1
|
Harvey C, Baliga VB, Goates CD, Hunsaker DF, Inman DJ. Gull-inspired joint-driven wing morphing allows adaptive longitudinal flight control. J R Soc Interface 2021; 18:20210132. [PMID: 34102085 PMCID: PMC8187025 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2021.0132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Birds dynamically adapt to disparate flight behaviours and unpredictable environments by actively manipulating their skeletal joints to change their wing shape. This in-flight adaptability has inspired many unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) wings, which predominately morph within a single geometric plane. By contrast, avian joint-driven wing morphing produces a diverse set of non-planar wing shapes. Here, we investigated if joint-driven wing morphing is desirable for UAVs by quantifying the longitudinal aerodynamic characteristics of gull-inspired wing-body configurations. We used a numerical lifting-line algorithm (MachUpX) to determine the aerodynamic loads across the range of motion of the elbow and wrist, which was validated with wind tunnel tests using three-dimensional printed wing-body models. We found that joint-driven wing morphing effectively controls lift, pitching moment and static margin, but other mechanisms are required to trim. Within the range of wing extension capability, specific paths of joint motion (trajectories) permit distinct longitudinal flight control strategies. We identified two unique trajectories that decoupled stability from lift and pitching moment generation. Further, extension along the trajectory inherent to the musculoskeletal linkage system produced the largest changes to the investigated aerodynamic properties. Collectively, our results show that gull-inspired joint-driven wing morphing allows adaptive longitudinal flight control and could promote multifunctional UAV designs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C. Harvey
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - V. B. Baliga
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - C. D. Goates
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA
| | - D. F. Hunsaker
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA
| | - D. J. Inman
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Bribiesca‐Contreras F, Parslew B, Sellers WI. A Quantitative and Comparative Analysis of the Muscle Architecture of the Forelimb Myology of Diurnal Birds of Prey (Order Accipitriformes and Falconiformes). Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2019; 302:1808-1823. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.24195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2018] [Revised: 11/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Ben Parslew
- School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil EngineeringThe University of Manchester Manchester UK
| | - William I. Sellers
- School of Earth and Environmental SciencesThe University of Manchester Manchester UK
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Walker AM, Meyers RA. The anatomy and histochemistry of flight hindlimb posture in birds. II. The flexed hindlimb posture of perching birds. J Anat 2019; 234:668-678. [PMID: 30860607 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
During flight, birds employ one of two hindlimb postures. Perching birds utilize a flexed posture with their folded legs tucked beneath the body, whereas shorebirds and raptors use an extended posture with straightened legs trailing behind the body. Maintenance of either posture during flight requires the hindlimbs to hold their position for prolonged periods. Slow contracting fibers are known for their fatigue-resistant properties and are often found in high percentages in muscles utilized for postural actions. Given the similar actions required of the hip and knee flexors used during flight, we hypothesized that the equivalent postural muscles of perching birds (flexed posture) would contain similar percentages of slow fibers as shorebirds (extended posture). We investigated the anatomy and fiber type composition of seven hindlimb muscles in yellow-headed and red-winged blackbirds and revealed that they possess a smaller percentage of slow fibers than we found previously in the same muscles of American avocets and black-necked stilts. The comparably smaller body size of yellow-headed and red-winged blackbirds could mitigate the need for more slow fibers. In addition, the biomechanical placement of the weight force in the flexed posture may require less muscle force for postural support during flight and, therefore, fewer slow fibers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amanda M Walker
- Department of Zoology, Weber State University, Ogden, UT, USA
| | - Ron A Meyers
- Department of Zoology, Weber State University, Ogden, UT, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Tobalske BW. Evolution of avian flight: muscles and constraints on performance. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2017; 371:rstb.2015.0383. [PMID: 27528773 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Competing hypotheses about evolutionary origins of flight are the 'fundamental wing-stroke' and 'directed aerial descent' hypotheses. Support for the fundamental wing-stroke hypothesis is that extant birds use flapping of their wings to climb even before they are able to fly; there are no reported examples of incrementally increasing use of wing movements in gliding transitioning to flapping. An open question is whether locomotor styles must evolve initially for efficiency or if they might instead arrive due to efficacy. The proximal muscles of the avian wing output work and power for flight, and new research is exploring functions of the distal muscles in relation to dynamic changes in wing shape. It will be useful to test the relative contributions of the muscles of the forearm compared with inertial and aerodynamic loading of the wing upon dynamic morphing. Body size has dramatic effects upon flight performance. New research has revealed that mass-specific muscle power declines with increasing body mass among species. This explains the constraints associated with being large. Hummingbirds are the only species that can sustain hovering. Their ability to generate force, work and power appears to be limited by time for activation and deactivation within their wingbeats of high frequency. Most small birds use flap-bounding flight, and this flight style may offer an energetic advantage over continuous flapping during fast flight or during flight into a headwind. The use of flap-bounding during slow flight remains enigmatic. Flap-bounding birds do not appear to be constrained to use their primary flight muscles in a fixed manner. To improve understanding of the functional significance of flap-bounding, the energetic costs and the relative use of alternative styles by a given species in nature merit study.This article is part of the themed issue 'Moving in a moving medium: new perspectives on flight'.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bret W Tobalske
- Field Research Station at Fort Missoula, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Meyers RA, McFarland JC. Anatomy and histochemistry of spread-wing posture inbirds. 4. Eagles soar with fast, not slow muscle fibres. ACTA ZOOL-STOCKHOLM 2016; 97:319-324. [PMID: 27616780 DOI: 10.1111/azo.12125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Slow fibers are typically characterized as functioning in avian postural behaviors such as soaring flight, and are described for a number of elite soarers such as vultures, pelicans and albatrosses. Golden Eagles and Bald Eagles also display soaring behavior and we examined their flight muscles for the presence of slow fibers. Surprisingly, eagles lack a deep layer to the pectoralis found in other soaring species. Additionally, the pectoralis as well as other shoulder muscles had few to no slow muscle fibers. The lack of functionally meaningful numbers of slow muscle fibers in eagle flight muscles indicates that they must rely on fast fibers for posture; these can function in that role due to their high aerobic capacity and also perhaps a "tuning" of muscle contraction frequency to function more efficiently at isometric contractions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ron A. Meyers
- Department of Zoology; Weber State University; Ogden UT 84408-2505 USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Hertel F, Maldonado JE, Sustaita D. Wing and hindlimb myology of vultures and raptors (Accipitriformes) in relation to locomotion and foraging. ACTA ZOOL-STOCKHOLM 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/azo.12074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fritz Hertel
- Department of Biology; California State University; 18111 Nordhoff Street Northridge CA 91330-8303 USA
| | - Jesús E. Maldonado
- Center for Conservation and Evolutionary Genetics; Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute; National Zoological Park; Washington DC USA
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology; National Museum of Natural History; Smithsonian Institution; PO Box 37012 MRC 5503 Washington DC 20013-7012 USA
| | - Diego Sustaita
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology; Brown University; Providence RI 02912-G USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Erbrech A, Robin JP, Guérin N, Groscolas R, Gilbert C, Martrette JM. Differential muscular myosin heavy chain expression of the pectoral and pelvic girdles during early growth in the king penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus) chick. J Exp Biol 2011; 214:1829-35. [PMID: 21562169 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.051839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Continuous growth, associated with a steady parental food supply, is a general pattern in offspring development. So that young chicks can acquire their locomotor independence, this period is usually marked by a fast maturation of muscles, during which different myosin heavy chain (MyHC) isoforms are expressed. However, parental food provisioning may fluctuate seasonally, and offspring therefore face a challenge to ensure the necessary maturation of their tissues when energy is limited. To address this trade-off we investigated muscle maturation in both the pectoral and pelvic girdles of king penguin chicks. This species has an exceptionally long rearing period (1 year), which is prolonged when parental food provisioning is drastically reduced during the sub-Antarctic winter. Approximately 1 month post hatching, chicks acquire a functional pedestrian locomotion, which uses pelvic muscles, whereas swimming, which uses the pectoral muscles, only occurs 1 year later. We therefore tested the hypothesis that the MyHC content of the leg muscles reaches a mature state before those of the pectoral muscles. We found that leg muscle MyHC composition changed with the progressive acquisition of pedestrian locomotion, whereas pectoral muscle fibres reached their mature MyHC profile as early as hatching. Contrary to our predictions, the acquisition of the adult profile in pectoral muscles could be related to an early maturation of the contractile muscular proteins, presumably associated with early thermoregulatory capacities of chicks, necessary for survival in their cold environment. This differential maturation appears to reconcile both the locomotor and environmental constraints of king penguin chicks during growth.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aude Erbrech
- Université de Strasbourg, IPHC, Strasbourg, France.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Abstract
Two styles of bird locomotion, hovering and intermittent flight, have great potential to inform future development of autonomous flying vehicles. Hummingbirds are the smallest flying vertebrates, and they are the only birds that can sustain hovering. Their ability to hover is due to their small size, high wingbeat frequency, relatively large margin of mass-specific power available for flight and a suite of anatomical features that include proportionally massive major flight muscles (pectoralis and supracoracoideus) and wing anatomy that enables them to leave their wings extended yet turned over (supinated) during upstroke so that they can generate lift to support their weight. Hummingbirds generate three times more lift during downstroke compared with upstroke, with the disparity due to wing twist during upstroke. Much like insects, hummingbirds exploit unsteady mechanisms during hovering including delayed stall during wing translation that is manifest as a leading-edge vortex (LEV) on the wing and rotational circulation at the end of each half stroke. Intermittent flight is common in small- and medium-sized birds and consists of pauses during which the wings are flexed (bound) or extended (glide). Flap-bounding appears to be an energy-saving style when flying relatively fast, with the production of lift by the body and tail critical to this saving. Flap-gliding is thought to be less costly than continuous flapping during flight at most speeds. Some species are known to shift from flap-gliding at slow speeds to flap-bounding at fast speeds, but there is an upper size limit for the ability to bound (~0.3 kg) and small birds with rounded wings do not use intermittent glides.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bret W Tobalske
- Field Research Station at Fort Missoula, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Welch KC, Altshuler DL. Fiber type homogeneity of the flight musculature in small birds. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2009; 152:324-31. [PMID: 19162216 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2008.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2008] [Revised: 12/16/2008] [Accepted: 12/17/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Studies of medium- and large-bodied avian species have suggested that variation in flight muscle composition is related to differences in flight behavior. For example, slow-twitch or tonic fibers are generally found only in the flight muscles of non-volant or soaring/gliding birds. However, we know comparatively little about fiber composition of the muscles of the smallest birds. Here we describe the fiber composition of muscles from the wings, shoulders, and legs of two small avian species, which also display very high wingbeat frequencies: Anna's hummingbirds (Calypte anna) and zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata). All flight muscles examined in both species contained exclusively fast oxidative glycolytic (FOG) fibers. These unique results suggest that fast oxidative fibers are both necessary and sufficient for the full range of flight behaviors in these small-bodied birds. Like all other studied birds, the zebra finch gastrocnemius, a tarsometatarsal extensor, contained a mixture of FOG (27.1%), slow oxidative (SO, 12.7%), and fast glycolytic (FG, 60.2%) fibers. By contrast, the hummingbird gastrocnemius lacked FG fibers (85.5% FOG, 14.5% SO), which may reflect the reduced role of the hindlimb during take-off. We further hypothesize that thermogenic requirements constrain fiber type heterogeneity in these small endothermic vertebrates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth C Welch
- Department of Biology, University of California, Riverside, 92521-0427, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
McFarland JC, Meyers RA. Anatomy and histochemistry of hindlimb flight posture in birds. I. The extended hindlimb posture of shorebirds. J Morphol 2008; 269:967-79. [PMID: 18506762 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.10636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Birds utilize one of two hindlimb postures during flight: an extended posture (with the hip and knee joints flexed, while the ankle joint is extended caudally) or a flexed posture (with the hip, knee, and ankle joints flexed beneath the body). American Avocets (Recurvirostra americana) and Black-necked Stilts (Himantopus mexicanus) extend their legs caudally during flight and support them for extended periods. Slow tonic and slow twitch muscle fibers are typically found in muscles functioning in postural support due to the fatigue resistance of these fibers. We hypothesized that a set of small muscles composed of high percentages of slow fibers and thus dedicated to postural support would function in securing the legs in the extended posture during flight. This study examined the anatomy and histochemical profile of eleven hindlimb muscles to gain insight into their functional roles during flight. Contrary to our hypothesis, all muscles possessed both fast twitch and slow twitch or slow tonic fibers. We believe this finding is due to the versatility of dynamic and postural functions the leg muscles must facilitate, including standing, walking, running, swimming, and hindlimb support during flight. Whether birds use an extended or flexed hindlimb flight posture may be related to the aerodynamic effect of leg position or may reflect evolutionary history.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua C McFarland
- Department of Zoology, Weber State University, Ogden, Utah 84408-2505, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Sustaita D. Musculoskeletal underpinnings to differences in killing behavior between North American accipiters (Falconiformes: Accipitridae) and falcons (Falconidae). J Morphol 2008; 269:283-301. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.10577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
|
12
|
Corvidae EL, Bierregaard RO, Peters SE. Comparison of wing morphology in three birds of prey: correlations with differences in flight behavior. J Morphol 2006; 267:612-22. [PMID: 16477604 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.10425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Flight is the overriding characteristic of birds that has influenced most of their morphological, physiological, and behavioral features. Flight adaptations are essential for survival in the wide variety of environments that birds occupy. Therefore, locomotor structure, including skeletal and muscular characteristics, is adapted to reflect the flight style necessitated by different ecological niches. Red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) soar to locate their prey, Cooper's hawks (Accipiter cooperii) actively chase down avian prey, and ospreys (Pandion haliaetus) soar and hover to locate fish. In this study, wing ratios, proportions of skeletal elements, and relative sizes of selected flight muscles were compared among these species. Oxidative and glycolytic enzyme activities of several muscles were also analyzed via assays for citrate synthase (CS) and for lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). It was found that structural characteristics of these three raptors differ in ways consistent with prevailing aerodynamic models. The similarity of enzymatic activities among different muscles of the three species shows low physiological differentiation and suggests that wing architecture may play a greater role in determining flight styles for these birds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elaine L Corvidae
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, North Carolina 28223, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Marquez J, Sweazea KL, Braun EJ. Skeletal muscle fiber composition of the English sparrow (Passer domesticus). Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2005; 143:126-31. [PMID: 16330231 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2005.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2005] [Revised: 10/29/2005] [Accepted: 10/30/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Substrate utilization by English sparrow skeletal muscle has been extensively studied in our lab. However, there are few published studies on the muscle fiber composition of English sparrow wing and gastrocnemius muscles. The objective of the present study was to examine the fiber type composition of a variety of muscles in the English sparrow. The classification of a muscle fiber as fast glycolytic, slow oxidative, or fast oxidative glycolytic provides insight into the physiological function of muscles. Therefore, we completed mATPase and NADH stains on four muscles of the sparrow wing, as well as the gastrocnemius muscle, to characterize these muscle fiber types. Results show that the fibers of extensor digitorum communis, extensor metacarpi ulnaris, and extensor metacarpi radialis are homogeneous fast oxidative. The fibers of the supinator are homogeneous fast oxidative in 62.5% of samples, and heterogeneous (45.2% fast oxidative, 54.8% fast nonoxidative) in 37.5% of samples. Whereas the gastrocnemius muscle fibers are heterogeneous (10% fast oxidative, 64% fast nonoxidative, 26% slow oxidative) in all muscles examined.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Marquez
- Department of Physiology, Arizona Health Sciences Center, P.O. Box 245051, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85724-5051, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Callister RJ, Pierce PA, McDonagh JC, Stuart DG. Slow-tonic muscle fibers and their potential innervation in the turtle, Pseudemys (Trachemys) scripta elegans. J Morphol 2005; 264:62-74. [PMID: 15732049 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.10318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
A description is provided of the ratio of slow-tonic vs. slow- and fast-twitch fibers for five muscles in the adult turtle, Pseudemys (Trachemys) scripta elegans. The cross-sectional area of each fiber type and an estimation of the relative (weighted) cross-sectional area occupied by the different fiber types are also provided. Two hindlimb muscles (flexor digitorum longus, FDL; external gastrocnemius, EG) were selected on the basis of their suitability for future motor-unit studies. Three neck muscles (the fourth head of testo-cervicis, TeC4; the fourth head of retrahens capitus collique, RCCQ4; transversalis cervicis, TrC) were chosen for their progressively decreasing oxidative capacity. Serial sections were stained for myosin adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase), NADH-diaphorase, and alpha-glycerophosphate dehydrogenase (alpha-GPDH). Conventional fiber-type classification was then performed using indirect markers for contraction speed and oxidative (aerobic) vs. glycolytic (anaerobic) metabolism: i.e., slow oxidative (SO, including slow-twitch and possibly slow-tonic fibers), fast-twitch, oxidative-glycolytic (FOG), and fast-twitch glycolytic (Fg) fibers. Slow-tonic fibers in the SO class were then revealed by directing the monoclonal antibody, ALD-58 (raised against the slow-tonic fiber myosin heavy chain of chicken anterior latissimus dorsi), to additional muscle cross sections. All five of the tested muscles contained the four fiber types, with the ATPase-stained fibers including both slow-tonic and slow-twitch fibers. The extreme distributions of SO fibers were in the predominately glycolytic TrC vs. the predominately oxidative TeC4 muscle (TrC-SO, 9%; FOG, 20%; Fg, 71% vs. TeC4-SO, 58%: FOG, 16%; Fg, 25%). Across the five muscles, the relative prevalence of slow-tonic fibers (4-47%) paralleled that of the SO fibers (9-58%). TeC4 had the highest prevalence of slow-tonic fibers (47%). The test muscles exhibited varying degrees of regional concentration of each fiber type, with the distribution of slow-tonic fibers paralleling that of the SO fibers. In the five test muscles, fiber cross-sectional area was usually ranked Fg > FOG > SO, and slow-twitch always > slow-tonic. In terms of weighted cross-sectional area, which provides a coarse-grain measure of each fiber type's potential contribution to whole muscle force, all five muscles exhibited a higher Fg and lower SO contribution to cross-sectional area than suggested by their corresponding fiber-type prevalence. This was also the case for the slow-twitch vs. slow-tonic fibers. We conclude that slow-tonic fibers are widespread in turtle muscle. The weighted cross-sectional area evidence suggested, however, that their contribution to force generation is minor except in highly oxidative muscles, with a special functional role, like TeC4. There is discussion of: 1) the relationship between the present results and previous work on homologous neck and hindlimb muscles in other nonmammalian species, and 2) the potential motoneuronal innervation of slow-tonic fibers in turtle hindlimb muscles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Callister
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Meyers RA, Stakebake EF. Anatomy and histochemistry of spread-wing posture in birds. 3. Immunohistochemistry of flight muscles and the ?shoulder lock? in albatrosses. J Morphol 2004; 263:12-29. [PMID: 15536648 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.10284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
As a postural behavior, gliding and soaring flight in birds requires less energy than flapping flight. Slow tonic and slow twitch muscle fibers are specialized for sustained contraction with high fatigue resistance and are typically found in muscles associated with posture. Albatrosses are the elite of avian gliders; as such, we wanted to learn how their musculoskeletal system enables them to maintain spread-wing posture for prolonged gliding bouts. We used dissection and immunohistochemistry to evaluate muscle function for gliding flight in Laysan and Black-footed albatrosses. Albatrosses possess a locking mechanism at the shoulder composed of a tendinous sheet that extends from origin to insertion throughout the length of the deep layer of the pectoralis muscle. This fascial "strut" passively maintains horizontal wing orientation during gliding and soaring flight. A number of muscles, which likely facilitate gliding posture, are composed exclusively of slow fibers. These include Mm. coracobrachialis cranialis, extensor metacarpi radialis dorsalis, and deep pectoralis. In addition, a number of other muscles, including triceps scapularis, triceps humeralis, supracoracoideus, and extensor metacarpi radialis ventralis, were found to have populations of slow fibers. We believe that this extensive suite of uniformly slow muscles is associated with sustained gliding and is unique to birds that glide and soar for extended periods. These findings suggest that albatrosses utilize a combination of slow muscle fibers and a rigid limiting tendon for maintaining a prolonged, gliding posture.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ron A Meyers
- Department of Zoology, Weber State University, Ogden, Utah 84408-2505, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Hui CA. Avian furcula morphology may indicate relationships of flight requirements among birds. J Morphol 2002; 251:284-93. [PMID: 11835365 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.1089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
This study examined furcula (wishbone) shape relative to flight requirements. The furculae from 53 museum specimens in eight orders were measured: 1) three-dimensional shape (SR) as indicated by the ratio of the direct distance between the synostosis interclavicularis and the ligamentous attachment of one of its clavicles to the actual length of the clavicle between those same two points, and 2) curvature within the primary plane (LR) as indicated by the ratio of the length of the clavicle to the sum of the orthogonal distances between the same points using a projected image. Canonical discriminant analysis of these ratios placed the individuals into a) one of four general flight categories and b) one of eight taxonomic orders. The four flight categories were defined as: i) soaring with no flapping, ii) flapping with no soaring, iii) subaqueous (i.e., all wingbeats taking place under water), and iv) partial subaqueous (i.e., wingbeats used for both aerial and submerged flapping). The error rate for placement of the specimens in flight categories was only 26.4%, about half of the error rate for placement in taxonomic orders (51.3%). Subaqueous fliers (penguins, great auks) have furculae that are the most V-shaped. Partial subaqueous fliers (alcids, storm petrels) have furculae that are more U-shaped than the subaqueous fliers but more V-shaped than the aerial flapping fliers. The partial subaqueous fliers have furculae that are also the most anteriorly curved, possibly increasing protraction capability by changing the angle of applied force and increasing attachment area for the origin of the sternobrachialis pectoralis. The increased protraction capability can counteract profile drag, which is greater in water than in air due to the greater density of water. Soaring birds have furculae that are more U-shaped or circular than those of flapping birds and have the smallest range of variation. These results indicate that the shape of the furcula is functionally related to general differences in flight requirements and may be used to infer relationships of these requirements among birds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Clifford A Hui
- USGS, Western Ecological Research Center, Davis Field Station, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616-5224, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Abstract
This article reviews the complexity, expression, genetics, regulation, function, and evolution of the avian myosin heavy chain (MyHC). The majority of pertinent studies thus far published have focussed on domestic chicken and, to a much lesser extent, Japanese quail. Where possible, information available about wild species has also been incorporated into this review. While studies of additional species might modify current interpretations, existing data suggest that some fundamental properties of myosin proteins and genes in birds are unique among higher vertebrates. We compare the characteristics of myosins in birds to those of mammals, and discuss potential molecular mechanisms and evolutionary forces that may explain how avian MyHCs acquired these properties.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E Bandman
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Torrella JR, Fouces V, Viscor G. Descriptive and functional morphometry of skeletal muscle fibres in wild birds. CAN J ZOOL 1999. [DOI: 10.1139/z99-011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The fibre types of four forelimb and two hind-limb muscles involved in locomotion were morphometrically analyzed in three species of wild birds: the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), common coot (Fulica atra), and yellow-legged gull (Larus cachinnans). Fibre cross-sectional area and perimeter, maximal diffusion distance, and number of capillaries per fibre were measured and the functional implications and physiological demands of the muscles of each species were inferred. In general, all morphometric values were lower in oxidative fibres than in anaerobic fibres, indicating that the supply of oxygen and metabolites available to aerobically working muscles is enhanced. The lower level of activity required during gliding as opposed to flapping flight, and the need to maintain the wings in an outstretched position, presumably by means of isometric contractions, may explain the greater size of the oxidative fibres of the pectoralis and scapulotriceps muscles of the gull. In contrast, the high oxidative demand imposed on mallards and coots by sustained flapping flight is met by small oxidative fibres, possibly at the expense of a reduction in the ability of each fibre to generate force. Anaerobic fibres of the gastrocnemius muscle had greater cross-sectional areas in the mallard and coot than in the gull. This is interpreted as an adaptive response to force generation during burst locomotion, which is usually performed by both mallards and coots, in sharp contrast to the buoyant swimming and postural activities undertaken by gull's legs. The fast oxidative fibres of the gastrocnemius muscle were, in general, larger than those of the iliotibialis muscle in the three species, which matches the different mechanical and functional roles of these muscles during swimming.
Collapse
|