials and their underlying mechanisms, and further discussed their limitations and future directions.

Functionalized nanoparticles targeting biomarkers for prostate cancer imaging and therapy

Nanomedicine is an evolving field of scientific research with unique advantages and challenges for the detection and treatment of medical diseases. Since 1995, the FDA has approved the administration of nanoparticle-based therapies. The initial generation of nanoparticles relied on an enhanced permeability and retention effect, associated with an increased penetrability of tumor related blood vessels. With increasing knowledge of biomarkers and molecular targets, active targeting of circulating tumor cells by nanoparticles provides an exciting area for application. The selective targeting of prostate cancer cells using a nanotechnology-based mechanism has the potential to optimize the delivery of therapeutic payloads directly to prostate cancer cells while minimizing systemic toxicities. The molecular targets that have been studied include prostate specific membrane antigen, gastrin-releasing peptide protein, glucose related protein, CD44, claudin, C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR-4), and adenosine. The clinical potential for nanoparticle-based therapies is supported by several studies that have progressed past the preclinical stage into clinical trials. In this review, we present the molecular biomarkers that have been targeted by ligands conjugated to the surface of nanoparticles for prostate cancer imaging and therapy.

Emerging concepts in designing next-generation multifunctional nanomedicine for cancer treatment

Nanotherapy has emerged as an improved anticancer therapeutic strategy to circumvent the harmful side effects of chemotherapy. It has been proven to be beneficial to offer multiple advantages, including their capacity to carry different therapeutic agents, longer circulation time and increased therapeutic index with reduced toxicity. Over time, nanotherapy evolved in terms of their designing strategies like geometry, size, composition or chemistry to circumvent the biological barriers. Multifunctional nanoscale materials are widely used as molecular transporter for delivering therapeutics and imaging agents. Nanomedicine involving multi-component chemotherapeutic drug-based combination therapy has been found to be an improved promising approach to increase the efficacy of cancer treatment. Next-generation nanomedicine has also utilized and combined immunotherapy to increase its therapeutic efficacy. It helps in targeting tumor immune response sparing the healthy systemic immune function. In this review, we have summarized the progress of nanotechnology in terms of nanoparticle designing and targeting cancer. We have also discussed its further applications in combination therapy and cancer immunotherapy. Integrating patient-specific proteomics and biomarker based information and harnessing clinically safe nanotechnology, the development of precision nanomedicine could revolutionize the effective cancer therapy.

Prostate-specific membrane antigen-targeted theranostics: past, present, and future approaches

Although prostate cancer is the type of cancer most commonly survived by men in the United States, it remains the second most common cause of death from cancer, largely owing to metastatic disease. Patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) whose disease has progressed on standard-of-care therapies have few options and a poor prognosis. Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) is a type II integral membrane protein that is commonly expressed in prostate cancer. Expression is limited on extra-prostatic tissues other than the salivary glands, lacrimal glands, duodenal epithelium, Kupffer cells, and renal tubules. PSMA-directed theranostics has emerged to exploit the specificity of PSMA for prostate cancer cells and has demonstrated promising results in the clinic. Radionuclides linked to PSMA inhibitors/binders have resulted in US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval of 2 radiodiagnostics for PSMA-directed positron emission tomography/computed tomography. In addition, these radionuclides have led to the development of lutetium Lu 177PSMA-617 therapy, which is currently under priority FDA review. Multiple novel PSMA-targeted modalities have been developed and are currently under clinical investigation, including ligand-drug and cellular immune therapies. In this review, we discuss the development of PSMA-directed theranostics, along with its clinical implications, limitations, and future directions.

Combinatorial cetuximab targeted polymeric nanocomplexes reduce PRC1 level and abrogate growth of metastatic hepatocellular carcinoma in vivo with efficient radionuclide uptake

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most aggressive form of cancer with poor drug responses. Developing an effective drug treatment remains a major unmet clinical need for HCC. We report a comprehensive study of combinatorial Cetuximab (Cet) targeted polymeric poly(D, L-lactide-co-glycolide)-b-poly(ethylene glycol) nanocomplexes delivery of Combretastatin A4 (CA4) and 2-Methoxyestradiol (2ME) (Cet-PLGA-b-PEG-CA4 NP + Cet-PLGA-b-PEG-2ME NP) against metastatic HCC in SCID mice. ¹²⁵I-Cet-PLGA-b-PEG NP showed potent accumulation and retention in HCC tumors with longer circulation time up to 48 h (18 ± 1.0% ID/g, P < .0001). Combinatorial treatment with targeted polymeric nanocomplexes presented significant tumor growth inhibition (85%, P < .0001) than the free drug combinatorial counterpart, effectively inhibited orthotopic HCC and prevented lung metastasis. Combinatorial nanocomplexes treatment significantly blocked PRC1, a novel target of therapeutic response against HCC. Thus, the combinatorial cetuximab-targeted polymeric nanocomplexes possess superior antitumor activity against metastatic HCC and provide supports for the clinical translation ahead.

Recent advances of nanodrug delivery system in the treatment of hematologic malignancies

Although the survival rate of hematological malignancies (HM) has increased in recent years, the unnecessary adverse effect to the body is usually generated by the traditional chemotherapy for HM due to the lack of specificity to tumor tissue. Nanodrug delivery systems have exhibited unique advantages in targetability, stability and reducing toxicity, attracting wide concern, which is expected to be the prevalent alternative for the treatment of HM. In this review, we systemically introduced the current therapeutic strategies and the categories of HM. Subsequently, five key factors including circulation, targeting, penetration, internalization and release involving in tailoring nanoparticles were demonstrated, followed by the introduction of the development of nanodrug delivery-traditional synthetic nanomaterilas, biomimetic cell membrane coating nanomaterials, cell-based nanomaterials as well as immunotherapy combined with nanodrug. Afterwards, the recent advances of nanodrug delivery system for the treatment of HM were introduced. Moreover, the challenge and prospect of nanodrug delivery system in treating HM were discussed. The promising drug delivery system will provide new therapeutic avenues for the treatment of HM.

Processing Parameters and Ion Excipients Affect the Physicochemical Characteristics of the Stereocomplex-Formed Polylactide-b-Polyethylene Glycol Nanoparticles and Their Pharmacokinetics

To optimize the characteristics of stereocomplex polylactide-b-polyethylene glycol nanoparticles (SC-PEG NPs) in terms of pharmacokinetics (PK), we chose continuous anti-solvent precipitation with a T-junction as a preparation method and investigated the effect of using solvents containing an ion excipient (lithium bromide, LiBr) on the characteristics of SC-PEG NPs by changing the processing temperature and total flow rate (TFR). Processing temperatures above the melting temperature (T_m) of the PEG domain produced a sharper polydispersity and denser surface PEG densities of SC-PEG NPs than those produced by processing temperatures below the Tm of the PEG domains. Response surface analysis revealed that a higher LiBr concentration and slower TFR resulted in larger and denser hydrodynamic diameters (D_h) and surface PEG densities, respectively. However, a high concentration (300 mM) of LiBr resulted in a decreased drug loading content (DLC). ¹⁴C-tamoxifen-loaded ¹¹¹In-SC-PEG NPs with larger D_h and denser surface PEG densities showed a prolonged plasma retention and low tissue distribution after intravenous injection in mice. These results indicate that the novel strategy of using solvents containing LiBr at different processing temperatures and TFR can broadly control characteristics of SC-PEG NPs, such as D_h, surface PEG densities, and DLC, which alter the PK profiles and tissue distributions.

Actively Targeted Nanomedicines in Breast Cancer: From Pre-Clinal Investigation to Clinic

Simple Summary

Despite all the efforts and advances made in the treatment of breast cancer, this pathology continues to be one of the main causes of cancer death in women, particularly triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), and, although to a lesser degree, HER-2 receptor-positive tumors. Chemotherapy is one of the main treatments available. However, it shows numerous limitations due to its lack of selectivity. In this sense, the selective delivery of antineoplastics to cancer cells can reduce their adverse effects and increase their efficacy. The use of active targeted nanomedicine is a good strategy to achieve this selective chemotherapy. In fact, in recent decades, several active targeted nanoformulations have been approved or reached clinical investigation with excellent results. Among all nanomedicines, antibody-drug conjugates are the most promising.

Abstract

Breast cancer is one of the most frequently diagnosed tumors and the second leading cause of cancer death in women worldwide. The use of nanosystems specifically targeted to tumor cells (active targeting) can be an excellent therapeutic tool to improve and optimize current chemotherapy for this type of neoplasm, since they make it possible to reduce the toxicity and, in some cases, increase the efficacy of antineoplastic drugs. Currently, there are 14 nanomedicines that have reached the clinic for the treatment of breast cancer, 4 of which are already approved (Kadcyla^®, Enhertu^®, Trodelvy^®, and Abraxane^®). Most of these nanomedicines are antibody–drug conjugates. In the case of HER-2-positive breast cancer, these conjugates (Kadcyla^®, Enhertu^®, Trastuzumab-duocarmycin, RC48, and HT19-MMAF) target HER-2 receptors, and incorporate maytansinoid, deruxtecan, duocarmicyn, or auristatins as antineoplastics. In TNBC these conjugates (Trodelvy^®, Glembatumumab-Vedotin, Ladiratuzumab-vedotin, Cofetuzumab-pelidotin, and PF-06647263) are directed against various targets, in particular Trop-2 glycoprotein, NMB glycoprotein, Zinc transporter LIV-1, and Ephrin receptor-4, to achieve this selective accumulation, and include campthotecins, calicheamins, or auristatins as drugs. Apart from the antibody–drug conjugates, there are other active targeted nanosystems that have reached the clinic for the treatment of these tumors such as Abraxane^® and Nab-rapamicyn (albumin nanoparticles entrapping placlitaxel and rapamycin respectively) and various liposomes (MM-302, C225-ILS-Dox, and MM-310) loaded with doxorubicin or docetaxel and coated with ligands targeted to Ephrin A2, EPGF, or HER-2 receptors. In this work, all these active targeted nanomedicines are discussed, analyzing their advantages and disadvantages over conventional chemotherapy as well as the challenges involved in their lab to clinical translation. In addition, examples of formulations developed and evaluated at the preclinical level are also discussed.

Nanomedicine Ex Machina: Between Model-Informed Development and Artificial Intelligence

Today, a growing number of computational aids and simulations are shaping model-informed drug development. Artificial intelligence, a family of self-learning algorithms, is only the latest emerging trend applied by academic researchers and the pharmaceutical industry. Nanomedicine successfully conquered several niche markets and offers a wide variety of innovative drug delivery strategies. Still, only a small number of patients benefit from these advanced treatments, and the number of data sources is very limited. As a consequence, “big data” approaches are not always feasible and smart combinations of human and artificial intelligence define the research landscape. These methodologies will potentially transform the future of nanomedicine and define new challenges and limitations of machine learning in their development. In our review, we present an overview of modeling and artificial intelligence applications in the development and manufacture of nanomedicines. Also, we elucidate the role of each method as a facilitator of breakthroughs and highlight important limitations.

Clinical application of nano-targeting for enhancing chemotherapeutic efficacy and safety in cancer management

Despite improvements in treatment, cancer remains a leading cause of death worldwide. While chemotherapy is effective, it also damages healthy tissue, leading to severe, dose-limiting side effects that can impair efficacy and even contribute to chemoresistance. Nano-based drug-delivery systems can potentially target the delivery of chemotherapy to improve efficacy and reduce adverse effects. A number of nanocarriers have been investigated for the delivery of chemotherapy, and many of the most promising agents have advanced to clinical trials. This review examines the safety and efficacy of nanoformulated chemotherapeutic agents in clinical trials, with particular emphasis on anthracyclines, taxanes and platinum compounds. It also briefly discusses the role nano-targeting might play in the prevention and treatment of chemoresistance.

Cationic Nanomaterials for Autoimmune Diseases Therapy

Cationic nanomaterials are defined as nanoscale structures smaller than 100 nm bearing positive charges. They have been investigated to apply to many aspects including clinical diagnosis, gene delivery, drug delivery, and tissue engineering for years. Recently, a novel concept has been made to use cationic nanomaterials as cell-free nucleic acid scavengers and inhibits the inflammatory responses in autoimmune diseases. Here, we highlighted different types of cationic materials which have the potential for autoimmune disease treatment and reviewed the strategy for autoimmune diseases therapy based on cationic nanoparticles. This review will also demonstrate the challenges and possible solutions that are encountered during the development of cationic materials-based therapeutics for autoimmune diseases.

Novel Selectively Targeted Multifunctional Nanostructured Lipid Carriers for Prostate Cancer Treatment

Prostate cancer (PC) is the most common cancer in men over 50 and the 4th most prevalent human malignancy. PC treatment may include surgery, androgen deprivation therapy, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. However, the therapeutic efficacy of systemic chemotherapy is limited due to low drug solubility and insufficient tumor specificity, inflicting toxic side effects and frequently provoking the emergence of drug resistance. Towards the efficacious treatment of PC, we herein developed novel selectively PC-targeted nanoparticles (NPs) harboring a cytotoxic drug cargo. This delivery system is based upon PEGylated nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), decorated with a selective ligand, targeted to prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA). NPs loaded with cabazitaxel (CTX) displayed a remarkable loading capacity of 168 ± 3 mg drug/g SA-PEG, encapsulation efficiency of 67 ± 1%, and an average diameter of 159 ± 3 nm. The time-course of in vitro drug release from NPs revealed a substantial drug retention profile compared to the unencapsulated drug. These NPs were selectively internalized into target PC cells overexpressing PSMA, and displayed a dose-dependent growth inhibition compared to cells devoid of the PSMA receptor. Remarkably, these targeted NPs exhibited growth-inhibitory activity at pM CTX concentrations, being markedly more potent than the free drug. This selectively targeted nano-delivery platform bears the promise of enhanced efficacy and minimal untoward toxicity.

Recent advances and trends in nanoparticles based photothermal and photodynamic therapy

Light-mediated therapies, including photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT) have been exploited as minimally invasive techniques for ablation of various tumors., Both modalities may eradicate tumors with minimal side effects to normal tissues and organs. Moreover, developments of light-mediated approaches using nanoparticles (NPs) and photosensitizer (PS) as diagnostic and therapeutic agents may have a crucial role in achieving successful cancer treatment. In recent years, novel nanoplatforms and strategies have been investigated to boost the therapeutic effect.. In this regard, gold, iron oxide, graphene oxide nanoparticles and hybrid nanocomposites have attracted attention.. Moreover, the combination of these materials with PS, in the form of hybrid NPs, reduces in vitro and in vivo normal tissue cytotoxicity, improves their solubility property in the biological environment and enhances the therapeutic effects. In this review, we look into the basic principles of PTT and PDT with their strengths and limitations to treat cancers. We also will discuss light-based nanoparticles and their PTT and PDT applications in the preclinical and clinical translation. Also, recent advances and trends in this field will be discussed along with the clinical challenges of PTT and PDT.