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ADAPTATION OF A POINT-OF-CARE CANINE PROGESTERONE TEST FOR USE OF PARTURITION PREDICTION IN CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS ( ELEPHAS MAXIMUS): PROOF OF CONCEPT. J Zoo Wildl Med 2023; 53:791-796. [PMID: 36640081 DOI: 10.1638/2021-0010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
In the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), the levels of progesterone products 5α-pregnane, 3α-hydroxypregnane, and 17α-progesterone are elevated during pregnancy. Detection of a sudden decrease in blood progesterone product levels in the final days of pregnancy is considered an objective way of predicting impending parturition. Point-of-care (POC) tests eliminate the cost involved in transporting samples to an external laboratory and provide an almost instant result, facilitating decision-making for animal monitoring and management. This proof-of-concept study aims to investigate the ability of the AgPlus POC immunoassay system to measure 4-pregnen-3,20-dione in pregnant elephant serum samples and adapt the method for detection of the preparturient progesterone decrease. Frozen serum samples of two pregnant elephants (N = 82) and fresh serum samples of one pregnant elephant (N = 10) were analyzed using both the POC method and a radioimmunoassay in a reference laboratory. Statistical analysis of the data showed that there was no significant difference between the two methods for detection of the progesterone drop, indicating that the POC method can be considered appropriate for use in elephant parturition prediction. Refinement of the methodology, an increase of sample size, and temporal tandem radioimmunoassay would be required to further validate this method for use in elephant reproductive management.
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Meunier M, Schwarzenberger F, Mulot B. Use of a simplified non-invasive technic to monitor fecal progesterone metabolites and reproduction function in several zoo species: Efficacy of mini VIDAS® automate (bioMérieux). Theriogenology 2021; 179:69-77. [PMID: 34839231 DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2021.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Developing the zoos' ability to assess the reproductive status of the individuals they house is essential to improve the husbandry and management of these species. The use of non-invasive techniques such as fecal hormone analysis has been proven to be a simple and effective way to achieve this. Designed by bioMérieux, mini VIDAS® instrument is used in human and veterinary medicine to evaluate different endocrinological parameters, including serum or plasma progesterone. This study evaluates VIDAS® Progesterone (PRG) assay's efficacy to monitor fecal progestagens using a simple sample extraction protocol adapted to the zoo environment. We compared (1) VIDAS® PRG fecal profiles with established assays specifically designed for fecal progestagens analysis at the VetmedUni (Vienna, Austria) for okapis (Okapia johnstoni), greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata) and hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) (2) VIDAS® PRG fecal profiles with VIDAS® PRG serum profiles for African elephants (Loxodonta Africana), giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) and white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum). Spearman mean correlations were: 0.6748 for African elephants (n = 2 animals), 0.7969 for giant anteater (n = 1 animal), 0.7926 for okapis (n = 2 animals), 0.6072 for greater one-horned rhinoceros (n = 4 animals), 0.6062 for giraffes (n = 4 animals) and 0.5740 for hippopotamus (n = 2 animals). Fecal progestagens analysis revealed estrous cycles in several species: 12.5 ± 0.5 weeks for African elephants (n = 2 cycles), 15.3 ± 1.1 days for okapis (n = 6 cycles), 44 ± 2.1 days for greater one-horned rhinoceros (n = 4 cycles) and 15.5 ± 0.5 days for giraffes (n = 4 cycles). We observed pregnancies in a giant anteater, an okapi and a hippopotamus. We observed a strong positive Spearman correlation (r > 0.60) for individuals exhibiting estrous cycles. These first results indicate that the mini VIDAS® can be used for monitoring of the reproductive status of non-domesticated species and can be a useful tool for the reproductive management through fecal progesterone analysis. A simple extraction protocol was suitable for sample preparation of fecal progesterone metabolite analysis. Further studies using a larger number of individuals per species at different reproductive stages could confirm the relevance of mini VIDAS® in the zoo community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Meunier
- Zooparc de Beauval & Beauval Nature, 41110, Saint-Aignan, France; UMR Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, INRAE, CNRS, IFCE, Université de Tours, 37380, Nouzilly, France.
| | - Franz Schwarzenberger
- University of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Physiology - Endocrinology, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Baptiste Mulot
- Zooparc de Beauval & Beauval Nature, 41110, Saint-Aignan, France
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Prado NA, Carlstead K, Malloy EJ, Paris S, Wielebnowski N, Rockwood LL, Brown JL. Ovarian cyclicity and prolactin status of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in North American zoos may be influenced by life experience and individual temperament. Horm Behav 2020; 125:104804. [PMID: 32531397 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Hyperprolactinemia is an endocrine disorder associated with infertility in many species, including elephants. In a recent survey of zoos accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), over half of African elephant females (N = 101) were not cycling normally, 30% of which exhibited hyperprolactinemia. We examined whether life experience and temperament predict ovarian cyclicity and circulating prolactin status in individual African elephant females. We hypothesized that, similar to humans, acyclicity and hyperprolactinemia in elephants will be associated with an apprehensive or fearful, anxious temperament, and an increased number of potentially challenging life events (transfers, deaths and births). Ninety-five adult African elephant females housed at 37 AZA institutions were included in this study. Blood samples were collected twice a month for 1 year to determine ovarian cycle (cycling, n = 44; irregular, n = 13; non-cycling, n = 38) and prolactin (normal, n = 44; low; n = 23; high; n = 28) status. Keeper ratings on a 6-point scale were obtained on 32 temperament traits in 85 of these elephants. We determined that giving birth and being exposed to herd mates entering the facility were positively associated with normal ovarian cycle and prolactin profiles. By contrast, age, serum cortisol, and an increased number of herd mates leaving a facility were negatively associated with both. Contrary to our hypothesis, hyperprolactinemia was associated with a popular and caring temperament rating, whereas consistently low prolactin was associated with a fearful, apprehensive temperament. These findings indicate that pituitary-ovarian function may be impacted by life history (cyclicity) and temperament (prolactin), which should be taken into consideration when making management decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia A Prado
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA.
| | - Kathy Carlstead
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | - Elizabeth J Malloy
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave. NW, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Stephen Paris
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | | | - Larry L Rockwood
- Department of Biology, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA
| | - Janine L Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
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Thitaram C, Brown JL. Monitoring and controlling ovarian activity in elephants. Theriogenology 2018; 109:42-47. [DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2017.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 12/01/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Illera JC, Silván G, Cáceres S, Carbonell MD, Gerique C, Martínez-Fernández L, Munro C, Casares M. Assessment of ovarian cycles in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) by measurement of salivary progesterone metabolites. Zoo Biol 2014; 33:245-9. [PMID: 24610639 DOI: 10.1002/zoo.21124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2013] [Revised: 02/07/2014] [Accepted: 02/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Monitoring ovarian cycles through hormonal analysis is important in order to improve breeding management of captive elephants, and non-invasive collection techniques are particularly interesting for this purpose. However, there are some practical difficulties in collecting proper samples, and easier and more practical methods may be an advantage for some institutions and/or some animals. This study describes the development and validation of an enzymeimmunoassay (EIA) for progestins in salivary samples of African elephants, Loxodonta africana. Weekly urinary and salivary samples from five non-pregnant elephant cows aged 7-12 years were obtained for 28 weeks and analyzed using EIA. Both techniques correlated positively (r = 0.799; P < 0.001), and the cycle characteristics obtained were identical. The results clearly show that ovarian cycles can be monitored by measuring progestins from salivary samples in the African elephant. This is a simple and non-invasive method that may be a practical alternative to other sampling methods used in the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan-Carlos Illera
- Departamento de Fisiología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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HILDEBRANDT TB, LUEDERS I, HERMES R, GOERITZ F, SARAGUSTY J. Anatomical, Physiological, Behavioral and Pathological Aspects of the Estrous Cycle in Elephants. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.5686/jjzwm.17.97] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas B HILDEBRANDT
- Department of Reproduction Management, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research
| | - Imke LUEDERS
- Department of Reproduction Management, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research
| | - Robert HERMES
- Department of Reproduction Management, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research
| | - Frank GOERITZ
- Department of Reproduction Management, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research
| | - Joseph SARAGUSTY
- Department of Reproduction Management, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research
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Glaeser S, Hunt K, Martin M, Finnegan M, Brown J. Investigation of individual and group variability in estrous cycle characteristics in female Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at the Oregon Zoo. Theriogenology 2012; 78:285-96. [DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2012.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2011] [Revised: 11/18/2011] [Accepted: 01/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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9
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Prediction of estrus cyclicity in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) through estimation of fecal progesterone metabolite: development of an enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent assay. Theriogenology 2010; 73:1051-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2010.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2009] [Revised: 01/10/2010] [Accepted: 01/12/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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10
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Yon L, Chen J, Moran P, Lasley B. An analysis of the androgens of musth in the Asian bull elephant (Elephas maximus). Gen Comp Endocrinol 2008; 155:109-15. [PMID: 17466989 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2007.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2006] [Revised: 02/06/2007] [Accepted: 03/10/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
During musth in bull elephants, the androgens testosterone (T), dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and androstenedione all increase significantly. Given the unusual endocrine physiology that has been discovered in female elephants, it is also possible that bull elephants produce some unusual androgens. A cell-based androgen receptor assay was used to explore this possibility using two different methods. The first method compared the level of T measured by radioimmunoassay (RIA) with the level of androgen receptor (AR) activity measured in the serum of eight bull elephants during musth and non-musth periods. A ratio was calculated for T/AR activity for non-musth and musth, to determine if there was a change in the ratio between these two states. The second method used HPLC to separate two pooled serum samples (one non-musth and one musth) into fractions using a protocol which separates known androgens into specific, previously identified fractions. Each fraction was then tested with the AR assay to determine the androgenicity of any compounds present. This was done to determine if there were any fractions which had androgenic activity but did not contain any previously identified androgens. Results from the first analysis indicated no change in the T/AR ratio between non-musth and musth states. Clearly whatever active androgens are present during musth, they increase proportionately with T. Findings from the second analysis suggested that the only bioactive androgen present in the serum of non-musth Asian bulls is a low level of T. During musth, the only bioactive androgens detected were T and DHT; of these, T was by far the predominant active androgen present. Taken together, these two analyses suggest that T is by far the predominant active androgen present during musth in Asian bull elephants, and that no previously unidentified bioactive androgen is present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Yon
- Center for Health and The Environment, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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Hermes R, Göritz F, Streich W, Hildebrandt T. Assisted Reproduction in Female Rhinoceros and Elephants ? Current Status and Future Perspective. Reprod Domest Anim 2007; 42 Suppl 2:33-44. [PMID: 17688600 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0531.2007.00924.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Over the last few decades, rhinoceroses and elephants became important icons in the saga of wildlife conservation. Recent surveys estimate the wild Asian (Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephant populations to be, at most, 50 250 and 637 600 respectively. For the five rhinoceros species, black (Diceros bicornis), white (Ceratotherium simum), Indian (Rhinoceros unicornis), Javan (Rhinoceros sondaicus) and Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus Sumatrensis), the population estimates of 3610, 11 330, 2400, 60 and 300, respectively, are of even greater concern. Protected against habitat loss, poaching and left undisturbed, rhinoceros and elephants reproduce well in the wild. But small and decreasing populations make successful captive management of these taxa increasingly important. In captivity, however, most populations face possible 'extinction' because of historically poor reproductive performance. From the first descriptions of the reproductive anatomy and the oestrous cycle (Laws 1969; Kassam and Lasley 1981; Balke et al. 1988a,b; Plotka et al. 1988; Godfrey et al. 1991) to the present use of advanced assisted reproduction technologies, researchers have strive to understand the function and dysfunction of the reproductive biology of these charismatic species. This paper reviewed the current knowledge on rhinoceros and elephant reproduction biology, reproductive cycle, gestation, dystocia, reproductive pathology, oestrous induction and artificial insemination, sperm sexing, IVF and contraception, and how this knowledge is or might be used to aid species conservation for maximal reproductive efficiency and enhancement of genetic management.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Hermes
- Department of Reproductive Management, Leibniz Institute for Zoo Biology and Wildlife Research, Berlin, Germany.
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12
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HILDEBRANDT TB, GORITZ F, HERMES R, REID C, DEHNHARD M, BROWN JL. Aspects of the reproductive biology and breeding management of Asian and African elephants Elephas maximus and Loxodonta africana. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-1090.2006.00020.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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13
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Steinetz BG, Brown JL, Roth TL, Czekala N. Relaxin concentrations in serum and urine of endangered species: correlations with physiologic events and use as a marker of pregnancy. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2005; 1041:367-78. [PMID: 15956734 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1282.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Many mammalian species are facing extinction due to problems created by human encroachment, agriculture, pollution, and willful slaughter. Among those at risk are the Asian and African elephant, Sumatran rhinoceros, and giant panda. Conservation groups try to save species in the wild by preserving habitat and limiting animal-human conflicts, often with limited success. Another alternative is to preserve the extant gene pool through captive breeding as a hedge against extinction. Measurement of circulating reproductive hormones is impractical for most wildlife species; determination of urinary or fecal hormone metabolites provides a more viable approach. To aid breeding management, one important tool is the ability to diagnose and monitor pregnancy, especially in species with long gestations (e.g., rhinos over 15 mo and elephants over 20 mo). Unfortunately, measuring progestins often is not useful diagnostically, because concentrations are similar during at least part of the pregnancy and the nonpregnant luteal phase in some species (e.g., elephants, rhinoceroses, and giant pandas). As serum relaxin reliably distinguishes between pregnancy and pseudopregnancy in bitches, relaxin measurement might also provide a method for detecting a successful pregnancy in endangered species. Appropriate immunoassay reagents have enabled the estimation of relaxin concentrations in the serum of elephants and rhinos and the determination of pregnancy establishment and the outcome. Relaxin was also detected in panda serum and urine. However, the extreme variability of the time between observed mating and parturition and the confounding factors of delayed implantation, pseudopregnancy, and frequent fetal resorptions made it impossible to use the panda relaxin data as a specific marker of pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard G Steinetz
- Department of Environmental Medicine, Nelson Institute of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, Tuxedo, NY 10987, USA.
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Schäfer-Somi S, Ali Aksoy O, Patzl M, Findik M, Erünal-Maral N, Beceriklisoy HB, Polat B, Aslan S. The activity of matrix metalloproteinase-2 and -9 in serum of pregnant and non-pregnant bitches. Reprod Domest Anim 2005; 40:46-50. [PMID: 15655000 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0531.2004.00552.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate, whether the activity of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and -9 in the serum of pregnant and non-pregnant bitches differs significantly. For this purpose, 81 blood samples were taken from pregnant bitches at days 5-13, 15-21, 24-31, 34-40 and 41-50 after mating, and 51 samples from non-pregnant animals at corresponding times. Relative enzyme activity, calculated as the percentage of serum enzyme activity on enzyme activity in a control sample, was determined with a commercially available assay after activation of serum MMPs with p-aminophenylmercuric acetate (APMA). In addition, serum oestradiol (E(2)) and progesterone (P(4)) concentrations were measured with an enzymeimmunoassay (EIA). In the pregnant bitches, at days 5-13 and 15-21 after mating, the mean activity of both MMPs was significantly higher than in non-pregnant animals (28.5% vs 24.5% and 27.7% vs 22.6%; p < 0.01). Moreover, in the pregnant bitches, significant correlations were detected between the serum enzyme activity and the serum concentrations of E(2) (-0.900; p < 0.05) and P(4) (+0.667; p < 0.05).
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Affiliation(s)
- S Schäfer-Somi
- Clinic of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Andrology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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Meyer JM, Walker SL, Freeman EW, Steinetz BG, Brown JL. Species and fetal gender effects on the endocrinology of pregnancy in elephants. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2004; 138:263-70. [PMID: 15364209 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2004.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2004] [Revised: 06/17/2004] [Accepted: 06/29/2004] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Quantitative and temporal progestin profiles vary during gestation in the elephant, sometimes making it difficult to determine if a pregnancy is progressing normally. The aim of the present study was to determine if circulating progestin variability was related to species or fetal gender effects. A similar comparison also was conducted for secretory profiles of prolactin, relaxin, and cortisol. Overall mean progestin concentrations during gestation in Asian (n = 19) and African (n = 8) elephants were similar; however, the temporal profiles differed (P < 0.001). Concentrations were higher in African elephants during the first half of pregnancy, but then declined to levels below those observed in Asian elephants (P < 0.05). There also was a fetal gender effect in Asian, but not African elephants. Progestin concentrations were higher in Asian cows carrying male calves (n = 9) as compared to those carrying females (n = 10) (P < 0.001). Overall prolactin concentrations were higher in Asian than in African elephants between 8 and 15 months of gestation ( P< 0.001). There were no species differences in the secretory patterns of relaxin. Cortisol was relatively stable until the end of gestation when significant surges were observed, mainly between 8 and 11 days before parturition, and again on the day of birth. In sum, a comparison of progestin patterns between Asian and African elephants identified notable differences related to species and fetal gender. A role for cortisol in the initiation of parturition also was inferred from these data. From a practical standpoint, understanding the factors affecting gestational hormone characteristics and recognizing what the species differences are will help ensure that data used in diagnosing and monitoring elephant pregnancies are properly interpreted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordana M Meyer
- Department of Reproductive Sciences, Conservation and Research Center, National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
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Brown JL, Göritz F, Pratt-Hawkes N, Hermes R, Galloway M, Graham LH, Gray C, Walker SL, Gomez A, Moreland R, Murray S, Schmitt DL, Howard J, Lehnhardt J, Beck B, Bellem A, Montali R, Hildebrandt TB. Successful artificial insemination of an Asian elephant at the National Zoological Park. Zoo Biol 2004. [DOI: 10.1002/zoo.10116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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17
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Czekala N, MacDonald E, Steinman K, Walker S, Garrigues N, Olson D, Brown J. Estrogen and LH dynamics during the follicular phase of the estrous cycle in the Asian elephant. Zoo Biol 2003. [DOI: 10.1002/zoo.10098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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18
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Graham L, Schwarzenberger F, Möstl E, Galama W, Savage A. A versatile enzyme immunoassay for the determination of progestogens in feces and serum. Zoo Biol 2001. [DOI: 10.1002/zoo.1022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Fiess M, Heistermann M, Hodges JK. Patterns of urinary and fecal steroid excretion during the ovarian cycle and pregnancy in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Gen Comp Endocrinol 1999; 115:76-89. [PMID: 10375466 DOI: 10.1006/gcen.1999.7287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The aims of the present study were to (i) determine the relative abundance of the 5alpha-reduced progestins 5alpha-pregnane-3-ol-20-one (5alpha-P-3OH) and 5alpha-dihydroprogesterone (5alpha-DHP) and progesterone (P4) in African elephant feces and to establish improved fecal progestin assays for monitoring ovarian function; and (ii) describe longitudinal profiles of urinary and fecal progestin and estrogen metabolites during pregnancy. Matched urine and fecal samples were collected weekly from six adult females throughout 18 nonfertile cycles and two complete pregnancies (89 and 93 weeks duration). Fecal samples were lyophilized and extracted with 80% methanol in water and immunoreactive 5alpha-P-3OH, 5alpha-DHP, and P4 and (for pregnant females only) estrone (E1) and estradiol (E2) determined by enzyme immunoassay. Urine samples were hydrolyzed, ether-extracted, and assayed for 5alpha-P-3OH, E1, and E2. HPLC cochromatography of fecal extracts with various radioactive progestin tracers confirmed the presence of large amounts of both 5-reduced progestins (5alpha-P-3OH > 5alpha-DHP) but not of P4. 5-Reduced progestins (but not P4) were excreted in a cyclic pattern and levels were significantly correlated with urinary 5alpha-P-3OH. Fecal 5alpha-P-3OH showed the more pronounced and consistent luteal-phase elevation and a better correspondence to urine with respect to timing of the luteal-phase rise. Fecal and urinary 5-reduced progestins increased gradually during early pregnancy to maximum values around week 40-45. Levels gradually declined during the second half of pregnancy, reaching baseline values 2 days before parturition. Urinary estrogens did not show any cyclic pattern during the preconception period and levels remained low during the first 30 weeks of gestation. Thereafter, there was a rapid 10- to 20-fold increase to maximum values at mid-pregnancy, followed by a gradual decline to birth. There was no mid-pregnancy elevation in fecal estrogens, but there was a modest increase in E1 during the second half of gestation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Fiess
- Department of Reproductive Biology, German Primate Centre, Kellnerweg 4, Goettingen, D-37077, Germany
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21
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Evolution of chemical signals in the Asian elephant,Elephas maximus: behavioural and ecological influences. J Biosci 1999. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02941206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Hodges JK. Endocrinology of the ovarian cycle and pregnancy in the Asian (Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephant. Anim Reprod Sci 1998; 53:3-18. [PMID: 9835363 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4320(98)00123-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In reviewing the literature, this paper assesses the current level of understanding of the hormonal control of the ovarian cycle and pregnancy in the elephant. Data are compiled from two genera, Elephas maximus and Loxodonta africana, recognizing differences where known to exist. Measurements of various steroid and peptide hormones, but most notably immunoreactive progesterone (iP), indicate an overall cycle length of 15-16 weeks, comprising an 8-11-week luteal phase and a shorter inter-luteal (follicular) period of 4-6 weeks. Oestrogen related phenomena suggest the occurrence of two (possibly more) waves of follicular development with a 3-week periodicity, although oestrogen levels are low and fluctuate without clear pattern. The inter-luteal period is characterized by two discrete LH peaks also 3 weeks apart, but only the second is associated with an iP rise. Ovulation rate is variable and additional luteal structures lacking ovulation points are probably formed each cycle. The post-ovulatory period is associated with elevated progestogen levels, mainly 5alpha-reduced compounds, while progesterone itself is a minor secretory product. A revised model for the elephant ovarian cycle is presented. Detailed information on the endocrinology of pregnancy is lacking. Elevated progestins beyond the normal luteal phase indicate that conception extends the functional lifespan of the CL, with maximum steroidogenic activity between 3-15 months. The nature of the luteotrophic support is not known and placental gonadotrophins have not been conclusively demonstrated. Progestins fluctuate at or slightly above luteal phase values throughout pregnancy. There is a marked increase in prolactin levels after 16-24 weeks and a relationship with oestrogen secretion may exist since circulating and urinary levels show a progressive increase from 6-8 months. A placental contribution to progestin secretion is likely, although direct evidence is lacking. Considerable enlargement of foetal gonads during the second half of pregnancy in African elephants suggests a possible steroidogenic function, but none has been defined. The endocrine events leading to parturition are unknown. In the Asian elephant, a fall in iP precedes parturition; oestrogen levels decline and cortisol increases at the time of birth. The paper concludes with a brief selection of priorities for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- J K Hodges
- German Primate Centre, Department of Reproductive Biology, Göttingen.
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