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Sach F, Fields L, Chenery S, Yon L, Henley MD, Buss P, Dierenfeld ES, Langley-Evans SC, Watts MJ. Method development to characterise elephant tail hairs by LA-ICP-MS to reflect changes in elemental chemistry. Environ Geochem Health 2023; 45:1153-1164. [PMID: 35129705 PMCID: PMC10060304 DOI: 10.1007/s10653-022-01207-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This paper evaluated analytical methods used to generate time-series data from elephant tail hairs, which can be used to reflect changing exposure to environmental geochemistry. Elephant tail hairs were analysed by three methods sequentially, each providing data to inform subsequent analysis. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and X-ray Microanalysis visually showed the structure of the hair, specific structures such as tubules, and the mineral crusting around the edge of the hair, informing targeting of subsequent analysis by Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). LA-ICP-MS generated time-series data which informed sectioning of the tail hairs for subsequent quantitative analysis for potentially toxic elements and micronutrients using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) of dissolved tail hairs. This novel approach to characterise the tail hair enabled time-series analysis to reflect changes in environmental exposure which may result from seasonal or geochemical spatial variation and could inform elephant movement patterns. The seasonal change between wet and dry seasons was reflected down the length of the hair. Correlations were seen between LA-ICP-MS data and ICP-MS data in several elements including Mg, P, Ca, Fe, Na, Mn and U. This study provided time-series data for the analysis of elephant tail hairs by evaluating analytical challenges to obtaining quantitative data, such as improving protocols to ensure removal of extraneous material, determining where to section the tail hairs to best reflect environmental changes/exposure and ensuring representative analyses. A protocol was established to determine mineral status across a 12-18 month time period utilizing single elephant tail hairs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiona Sach
- Inorganic Geochemistry, Centre for Environmental Geochemistry, British Geological Survey, Nottingham, UK
- School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Lorraine Fields
- Inorganic Geochemistry, Centre for Environmental Geochemistry, British Geological Survey, Nottingham, UK
| | - Simon Chenery
- Inorganic Geochemistry, Centre for Environmental Geochemistry, British Geological Survey, Nottingham, UK
| | - Lisa Yon
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Michelle D Henley
- Applied Behavioural Ecology and Environmental Research Unit, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa
- Elephants Alive, Bosbokrand, Limpopo, South Africa
| | - Peter Buss
- Veterinary Wildlife Services, South African National Parks, Kimberley, South Africa
| | - Ellen S Dierenfeld
- LLC, Saint Louis, MO, 63128, USA
- School of Animal, Rural & Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK
| | | | - Michael J Watts
- Inorganic Geochemistry, Centre for Environmental Geochemistry, British Geological Survey, Nottingham, UK.
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van Zyl CDW, van Reenen M, Osthoff G, du Preez I. Evaluation of BAYESIL for automated annotation of 1H NMR data using limited sample volumes: application to African elephant serum. Metabolomics 2023; 19:31. [PMID: 36995481 PMCID: PMC10063514 DOI: 10.1007/s11306-023-02001-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Technological advancements enabled the analyses of limited sample volumes on 1H NMR. Manual spectral profiling of the data is, however, complex, and timely. OBJECTIVE To evaluate the performance of BAYESIL for automated identification and quantification of 1H NMR spectra of limited volume samples. METHOD Aliquots of a pooled African elephant serum sample were analyzed using standard and reduced volumes. Performance was evaluated on confidence scores, non-detects and laboratory CV. RESULTS Of the 47 compounds detected, 28 had favorable performances. The approach could differentiate samples based on biological variation. CONCLUSIONS BAYESIL is valuable for limited sample 1H NMR data analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mari van Reenen
- Centre for Human Metabolomics, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Gernot Osthoff
- Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Ilse du Preez
- Centre for Human Metabolomics, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa.
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Hota SR, Padhi SK, Pahari A, Behera BK, Panda B, Mor SK, Singh VK, Goyal SM, Sahoo N. Characterization and Whole Genome Sequencing of Chromobacterium violaceum OUAT_2017: A Zoonotic Pathogen Found Fatal to a Wild Asiatic Elephant. Indian J Microbiol 2022; 62:627-633. [PMID: 36458219 PMCID: PMC9705667 DOI: 10.1007/s12088-022-01047-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
This study reports a rare fatal case of Chromobacterium violeceum OUAT_2017 strain infection in an Asiatic elephant calf in India. Necropsy revealed pus-filled nodules in liver, spleen, and lungs. Nutrient broth cultures of nodule content showed sediment of violet pigment whereas smooth, non-diffusible, violet-pigmented, homogeneous colonies appeared on nutrient agar. The organism was found to be non-haemolytic and resistant to 8 of the 24 antibiotics tested in vitro. Partial 16S rRNA gene sequence measuring 1410 bp revealed 97% homology with C. violeceum. The bacterial genome composed of 64.87% of G + C content with total size of 4,681,202 bp. The genome annotation has 42 genes responsible for multidrug antibiotic resistance with the presence of Aminoglycoside-modifying enzymes (AAC (6')) that targets streptomycin and spectinomycin. Our findings corroborated the lethal effect of C. violeceum in a new host (elephant) that enriched scientific information on epidemiological picture and whole genome sequencing as well. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12088-022-01047-4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sourav R. Hota
- Fisheries and Animal Resources Development Department, Government of Odisha, Bhubaneswar, Odisha India
| | - Soumesh K. Padhi
- Centre for Wildlife Health, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Odisha University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751003 India
| | - Avishek Pahari
- Centre for Wildlife Health, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Odisha University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751003 India
| | - Bikash K. Behera
- Centre for Wildlife Health, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Odisha University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751003 India
| | - Biswaranjan Panda
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Odisha University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751003 India
| | - Sunil K. Mor
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, 1333 Gortner Ave, Saint Paul, Minnesota 55108-1098 USA
| | - Vikash K. Singh
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, 1333 Gortner Ave, Saint Paul, Minnesota 55108-1098 USA
| | - Sagar M. Goyal
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, 1333 Gortner Ave, Saint Paul, Minnesota 55108-1098 USA
| | - Niranjana Sahoo
- Centre for Wildlife Health, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Odisha University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751003 India
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Soppelsa J, Pouydebat E, Lefeuvre M, Mulot B, Houssin C, Cornette R. The relationship between distal trunk morphology and object grasping in the African savannah elephant ( Loxodonta africana). PeerJ 2022; 10:e13108. [PMID: 35368332 PMCID: PMC8969868 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.13108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Background During reach-to-grasp movements, the human hand is preshaped depending on the properties of the object. Preshaping may result from learning, morphology, or motor control variability and can confer a selective advantage on that individual or species. This preshaping ability is known in several mammals (i.e., primates, carnivores and rodents). However, apart from the tongue preshaping of lizards and chameleons, little is known about preshaping of other grasping appendages. In particular, the elephant trunk, a muscular hydrostat, has impressive grasping skills and thus is commonly called a hand. Data on elephant trunk grasping strategies are scarce, and nothing is known about whether elephants preshape their trunk tip according to the properties of their food. Methods To determine the influence of food sizes and shapes on the form of the trunk tip, we investigated the morphology of the distal part of the trunk during grasping movements. The influence of food item form on trunk tip shape was quantified in six female African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana). Three food item types were presented to the elephants (elongated, flat, and cubic), as well as three different sizes of cubic items. A total of 107 ± 10 grips per individual were video recorded, and the related trunk tip shapes were recorded with a 2D geometric morphometric approach. Results Half of the individuals adjusted the shape of the distal part of their trunk according to the object type. Of the three elephants that did not preshape their trunk tip, one was blind and another was subadult. Discussion and perspectives We found that elephants preshaped their trunk tip, similar to the preshaping of other species' hands or paws during reach-to-grasp movements. This preshaping may be influenced by visual feedback and individual learning. To confirm these results, this study could be replicated with a larger sample of elephants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Soppelsa
- Adaptive Mechanisms and Evolution (MECADEV), Centre national de la recherche scientifique/Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Emmanuelle Pouydebat
- Adaptive Mechanisms and Evolution (MECADEV), Centre national de la recherche scientifique/Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Maëlle Lefeuvre
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University Cracow, Cracow, Poland
| | - Baptiste Mulot
- Zooparc de Beauval & Beauval Nature, Saint-Aignan, France
| | - Céline Houssin
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Centre national de la recherche scientifique/ Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, SU, EPHE, UA, Paris, France
| | - Raphaël Cornette
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Centre national de la recherche scientifique/ Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, SU, EPHE, UA, Paris, France
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Montgomery RA, Raupp J, Mukhwana M, Greenleaf A, Mudumba T, Muruthi P. The efficacy of interventions to protect crops from raiding elephants. Ambio 2022; 51:716-727. [PMID: 34173175 PMCID: PMC8800974 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-021-01587-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Both African elephants (Loxodonta spp.) and the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) across their range come into conflict with people because of their crop-raiding behavior, which presents profound impediments to farmer livelihoods. In response, a series of interventions, designed to reduce elephant crop raiding have been applied. Based on an extensive review of elephant crop-raiding studies published over a 31-year period, we identified four primary categories of interventions including: (i) detection efforts; (ii) preemptive measures; (iii) fencing and trenches; and (iv) deterrent techniques. The interventions reported to be most effective involved chili peppers (i.e., fences, spray, and briquettes) and crop guarding coupled with deterrents. The extent to which these interventions can be applied more widely is unclear as only two studies examined efficacy across sites in more than one country. Thus, future inquiry should evaluate the ability of effective interventions, or indeed a combination of interventions, to be applied across the range of elephants to reduce crop raiding at scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A. Montgomery
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, The Recanati-Kaplan Centre, University of Oxford, Tubney House, Abingdon Road, Tubney, Oxon OX13 5QL UK
| | - Jamie Raupp
- Research on the Ecology of Carnivores and Their Prey (RECaP) Laboratory, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 USA
| | - Methodius Mukhwana
- African Wildlife Foundation, Uganda Office, Plot 9 Bukoto Crescent, Naguru, P.O. Box 37346, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Ashley Greenleaf
- Research on the Ecology of Carnivores and Their Prey (RECaP) Laboratory, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 USA
| | - Tutilo Mudumba
- Research on the Ecology of Carnivores and Their Prey (RECaP) Laboratory, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 USA
- Department of Zoology, Entomology and Fisheries Sciences, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Philip Muruthi
- African Wildlife Foundation, Headquarters, Ngong Road, Karen, P.O. Box 310, 00502 Nairobi, Kenya
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Sharma M, Karikalan M, Asok Kumar M, Sree Lakshmi P, Sharma K, Ilayaraja S, Mathur A, Pawde AM. A study on clinical diagnosis of tuberculosis in free ranging and captive wild animals of India. Iran J Vet Res 2022; 23:369-374. [PMID: 36874187 PMCID: PMC9984141 DOI: 10.22099/ijvr.2022.44272.6512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Revised: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/02/2022] [Indexed: 03/07/2023]
Abstract
Background Tuberculosis (TB) is a disease of paramount importance at the wildlife-livestock-human interface. Aims To study the occurrence and Mycobacterium (M) species involved in the TB of free-ranging and captive wild animals in various Indian states. Methods A total of 396 clinical samples from 207 different wild animal species from various Indian national parks, zoological gardens, etc., were analyzed by lateral flow assay (LFA), Ziehl-Neelsen (ZN) staining, and PCR. Clinical samples include blood (n=156), faecal swabs (n=103), serum (n=73), and nasal swabs or trunk wash fluids (n=64). Results Clinical signs of TB were absent in 202 animals, although 21 wild animals were seropositive for pathogenic Mycobacterium antigens by LFA. Clinical signs like progressive weight loss, and respiratory distress were exhibited by 4 sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) and an elephant (Elephas maximus), which were also found positive for LFA, PCR, and ZN staining. ZN staining showed positivity for acid-fast bacilli (AFB) in 9 (8.74%) faecal and 9 (14.06%) nasal swabs or trunk wash fluids of sloth bears (7 samples) and elephants (2 samples). M. tuberculosis was detected in 7 sloth bears and 2 elephants, whereas M. bovis was found in a spotted deer (Axis axis) by species-specific PCR. Conclusion The circulation of TB organisms in wild animals warrants a strict surveillance programme to identify the carrier status of these animals so that effective TB control strategies can be formulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Sharma
- Ph.D. Student in Pathology, Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar-243122, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - M Karikalan
- Centre for Wildlife Conservation, Management and Disease Surveillance, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar-243122, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - M Asok Kumar
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar-243122, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - P Sree Lakshmi
- Ph.D. Student in Pathology, Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar-243122, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - K Sharma
- Centre for Wildlife Conservation, Management and Disease Surveillance, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar-243122, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - S Ilayaraja
- MSc in Microbiology, Agra Bear Rescue Centre, Wildlife SOS, Keetham-281122, Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - A Mathur
- MVSc in Surgery and Radiology, Nahargarh Biological Park, Kukas-302028, Rajasthan, India
| | - A M Pawde
- Centre for Wildlife Conservation, Management and Disease Surveillance, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar-243122, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Jacobson SL, Puitiza A, Snyder RJ, Sheppard A, Plotnik JM. Persistence is key: investigating innovative problem solving by Asian elephants using a novel multi-access box. Anim Cogn 2021. [PMID: 34839408 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-021-01576-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Innovative problem solving is considered a hallmark measure of behavioral flexibility as it describes behavior by which an animal manipulates its environment in a novel way to reach a goal. Elephants are a highly social taxa that have demonstrated a remarkable capacity for adapting to changing environments. To understand how individual differences in behavior impact expressions of innovation, we used a novel extractive foraging device comprised of three compartments to evaluate innovation in 14 captive Asian elephants. In the first phase of testing, elephants had an opportunity to learn one solution, while the second phase gave them an opportunity to innovate to open two other compartments with different solutions. We measured the behavioral traits of neophilia, persistence, motivation, and exploratory diversity, and hypothesized that higher levels of each would be associated with more success in the second phase. Eight elephants innovated to solve three compartments, three solved two, and two solved only one. Consistent with studies in other species, we found that higher success was associated with greater persistence, but not with any other behavioral traits when analyzed per test session. Greater persistence and, unexpectedly, lower exploratory diversity, were associated with success when analyzed at the level of each individual door. Further work is needed to understand how innovation varies both within and between species, with particular attention to the potential impact of anthropogenic changes in wild environments.
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Singh PK, Ali SM, Radhakrishnan RV, Mohanty CR, Sahu MR, Patro BP, Ms I, Panda SK. Pattern of injuries due to wild animal attack among patients presenting to the emergency department: A retrospective observational study. Chin J Traumatol 2021; 24:383-388. [PMID: 34654596 PMCID: PMC8606701 DOI: 10.1016/j.cjtee.2021.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The human-wildlife conflicts (HWCs) causing nuisances and injuries are becoming a growing public health concern over recent years worldwide. We aimed to study the demographic profile, mode of injury, pattern of injury, and outcome of wild animal attack victims presented to the emergency department. METHODS This retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted in the emergency department of a tertiary-care hospital in Eastern India. Data were retrieved from the medical records from May 2017 to May 2021. Patients of all ages and genders attacked by wild animals and secondary injuries were included in this study. Patients with incomplete data, injuries due to the attack of stray and domestic animals and trauma due to other causes were excluded. Demographic profile, mode of injury, the pattern of injury, injury severity score (ISS), radiological pattern, and outcome were recorded. Statistical analysis with R (version 3.6.1.) was conducted. RESULTS A total of 411 wild animal attack victims were studied, of which 374 (90.9%) were snakebite injuries and 37 (9.1%) were wild mammalian (WM) attack injuries. The mean age of WM attack victims was 46 years, and the male-to-female ratio was 4:1. Elephant attack injury (40.5%) was the most common WM attack injury reported. Most WM attacks (43.2%) occurred between 4:00 a.m. to 8:00 a.m. The median ISS was 18.5 (13-28), where 54.2% of patients had polytrauma (ISS>15). Elephant attack was associated with a higher ISS, but the difference was not significant compared to other animal types (p = 0.2). Blunt trauma was common pattern of injury in the elephant attack injury cases. Lacerations and soft tissue injuries were common patterns in other animal attacks. Among snakebites, neurotoxic was the most common type (55.4%), and lower extremity was the most common site involved. CONCLUSION The young male population is the major victim of HWCs; and elephant is the most common animal involved. There is a need to design scientifically sound preventive strategies for HWCs and to strengthen the preparedness in health establishments to manage victims effectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pradeep Kumar Singh
- Department of General Surgery, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar, 751019, India
| | - S Manwar Ali
- Department of General Surgery, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar, 751019, India
| | | | - Chitta Ranjan Mohanty
- Department of Trauma and Emergency, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar, 751019, India.
| | - Manas Ranjan Sahu
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar, 751019, India
| | - Bishnu Prasad Patro
- Department of Orthopedics, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar, 751019, India
| | - Ijas Ms
- Department of Trauma and Emergency, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar, 751019, India
| | - Susant Kumar Panda
- Department of General Surgery, District Head Quarter Hospital, Angul, Odisha, 759122, India
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Boehlke C, Schuster S, Kauthe L, Zierau O, Hannig C. Nutritional influences on enzyme activities in saliva of Asian and African elephants. J Comp Physiol B 2021; 191:955-70. [PMID: 34235559 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-021-01378-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 04/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Asian and African elephants show morphological adaptations to their ecological niche including the oral cavity. Variety and preferences of forage plants differ between both herbivorous elephant species. Diet can affect salivary enzymes. Asian elephants were shown to have a higher salivary amylase activity than African elephants. Species-specific differences were presumed to be influenced by feeding during collection procedure. This study aimed to determine the influence of feeding on enzyme activities in saliva of both elephant species to differentiate from species-specific effects. Additionally, season and housing conditions on salivary enzyme activities in non-fed elephants of both species were investigated. Salivary amylase (sAA), lysozyme (sLYS) and peroxidase (sPOD) activity were measured photometrically or fluorometrically. Results of this study reinforce previous observations of higher basic sAA activity in Asian elephants compared to African elephants. Salivary LYS and sPOD activity showed neither species-specific nor housing-specific differences. Independent from season, most elephants of both species revealed a lack of or low sPOD activity. Feeding caused a temporary decrease of sAA, sLYS and sPOD activity in both elephant species kept in four of eight tested zoos. Furthermore, sAA activity in Asian elephants was higher and sLYS activity lower in Spring than in Autumn. This study summarizes that sAA and sLYS are components of Asian and African elephant saliva in an active conformation in contrast to sPOD. Diet varying between season and zoos might influence sAA and sLYS activities primarily in Asian elephants but temporary low effects suggest sufficient buffer capacity of elephant saliva of both species.
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Bourgeois S, Ouitavon K, Kongmee P, Veeramaethaphan T, Kaden J, McEwing R. A simple sexing test for elephant species and its application to faecal DNA. J Appl Genet 2021; 62:507-509. [PMID: 33759056 DOI: 10.1007/s13353-021-00627-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Revised: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We developed a novel real-time PCR assay for rapid sexing in all three elephant species, which amplifies small fragments of the orthologous sexual chromosome zinc finger protein genes ZFX/ZFY (65 bp). This assay is a simple, inexpensive and reliable tool that is suitable for non-invasive DNA samples and can be incorporated into larger SNP panels for individual identification and population genetic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Bourgeois
- Agence Nationale des Parcs Nationaux, B.P. 20379, Libreville, Gabon. .,WildGenes Laboratory, The Royal Zoological Society of Scotland, RZSS Edinburgh Zoo, Edinburgh, EH12 6TS, UK. .,Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, UK.
| | - K Ouitavon
- Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - P Kongmee
- Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - T Veeramaethaphan
- Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - J Kaden
- WildGenes Laboratory, The Royal Zoological Society of Scotland, RZSS Edinburgh Zoo, Edinburgh, EH12 6TS, UK
| | - R McEwing
- TRACE Wildlife Forensics Network, PO Box 17477, Edinburgh, EH12 1NY, UK
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Vazquez JM, Lynch VJ. Pervasive duplication of tumor suppressors in Afrotherians during the evolution of large bodies and reduced cancer risk. eLife 2021; 10:e65041. [PMID: 33513090 PMCID: PMC7952090 DOI: 10.7554/elife.65041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The risk of developing cancer is correlated with body size and lifespan within species. Between species, however, there is no correlation between cancer and either body size or lifespan, indicating that large, long-lived species have evolved enhanced cancer protection mechanisms. Elephants and their relatives (Proboscideans) are a particularly interesting lineage for the exploration of mechanisms underlying the evolution of augmented cancer resistance because they evolved large bodies recently within a clade of smaller-bodied species (Afrotherians). Here, we explore the contribution of gene duplication to body size and cancer risk in Afrotherians. Unexpectedly, we found that tumor suppressor duplication was pervasive in Afrotherian genomes, rather than restricted to Proboscideans. Proboscideans, however, have duplicates in unique pathways that may underlie some aspects of their remarkable anti-cancer cell biology. These data suggest that duplication of tumor suppressor genes facilitated the evolution of increased body size by compensating for decreasing intrinsic cancer risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan M Vazquez
- Department of Human Genetics, The University of ChicagoChicagoUnited States
| | - Vincent J Lynch
- Department of Biological Sciences, University at BuffaloBuffaloUnited States
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Muir YSS, Bryant B, Campbell-Ward M, Higgins DP. Retrospective anti-tetanus antibody responses of zoo-based Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and rhinoceros (Rhinocerotidae). Dev Comp Immunol 2021; 114:103841. [PMID: 32861731 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2020.103841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Tetanus toxoids (TT) commercially available for use in horses and livestock are commonly used to vaccinate elephants and rhinoceros that are in human care. Although recommendations for booster intervals have changed in human and horse protocols to reduce the risks associated with hyper-immunity (i.e. B-cell anergy and hypersensitivity reactions) these have generally not been adopted in zoo protocols. Additionally, there is no evidence to demonstrate commercial TT immunogenicity in rhinoceros. In this study, a preliminary analysis of rhinoceros antibody responses to TT was conducted, in addition to an exploration of the impact of various booster frequencies on antibody responses in elephant. Retrospective analysis of archived serum samples was conducted for 9 Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), 7 southern black (Diceros bicornis minor), one southern white (Ceratotherium simum simum), and two greater one-horned (Rhinoceros unicornis) rhinoceros. Pre-vaccination (baseline) samples and those following priming vaccination (rhinoceros only), annual and non-annual boosters were targeted. A commercially available competitive ELISA kit was used to quantify serum anti-TT antibodies. Average baseline and post-vaccination anti-tetanus antibody concentrations were greater in elephant (92 mg/L ± 42, n = 3, N = 3; 125 ± 76, n = 82, N = 9) than in rhinoceros (47 mg/L ± 39, n = 8, N = 8; 44 mg/L ± 37, n = 16, N = 7). Rhinoceros antibody concentrations did not differ markedly following vaccinations from their naturally acquired high pre-vaccination concentrations. Eight elephants demonstrated antibody maintenance for 3-5 years without a tetanus booster. Additionally, although five out of nine elephants developed local reactions consistent with delayed type IV hypersensitivity following some boosters, there was no association between high antibody concentrations and increased incidence of adverse reactions. In addition, no decrease in antibody concentrations was detected as a result of annual vaccination in elephants, though this does not entirely rule out potential for B-cell anergy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Benn Bryant
- Taronga Western Plains Zoo, Obley Rd, Dubbo, 2830, NSW, Australia
| | | | - Damien P Higgins
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, 2006, NSW, Australia.
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13
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Abstract
Megaherbivores have been of particular interest to scientists because of the physiological and ecological challenges associated with their extreme body size. Yet, one question that has seldom been explored is how browsing megaherbivores cope with plant secondary metabolites (PSMs), such as tannins, found in their food. It is possible that the sheer body size of these megaherbivores allows them to ingest tannins with no deleterious effects. However, it is plausible that megaherbivores must rely on other mechanisms to cope with PSMs, such as the production of salivary tannin-binding proteins. Thus, we aimed to determine whether megaherbivore browsers produce tannin-binding proteins to further reduce the consequences of ingesting a tannin-rich diet. Using a series of laboratory assays, we explored whether elephants, black rhinoceros, and giraffe had tannin-binding proteins in their saliva. We tested for the presence of proline-rich proteins in the saliva using two different approaches: (1) SDS-PAGE using Laemmli's (Laemmli, Nature 227:680-685, 1970) destaining method, and (2) comparative SDS-PAGE gels using Beeley et al.'s (Beeley et al. Electrophoresis 12:493-499, 1991) method for staining and destaining to probe for proline-rich proteins. Then, to test for the tannin-binding affinity of their saliva, we performed an inhibition assay. We did not observe proline-rich proteins in any of the megaherbivore species, but they did have other protein(s) in their saliva that have a high tannin-binding affinity. Our results highlight that, despite their large body sizes, and their abilities to tolerate low-quality food, browsing megaherbivores have likely evolved tannin-binding proteins as a way of coping with the negative effects of tannins.
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14
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Prado NA, Carlstead K, Malloy EJ, Paris S, Wielebnowski N, Rockwood LL, Brown JL. Ovarian cyclicity and prolactin status of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in North American zoos may be influenced by life experience and individual temperament. Horm Behav 2020; 125:104804. [PMID: 32531397 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Hyperprolactinemia is an endocrine disorder associated with infertility in many species, including elephants. In a recent survey of zoos accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), over half of African elephant females (N = 101) were not cycling normally, 30% of which exhibited hyperprolactinemia. We examined whether life experience and temperament predict ovarian cyclicity and circulating prolactin status in individual African elephant females. We hypothesized that, similar to humans, acyclicity and hyperprolactinemia in elephants will be associated with an apprehensive or fearful, anxious temperament, and an increased number of potentially challenging life events (transfers, deaths and births). Ninety-five adult African elephant females housed at 37 AZA institutions were included in this study. Blood samples were collected twice a month for 1 year to determine ovarian cycle (cycling, n = 44; irregular, n = 13; non-cycling, n = 38) and prolactin (normal, n = 44; low; n = 23; high; n = 28) status. Keeper ratings on a 6-point scale were obtained on 32 temperament traits in 85 of these elephants. We determined that giving birth and being exposed to herd mates entering the facility were positively associated with normal ovarian cycle and prolactin profiles. By contrast, age, serum cortisol, and an increased number of herd mates leaving a facility were negatively associated with both. Contrary to our hypothesis, hyperprolactinemia was associated with a popular and caring temperament rating, whereas consistently low prolactin was associated with a fearful, apprehensive temperament. These findings indicate that pituitary-ovarian function may be impacted by life history (cyclicity) and temperament (prolactin), which should be taken into consideration when making management decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia A Prado
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA.
| | - Kathy Carlstead
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | - Elizabeth J Malloy
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave. NW, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Stephen Paris
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | | | - Larry L Rockwood
- Department of Biology, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA
| | - Janine L Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
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15
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Singh SK, Jabin G, Basumatary T, Bhattarai GP, Chandra K, Thakur M. Resolving the trans-boundary dispute of elephant poaching between India and Nepal. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2020; 1:146-150. [PMID: 32411967 PMCID: PMC7219153 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2019.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2019] [Revised: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In Kangchenjunga Landscape (KL), which is shared by three countries – Bhutan, India, and Nepal, the wild elephants migrate from east of Jhapa (Nepal), through West Bengal (India) and Sibsoo (Bhutan) to further east in Assam (India). The route Jhapa-WB-Sibsoo-Assam is a known route for elephant movements where maximum causalities have been reported in the past. The present study was undertaken to ascertain the individual identity of a poached elephant in Jhapa, Nepal and ivory which was suspected to be from the same individual elephant confiscated in Siliguri, India. We undertook STR profiling of the confiscated specimens with nine polymorphic STRs. The forensic parameters has established the fact that the two analyzed samples of elephant were not identical and belong to two different individuals. The present study highlights the necessity of transboundary research for elephant conservation and monitoring their movements in Kangchenjunga Landscape and emphasizes the use of forensic genetics in curbing illegal wildlife trade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujeet K Singh
- Zoological Survey of India, New Alipore, Kolkata, 700053, West Bengal, India
| | - Gul Jabin
- Zoological Survey of India, New Alipore, Kolkata, 700053, West Bengal, India
| | - Thomas Basumatary
- Directorates of Revenue Intelligence Siliguri Regional Unit, Siliguri, 734001, Darjeeling, West Bengal, India
| | - Gopal Prakash Bhattarai
- Deptt. of National Parks & Wildlife Conservation Ministry of Forest and Environment Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Kailash Chandra
- Zoological Survey of India, New Alipore, Kolkata, 700053, West Bengal, India
| | - Mukesh Thakur
- Zoological Survey of India, New Alipore, Kolkata, 700053, West Bengal, India
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16
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Marston CG, Wilkinson DM, Sponheimer M, Codron D, Codron J, O'Regan HJ. 'Remote' behavioural ecology: do megaherbivores consume vegetation in proportion to its presence in the landscape? PeerJ 2020; 8:e8622. [PMID: 32117638 PMCID: PMC7035871 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Examination of the feeding habits of mammalian species such as the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) that range over large seasonally dynamic areas is exceptionally challenging using field-based methods alone. Although much is known of their feeding preferences from field studies, conclusions, especially in relation to differing habits in wet and dry seasons, are often contradictory. Here, two remote approaches, stable carbon isotope analysis and remote sensing, were combined to investigate dietary changes in relation to tree and grass abundances to better understand elephant dietary choice in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. A composited pair of Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper satellite images characterising flushed and senescent vegetation states, typical of wet and dry seasons respectively, were used to generate land-cover maps focusing on the forest to grassland gradient. Stable carbon isotope analysis of elephant faecal samples identified the proportion of C3 (typically browse)/C4 (typically grass) in elephant diets in the 1–2 days prior to faecal deposition. The proportion of surrounding C4 land-cover was extracted using concentric buffers centred on faecal sample locations, and related to the faecal %C4 content. Results indicate that elephants consume C4 vegetation in proportion to its availability in the surrounding area during the dry season, but during the rainy season there was less of a relationship between C4 intake and availability, as elephants targeted grasses in these periods. This study illustrates the utility of coupling isotope and cost-free remote sensing data to conduct complementary landscape analysis at highly-detailed, biologically meaningful resolutions, offering an improved ability to monitor animal behavioural patterns at broad geographical scales. This is increasingly important due to potential impacts of climate change and woody encroachment on broad-scale landscape habitat composition, allowing the tracking of shifts in species utilisation of these changing landscapes in a way impractical using field based methods alone.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David M Wilkinson
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK.,Department of Classics and Archaeology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Matt Sponheimer
- Department of Anthropology, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, USA
| | - Daryl Codron
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Jacqui Codron
- Centre for Environmental Management, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Hannah J O'Regan
- Department of Classics and Archaeology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
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17
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Hoelzig H, Muenster T, Blanke S, Kloess G, Garmasukis R, Koenig A. Ivory vs. osseous ivory substitutes-Non-invasive diffractometric discrimination. Forensic Sci Int 2020; 308:110159. [PMID: 32006880 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Revised: 01/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A new discrimination method for the bioapatite materials bone, antler and ivory was developed using X-ray diffractometry and comprises non-invasive measurements in order to take valuable objects into account. Our approach deals with the analysis of peak intensity ratios resulting from several measurements on each object. For instance, the intensity ratio of the apatite reflections 002 and 310 has been described in the literature as representing the degree of apatite crystal orientation and varies depending on the sample orientation. The decisive factor for the material identification is the value dispersion of intensity ratios resulting from the total of all measurements on one object. This pattern of data points, visualised via kernel density estimation (KDE), is characteristic for ivory, bone and antler, respectively, and enables the discrimination of these materials. The observation is justifiable since apatite crystal orientation adapts to the collagen fibre arrangement which shows major differences between different sorts of bioapatite materials. The patterns of data points were received via analysis of 88 objects made of bone (n = 30), antler (n = 27) and ivory (n = 31). In order to verify several identifications X-ray computer tomography was supplemented. The presented method usefully supplements already existing approaches concerning microscopic, elementary and biochemical analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Hoelzig
- Institute of Mineralogy, Crystallography and Materials Science, Leipzig University, Germany.
| | - T Muenster
- Institute of Mineralogy, Crystallography and Materials Science, Leipzig University, Germany
| | - S Blanke
- Institute of Mineralogy, Crystallography and Materials Science, Leipzig University, Germany
| | - G Kloess
- Institute of Mineralogy, Crystallography and Materials Science, Leipzig University, Germany
| | - R Garmasukis
- Institute of Mineralogy, Crystallography and Materials Science, Leipzig University, Germany
| | - A Koenig
- Department of Prosthodontics and Material Sciences, Leipzig University, Germany
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18
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Athapattu TPJ, Fernando BR, Koizumi N, Gamage CD. Detection of pathogenic leptospires in the urine of domesticated elephants in Sri Lanka. Acta Trop 2019; 195:78-82. [PMID: 31047864 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2019.04.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2019] [Revised: 04/27/2019] [Accepted: 04/27/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a globally common zoonotic infectious disease in humans and animals. This disease is caused by pathogenic spirochetes belonging to the genus Leptospira. The pathogen is able to survive in mammalian kidneys after infection and is excreted in urine intermittently. Pathogenic leptospires infect humans either by direct contact with infected animal urine or through contaminated soil or water. In Sri Lanka, some studies have demonstrated the involvement of animals, such as livestock species and peridomestic rats, in the transmission of leptospirosis to humans. However, none of the previous studies focused on domesticated elephants, which are in close contact with humans during cultural and religious events and bathe in rivers together with humans. If domesticated elephants act as carriers of pathogenic leptospires, it could be a major public health issue in the country. In this study, 13 healthy domesticated elephants were subjected to leptospiral DNA detection from urine samples collected on three consecutive days. Four elephants (31%) were confirmed to shed pathogenic leptospires in their urine. DNA sequencing followed by phylogenetic distance measurements revealed that all positive elephants were infected with L. interrogans. This study reveals the possibility that elephants act as a source of infection of leptospires to humans and recommends the screening of all domesticated elephants that are in close contact with humans for the shedding of pathogenic leptospires.
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19
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Potoczniak MJ, Chermak M, Quarino L, Tobe SS, Conte J. Development of a multiplex, PCR-based genotyping assay for African and Asian elephants for forensic purposes. Int J Legal Med 2020; 134:55-62. [PMID: 31190288 DOI: 10.1007/s00414-019-02097-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2019] [Accepted: 05/27/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Wildlife crimes and the threats they present to elephant populations raise the need to develop and implement DNA-based methodology as an aid for wildlife forensic investigations and conservation efforts. This study describes the development of a tetra-nucleotide repeat STR multiplex, genotyping assay that will identify Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) and African elephant (Loxodonta africana) DNA. The assay targets six tetra-nucleotide STRs and two sex-typing markers simultaneously in both genera of elephants, a first for elephant genotyping assays. The developed assay has potential application in wildlife investigations to associate a biological sample to a particular individual elephant and additionally in conservation science for population management.
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20
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Chave E, Edwards KL, Paris S, Prado N, Morfeld KA, Brown JL. Variation in metabolic factors and gonadal, pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal hormones in association with musth in African and Asian elephant bulls. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2019; 276:1-13. [PMID: 30735672 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2019.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2018] [Revised: 02/03/2019] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Longitudinal analyses of serum testosterone, luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), prolactin, glucose, insulin, triglycerides, cholesterol, total and free thyroxine (T4), total triiodothyronine (T3), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), and cortisol were conducted to investigate pituitary, metabolic, and adrenal changes related to testicular function and musth status in zoo-housed elephant bulls. Blood samples were collected twice a month for 12 months from 14 African and 12 Asian bulls at 17 facilities in North America. Building on previous studies, our results show that musth is associated with increased testosterone, LH, FSH, and cortisol secretion, and a decrease in thyroid hormone (total and free T4) production. In addition, glucose and triglycerides were higher during musth than non-musth periods, indicative of altered sugar and fat metabolism. There were significant differences associated with age for LH, FSH and testosterone, all increasing, whereas the glucose-to-insulin ratio (G:I) decreased with age. A species comparison found African and Asian elephants differed in measures of insulin, prolactin, cholesterol and the G:I. Across all hormones, high inter-individual variability was observed, making it difficult to define a general musth endocrine profile or to assess musth status from single samples. These results highlight the need for facilities hosting bulls to closely and consistently monitor each individual from an early age and throughout musth and non-musth periods to determine the pattern for each male.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle Chave
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, 1500 Remount Rd., Front Royal, VA 22630, USA; Université François-Rabelais, 60 Rue du Plat d'Étain, 37000 Tours, France
| | - Katie L Edwards
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, 1500 Remount Rd., Front Royal, VA 22630, USA.
| | - Steve Paris
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, 1500 Remount Rd., Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
| | - Natalia Prado
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, 1500 Remount Rd., Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
| | - Kari A Morfeld
- Lincoln Children's Zoo, 1222 S 27th Street, Lincoln, NE 68502, USA
| | - Janine L Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, 1500 Remount Rd., Front Royal, VA 22630, USA.
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21
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Carpenter S. A cross-national comparison of the efficacy of community-based and national governance approaches on the protection of the African elephant. J Environ Manage 2019; 231:336-344. [PMID: 30366312 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2018] [Revised: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 10/07/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
This study uses a longitudinal cross-national carcass database to analyze the relative effectiveness of community-based and national governance approaches at conserving elephant populations. Controlling for variables previously identified as impacting poaching levels, an increase in land area under either community or national governance is found to be correlated with an increased likelihood of illegal elephant deaths, with community-based governance being associated with an increase roughly twice that of national governance. This finding suggests that community-based governance may be less effective than national governance at protecting commercially valuable wildlife such as elephants, but neither approach has been able to demonstrate sustained success. Consequently, rather than declaring either conservation approach as clearly preferable, policymakers should instead focus on ensuring that selected conservation approaches are tailored to site-specific natural, institutional, and socio-economic characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Carpenter
- School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University, United States.
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22
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Sach F, Dierenfeld ES, Langley-Evans SC, Watts MJ, Yon L. African savanna elephants ( Loxodonta africana) as an example of a herbivore making movement choices based on nutritional needs. PeerJ 2019; 7:e6260. [PMID: 30723615 PMCID: PMC6361008 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.6260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The increasing human population and global intensification of agriculture have had a major impact on the world’s natural ecosystems and caused devastating effects on populations of mega-herbivores such as the African savanna elephants, through habitat reduction and fragmentation and increased human–animal conflict. Animals with vast home ranges are forced into increasingly smaller geographical areas, often restricted by fencing or encroaching anthropogenic activities, resulting in huge pressures on these areas to meet the animals’ resource needs. This can present a nutritional challenge and cause animals to adapt their movement patterns to meet their dietary needs for specific minerals, potentially causing human–animal conflict. The aim of this review is to consolidate understanding of nutritional drivers for animal movement, especially that of African savanna elephants and focus the direction of future research. Peer reviewed literature available was generally geographically specific and studies conducted on isolated populations of individual species. African savanna elephants have the capacity to extensively alter the landscape and have been more greatly studied than other herbivores, making them a good example species to use for this review. Alongside this, their movement choices, potentially linked with nutritional drivers could be applicable to a range of other species. Relevant case study examples of other herbivores moving based on nutritional needs are discussed. Methods Three databases were searched in this review: Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar, using identified search terms. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were determined and applied as required. Additional grey literature was reviewed as appropriate. Results Initial searches yielded 1,870 records prior to application of inclusion and exclusion criteria. A less detailed review of grey literature, and additional peer-reviewed literature which did not meet the inclusion criteria but was deemed relevant by the authors was also conducted to ensure thorough coverage of the subject. Discussion A review of peer reviewed literature was undertaken to examine nutritional drivers for African elephant movement, exploring documented examples from free-ranging African savanna elephants and, where relevant, other herbivore species. This could help inform prediction or mitigation of human–elephant conflict, potentially when animals move according to nutritional needs, and related drivers for this movement. In addition, appropriate grey literature was included to capture current research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiona Sach
- Inorganic Geochemistry, Centre for Environmental Geochemistry, British Geological Survey, Nottingham, UK.,School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, UK
| | - Ellen S Dierenfeld
- Ellen Dierenfeld LLC, Saint Louis, MO, USA.,School of Animal, Rural & Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK
| | - Simon C Langley-Evans
- Inorganic Geochemistry, Centre for Environmental Geochemistry, British Geological Survey, Nottingham, UK.,School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, UK
| | - Michael J Watts
- Inorganic Geochemistry, Centre for Environmental Geochemistry, British Geological Survey, Nottingham, UK
| | - Lisa Yon
- Inorganic Geochemistry, Centre for Environmental Geochemistry, British Geological Survey, Nottingham, UK.,School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, Faculty of Medical & Health Sciences, The University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, United Kingdom
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23
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Cossu G, Terrier LM, Destrieux C, Velut S, François P, Zemmoura I, Amelot A. Arcuate foramen: "Anatomical variation shape or adaptation legacy?". Surg Radiol Anat 2019; 41:583-588. [PMID: 30656416 DOI: 10.1007/s00276-019-02186-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 01/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The groove of the vertebral artery on the posterior arch of the atlas (sulcus arteriae vertebralis) may become a complete or partial osseous foramen: the arcuate foramen. The presence of a complete or partial arcuate foramen is a rare anatomical variant described in a minority of patients and it seems to be associated with vertigo, vertebro-basilar insufficiency, posterior circulation strokes, and musculoskeletal pain. As the number and morphology of cervical vertebrae is highly preserved, we questioned about its significance from an evolutionary point of view. We thus investigated through an extensive literature review if the arcuate foramen is a pure anatomical variation shape or if it might represent an adaptation legacy. METHODS We observed five atlas of an extinct species, the Late Pleistocene Mammoths (M. primigenius), and we compared them with five atlas of a closely related existent species, the African elephant (L. africana). RESULTS All the mammoths' atlas had an arcuate foramen through which the vertebral artery passed before turning anteriorly and becoming intradural. This foramen was not present in elephants' atlas, where only a groove was observed, such as in the majority of patients. CONCLUSION We would like to raise the hypothesis that this peculiar morphology of mammoths' atlas might have contributed, in association with other factors, to their precocious extinction and that the arcuate foramen might represent a disadvantage in the evolutionary process, with a low prevalence in humans being the result of a natural selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Cossu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Bretonneau University Hospital, Tonnellé Boulevard 2, Tours, France.,Department of Neurosurgery, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Louis-Marie Terrier
- Department of Neurosurgery, Bretonneau University Hospital, Tonnellé Boulevard 2, Tours, France
| | - Christophe Destrieux
- Department of Neurosurgery, Bretonneau University Hospital, Tonnellé Boulevard 2, Tours, France
| | - Stephane Velut
- Department of Neurosurgery, Bretonneau University Hospital, Tonnellé Boulevard 2, Tours, France
| | - Patrick François
- Department of Neurosurgery, Bretonneau University Hospital, Tonnellé Boulevard 2, Tours, France
| | - Ilyess Zemmoura
- Department of Neurosurgery, Bretonneau University Hospital, Tonnellé Boulevard 2, Tours, France
| | - Aymeric Amelot
- Department of Neurosurgery, Bretonneau University Hospital, Tonnellé Boulevard 2, Tours, France. .,Department of Neurosurgery, La Pitié-Salpétrière University Hospital, Paris, France.
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24
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Hu L, Fernandez DP, Cerling TE. Longitudinal and transverse variation of trace element concentrations in elephant and giraffe hair: implication for endogenous and exogenous contributions. Environ Monit Assess 2018; 190:644. [PMID: 30338407 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-018-7038-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The spatial distribution of trace elements in hair is highly heterogeneous at the microscale. The relatively mild spatial variation of endogenous signal incorporated during hair growth may be amplified by orders of magnitude due to later exogenous contaminations. Here, we studied the longitudinal and transverse distributions of trace elements in elephant and giraffe hair and discussed the possible endogenous and exogenous contributions. Laser ablation ICP-MS analyses were performed on cross sections of hair to assess the surface contamination and transverse variation. We also removed the contaminated surface layer at various distances from hair root of single hair strands using physical abrasion and measured the concentrations by microwave digestion followed by ICP-MS. By comparing the concentrations of 11 trace elements between the intact and abraded hair segments as a function of distance from root and their laser ablation profiles, we rationalized the endogenous and exogenous contributions: Al and Ti concentrations are dominated by the exogenous contamination on the elephant hair surface, probably in the form of insoluble particles, but not in the giraffe hair; Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, and Mn are enhanced on the elephant hair surface by exogenous contaminations, but a comparable amount was found in the hair interior suggesting migration of these elements from the surface towards the core; Cu, Zn, Se, and Pb did not have surface accumulation and thus were dominated by the endogenous signal. Overall, giraffe hair had minimal surficial contamination, suggesting the origin of its trace elements is predominantly endogenous, except for Mn, which might get contaminated with airborne particles. We thus demonstrate that contamination of hair may be strongly related to behavioral traits and that the interpretation of trace elemental analyses in hair as a biomonitor or for provenance studies would be highly dependent on the species considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lihai Hu
- Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Utah, 115 S 1460 E, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA.
| | - Diego P Fernandez
- Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Utah, 115 S 1460 E, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA
| | - Thure E Cerling
- Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Utah, 115 S 1460 E, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA
- Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA
- IsoForensics, Inc., 423 Wakara Way, Suite 205, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, USA
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Thitaram C, Matchimakul P, Pongkan W, Tangphokhanon W, Maktrirat R, Khonmee J, Sathanawongs A, Kongtueng P, Nganvongpanit K. Histology of 24 organs from Asian elephant calves ( Elephas maximus). PeerJ 2018; 6:e4947. [PMID: 29915694 PMCID: PMC6004303 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 05/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Elephants are the largest and heaviest living terrestrial animals, but information on their histology is still lacking. This study provides a unique insight into the elephant's organs and also provides a comparison between juvenile Asian elephants and adult Asian elephants or other species. Here we report on the histological structure of 24 organs, including the skin, brain (cerebrum, cerebellar hemisphere, vermis, thalamus, midbrain), spinal cord, sciatic nerve, striated skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, bone (flat bone and long bone), cartilage (hyaline cartilage and fibrocartilage), heart (right atrium, right ventricle), blood vessels (aorta, pulmonary artery and caudal vena cava), trunk, trachea, lung, tongue, esophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum), large intestine (cecum, colon, rectum), liver and pancreas, kidney, ovary, uterus (body and horn) and spleen of two juvenile Asian elephants. Methods Tissue sections were stained with Harris's hematoxylin and eosin Y. Results While almost all structures were similar to those of other species or adult elephants, some structures were different from other mammalian species, such as: plexiform bone was found in flat bone only; a thin trachealismuscle was observed in the trachea; and no serous or mucinous glands were found in the submucosa of the trachea. Discussion Histological information from various organs can serve as an important foundation of basal data for future microanatomical studies, and help in the diagnosis and pathogenesis in sick elephants or those with an unknown cause of death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Excellence in Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Pitchaya Matchimakul
- Center of Excellence in Veterinary Biosciences, Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Wanpitak Pongkan
- Center of Excellence in Veterinary Biosciences, Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Wasan Tangphokhanon
- Center of Excellence in Veterinary Biosciences, Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Raktham Maktrirat
- Center of Excellence in Veterinary Biosciences, Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Jaruwan Khonmee
- Center of Excellence in Veterinary Biosciences, Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Anucha Sathanawongs
- Center of Excellence in Veterinary Biosciences, Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Piyamat Kongtueng
- Central Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Korakot Nganvongpanit
- Center of Excellence in Veterinary Biosciences, Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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Kobayashi Y, Shimazu T, Murata K, Itou T, Suzuki Y. An endogenous adeno-associated virus element in elephants. Virus Res 2018; 262:10-14. [PMID: 29702129 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2018.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2018] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
An endogenous viral element derived from adeno-associated virus containing a nearly intact open reading frame (ORF) of the rep gene (enAAV-rep) has been identified in the genomes of various mammals including degu and African elephant. Particularly, in degu, mRNA expression of enAAV-rep has been observed specifically in the liver. Here we newly identified enAAV-rep in Asian elephant and rock hyrax, both of which are afrotherians. The enAAV-rep of African and Asian elephants appeared to be orthologous and originated from an integration event of the entire genome of AAV into the ancestral genome of elephants more than 6 million years ago, whereas that of rock hyrax appeared to have originated independently. Negative selection operating at the amino acid sequence level was detected for the ORF of enAAV-rep in elephants. As in degu, mRNA expression of enAAV-rep was specifically observed in the liver in Asian elephant. Integrations of enAAV-rep appeared to have occurred independently on the evolutionary lineages of elephants and degu, suggesting that the AAV Rep protein has been co-opted repeatedly in the mammalian liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Kobayashi
- Nihon University Veterinary Research Center, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan.
| | - Tsukika Shimazu
- Nihon University Veterinary Research Center, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Koichi Murata
- Department of Animal Resource Science, College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, 1866 Kameino, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Takuya Itou
- Nihon University Veterinary Research Center, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Yoshiyuki Suzuki
- Graduate School of Natural Sciences, Nagoya City University, Nagoya, Aichi 467-8501, Japan
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French F, Mancini C, Sharp H. High tech cognitive and acoustic enrichment for captive elephants. J Neurosci Methods 2018; 300:173-83. [PMID: 28951175 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2017.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2017] [Revised: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 09/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
This paper investigates the potential for using technology to support the development of sensory and cognitive enrichment activities for captive elephants. It explores the usefulness of applying conceptual frameworks from interaction design and game design to the problem of developing species-specific smart toys that promote natural behaviours and provide stimulation. We adopted a Research through Design approach, and describe how scientific inquiry supported our design process, while the creation of artefacts guided our investigations into possible future solutions. Our fieldwork resulted in the development of an interactive prototype of an acoustic toy that elephants are able to control using interface elements constructed from a range of natural materials.
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Stagni E, Normando S, de Mori B. Distances between individuals in an artificial herd of African elephants (Loxodonta africana africana) during resource utilisation in a semi-captive environment. Res Vet Sci 2017; 113:122-129. [PMID: 28942338 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2017.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2017] [Revised: 08/27/2017] [Accepted: 09/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Space allowance and resource dispersion is recognised as an important factor affecting the welfare of elephants in captivity. In the present pilot study, we investigated distances kept among individuals in an artificially created semi-captive mixed-sex group of African elephants, when individuals were free to disperse. The study involved a herd of six elephants, three females (aged 11 to 16years), and three males (aged 15 to 23years). They were observed through instantaneous scan sampling in order to assess distances between individuals and body orientation in space and through continuous focal animal sampling to assess inter-specific social behaviour and general activity. A total of 312 suitable scans were collected for evaluation of distances between individuals. While foraging in absence of discernible space constraints, elephants maintained a distance equalling five or more body lengths in 63.9% of the scans, with wide differences between dyads. Little social behaviour, mainly affiliative, was recorded. The results of this pilot study suggest further scientific investigation could help to understand whether placing resources at five body lengths distance or over in a controlled environment could increase their simultaneous utilisation by all members of a group and contribute to decrease aggression. However, caution is warranted when applying results to different groups, environments and management regimes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Stagni
- Safari Ravenna, Via dei Tre Lati, 2x, 48125 Savio, Ravenna (RA), Italy.
| | - Simona Normando
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Viale dell'Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, PD, Italy.
| | - Barbara de Mori
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Viale dell'Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, PD, Italy
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Barman NN, Choudhury B, Kumar V, Koul M, Gogoi SM, Khatoon E, Chakroborty A, Basumatary P, Barua B, Rahman T, Das SK, Kumar S. Incidence of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus in Asian elephants in India. Vet Microbiol 2017; 208:159-163. [PMID: 28888631 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2017.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Revised: 07/30/2017] [Accepted: 08/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHVs) are the cause of acute hemorrhagic disease in endangered Asian and African elephants. In the present study, we report the incidence of EEHV infection and associated mortality in the captive elephant of Assam, India. Our result showed the gross morphology and histopathological changes of EEHV infection in the elephant. Moreover, the phylogenetic analysis of the polymerase, helicase, and GPCR genes from the infected tissue samples suggested the presence of EEHV1A virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nagendra N Barman
- College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | | | - Vishnu Kumar
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam 781039, India
| | - Monika Koul
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam 781039, India
| | - Sophia M Gogoi
- College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - Elina Khatoon
- College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - A Chakroborty
- College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | | | - B Barua
- Veterinary officer, Government of Assam, India
| | - T Rahman
- College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - S K Das
- College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - Sachin Kumar
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam 781039, India.
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Eisenberg T, Rau J, Westerhüs U, Knauf-Witzens T, Fawzy A, Schlez K, Zschöck M, Prenger-Berninghoff E, Heydel C, Sting R, Glaeser SP, Pulami D, van der Linden M, Ewers C. Streptococcus agalactiae in elephants - A comparative study with isolates from human and zoo animal and livestock origin. Vet Microbiol 2017; 204:141-150. [PMID: 28532793 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2017.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Revised: 04/20/2017] [Accepted: 04/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Streptococcus (S.) agalactiae represents a significant pathogen for humans and animals. However, there are only a few elderly reports on S. agalactiae infections in wild and zoo elephants even though this pathogen has been isolated comparatively frequently in these endangered animal species. Consequently, between 2004 and 2015, we collected S. agalactiae isolates from African and Asian elephants (n=23) living in four different zoos in Germany. These isolates were characterised and compared with isolates from other animal species (n=20 isolates) and humans (n=3). We found that the isolates from elephants can be readily identified by classical biochemistry and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Further characterisations for epidemiological issues were achieved using Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy, capsule typing and molecular fingerprinting (PFGE, RAPD PCR). We could demonstrate that our elephant isolate collection contained at least six different lineages that were representative for their source of origin. Despite generally broad antimicrobial susceptibility of S. agalactiae, many showed tetracycline resistance in vitro. S. agalactiae plays an important role in bacterial infections not only in cattle and humans, but also in elephants. Comparative studies were able to differentiate S. agalactiae isolates from elephants into different infectious clusters based on their epidemiological background.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Eisenberg
- Hessian State Laboratory, Schubertstr. 60, 35392 Giessen, Germany; Institute of Hygiene and Infectious Diseases of Animals, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Frankfurter Str. 85-87, 35392 Giessen, Germany.
| | - Jörg Rau
- Chemical and Veterinary Investigation Office Stuttgart, Schaflandstraße 3/2, 70736 Fellbach, Germany.
| | - Uta Westerhüs
- Opel-Zoo, Königsteiner Straße 35, 61476 Kronberg, Germany.
| | - Tobias Knauf-Witzens
- Wilhelma - Zoological and Botanical Gardens, Wilhelma 13, 70376 Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Ahmad Fawzy
- Hessian State Laboratory, Schubertstr. 60, 35392 Giessen, Germany; Cairo University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Giza Square 12211, Egypt; Institute of Hygiene and Infectious Diseases of Animals, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Frankfurter Str. 85-87, 35392 Giessen, Germany.
| | - Karen Schlez
- Hessian State Laboratory, Schubertstr. 60, 35392 Giessen, Germany.
| | - Michael Zschöck
- Hessian State Laboratory, Schubertstr. 60, 35392 Giessen, Germany.
| | - Ellen Prenger-Berninghoff
- Institute of Hygiene and Infectious Diseases of Animals, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Frankfurter Str. 85-87, 35392 Giessen, Germany.
| | - Carsten Heydel
- Institute of Hygiene and Infectious Diseases of Animals, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Frankfurter Str. 85-87, 35392 Giessen, Germany.
| | - Reinhard Sting
- Chemical and Veterinary Investigation Office Stuttgart, Schaflandstraße 3/2, 70736 Fellbach, Germany.
| | - Stefanie P Glaeser
- Institute of Applied Microbiology, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26, 35392 Giessen, Germany.
| | - Dipen Pulami
- Institute of Applied Microbiology, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26, 35392 Giessen, Germany.
| | - Mark van der Linden
- National Reference Laboratory on Streptococcal Diseases, Abteilung Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Universitätsklinikum RWTH Aachen, Pauwelsstraße 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
| | - Christa Ewers
- Institute of Hygiene and Infectious Diseases of Animals, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Frankfurter Str. 85-87, 35392 Giessen, Germany.
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31
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Kuhrt H, Bringmann A, Härtig W, Wibbelt G, Peichl L, Reichenbach A. The Retina of Asian and African Elephants: Comparison of Newborn and Adult. Brain Behav Evol 2017; 89:84-103. [PMID: 28437785 DOI: 10.1159/000464097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2016] [Accepted: 02/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Elephants are precocial mammals that are relatively mature as newborns and mobile shortly after birth. To determine whether the retina of newborn elephants is capable of supporting the mobility of elephant calves, we compared the retinal structures of 2 newborn elephants (1 African and 1 Asian) and 2 adult animals of both species by immunohistochemical and morphometric methods. For the first time, we present here a comprehensive qualitative and quantitative characterization of the cellular composition of the newborn and the adult retinas of 2 elephant species. We found that the retina of elephants is relatively mature at birth. All retinal layers were well discernible, and various retinal cell types were detected in the newborns, including Müller glial cells (expressing glutamine synthetase and cellular retinal binding protein; CRALBP), cone photoreceptors (expressing S-opsin or M/L-opsin), protein kinase Cα-expressing bipolar cells, tyrosine hydroxylase-, choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)-, calbindin-, and calretinin-expressing amacrine cells, and calbindin-expressing horizontal cells. The retina of newborn elephants contains discrete horizontal cells which coexpress ChAT, calbindin, and calretinin. While the overall structure of the retina is very similar between newborn and adult elephants, various parameters change after birth. The postnatal thickening of the retinal ganglion cell axons and the increase in ganglion cell soma size are explained by the increase in body size after birth, and the decreases in the densities of neuronal and glial cells are explained by the postnatal expansion of the retinal surface area. The expression of glutamine synthetase and CRALBP in the Müller cells of newborn elephants suggests that the cells are already capable of supporting the activities of photoreceptors and neurons. As a peculiarity, the elephant retina contains both normally located and displaced giant ganglion cells, with single cells reaching a diameter of more than 50 µm in adults and therefore being almost in the range of giant retinal ganglion cells found in aquatic mammals. Some of these ganglion cells are displaced into the inner nuclear layer, a unique feature of terrestrial mammals. For the first time, we describe here the occurrence of many bistratified rod bipolar cells in the elephant retina. These bistratified bipolar cells may improve nocturnal contrast perception in elephants given their arrhythmic lifestyle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidrun Kuhrt
- Paul Flechsig Institute of Brain Research, University of Leipzig Medical Faculty, Leipzig, Germany
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Perera KUE, Wickramasinghe S, Perera BVP, Bandara KBAT, Rajapakse RPVJ. Redescription and molecular characterization of Anoplocephala manubriata, Railliet et al., 1914 (Cestoda: Anoplocephalidae) from a Sri Lankan wild elephant (Elephas maximus). Parasitol Int 2017; 66:279-86. [PMID: 28257950 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2017.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2016] [Revised: 02/18/2017] [Accepted: 02/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The present work provides a detailed morphological and molecular description of Anoplocephala manubriata in elephants. Adult worms were recovered during an autopsy of a wild elephant in Elephant Transit Home, Udawalawe, Sri Lanka. Necropsy findings revealed a severe cestode infection in the small intestine. These tapeworms were tightly attached to the intestinal mucosae, resulted in hyperemic thickened intestinal mucosae, variable size irregular well-demarcated multifocal ulcerative regions sometimes covered with necrotic membranes and variable size, diffuse, well-demarcated raised nodular masses were evident in the small intestine. The article provides an account of the biology of A. manubriata and a comparative analysis of the morphology and morphometrics of Anoplocephala species that occur in different hosts. Phylogenetic analysis of the second internal transcribed spacer region (ITS-2), a portion of the 28S region and cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COX1) genes revealed that A. manubriata is closely associated with Anoplocephala species in horse in comparison to other Anoplocephalines. This study will enhance the current knowledge in taxonomy of elephant tapeworms and contribute to future phylogenetic studies.
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Magnuson RJ, Linke LM, Isaza R, Salman MD. Rapid screening for Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in clinical elephant trunk wash samples. Res Vet Sci 2017; 112:52-8. [PMID: 28126601 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2016.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2016] [Revised: 12/06/2016] [Accepted: 12/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis can infect and be transmitted between elephants and humans. In elephants, the 'gold standard' reference test for detection of tuberculosis is culture, which takes a minimum of eight weeks for results and has limited sensitivity. A screening test that is rapid, easily implemented, and accurate is needed to aid in diagnosis of tuberculosis in elephants. Ninety-nine clinical trunk wash samples obtained from 33 elephants were utilized to validate three molecular extraction techniques followed by a polymerase chain reaction for detection of M. tuberculosis. Diagnostic sensitivity and specificity were estimated compared to culture. Kappa coefficients were determined between molecular results and various culture categories and serological test results. An internal amplification control was developed and assessed to monitor for PCR inhibition. One molecular test (the Column method) outperformed the other two, with diagnostic sensitivity and kappa agreement estimates of 100% (CI 57-100) and 0.46 (CI 0.2-0.74), respectively, compared to culture alone. The percentage of molecular-positive/culture-negative samples was 8.4% overall. The molecular extraction technique followed by PCR provides a much-needed rapid screening tool for detection of tuberculosis in elephants. Immediate procedures can be implemented to further assess PCR-positive animals and provide personnel biosecurity. While a positive result is not a definitive test for elephant tuberculosis, the molecular test results can be used to support current diagnostic procedures applied by veterinarians for treatment decisions to prevent the spread of tuberculosis in elephants.
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Buddhachat K, Brown JL, Thitaram C, Klinhom S, Nganvongpanit K. Distinguishing real from fake ivory products by elemental analyses: A Bayesian hybrid classification method. Forensic Sci Int 2017; 272:142-9. [PMID: 28157639 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2016] [Revised: 10/23/2016] [Accepted: 01/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
As laws tighten to limit commercial ivory trading and protect threatened species like whales and elephants, increased sales of fake ivory products have become widespread. This study describes a method, handheld X-ray fluorescence (XRF) as a noninvasive technique for elemental analysis, to differentiate quickly between ivory (Asian and African elephant, mammoth) from non-ivory (bones, teeth, antler, horn, wood, synthetic resin, rock) materials. An equation consisting of 20 elements and light elements from a stepwise discriminant analysis was used to classify samples, followed by Bayesian binary regression to determine the probability of a sample being 'ivory', with complementary log log analysis to identify the best fit model for this purpose. This Bayesian hybrid classification model was 93% accurate with 92% precision in discriminating ivory from non-ivory materials. The method was then validated by scanning an additional ivory and non-ivory samples, correctly identifying bone as not ivory with >95% accuracy, except elephant bone, which was 72%. It was less accurate for wood and rock (25-85%); however, a preliminary screening to determine if samples are not Ca-dominant could eliminate inorganic materials. In conclusion, elemental analyses by XRF can be used to identify several forms of fake ivory samples, which could have forensic application.
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Selier SAJ, Slotow R, Di Minin E. The influence of socioeconomic factors on the densities of high-value cross-border species, the African elephant. PeerJ 2016; 4:e2581. [PMID: 27812404 PMCID: PMC5088604 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2016] [Accepted: 09/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Unprecedented poaching levels triggered by demand for ivory in Far East Asia are threatening the persistence of African elephant Loxodonta africana. Southern African countries make an important contribution to elephant conservation and could soon become the last stronghold of elephant conservation in Africa. While the ecological factors affecting elephant distribution and densities have extensively been accounted for, there is a need to understand which socioeconomic factors affect elephant numbers in order to prevent conflict over limited space and resources with humans. We used elephant count data from aerial surveys for seven years in a generalized linear model, which accounted for temporal correlation, to investigate the effect of six socioeconomic and ecological variables on the number of elephant at the country level in the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area (GMTFCA). Important factors in predicting elephant numbers were the proportion of total land surface under cultivation, human population density and the number of tourists visiting the country. Specifically, elephant numbers were higher where the proportion of total land surface under cultivation was the lowest; where population density was the lowest and where tourist numbers had increased over the years. Our results confirm that human disturbance is affecting elephant numbers, but highlight that the benefits provided by ecotourism could help enhance elephant conservation. While future studies should include larger areas and more detailed data at the site level, we stress that the development of coordinated legislation and policies to improve land-use planning are needed to reduce the impact of increasing human populations and agriculture on elephant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah-Anne Jeanetta Selier
- Biodiversity Assessment and Monitoring, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Silverton, South Africa; Amarula Elephant Research Programme, School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
| | - Rob Slotow
- Amarula Elephant Research Programme, School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa; Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Enrico Di Minin
- Amarula Elephant Research Programme, School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa; Finnish Centre of Excellence in Metapopulation Biology, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland; Department of Geosciences and Geography, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Kitpipit T, Penchart K, Ouithavon K, Satasook C, Linacre A, Thanakiatkrai P. A novel real time PCR assay using melt curve analysis for ivory identification. Forensic Sci Int 2016; 267:210-217. [PMID: 27643759 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.08.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Revised: 08/10/2016] [Accepted: 08/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Demand for ivory and expansion of human settlements have resulted in a rapid decline in the number of elephants. Enforcement of local and international laws and regulations requires identification of the species from which any ivory, or ivory products, originated. Further geographical assignment of the dead elephant from which the ivory was taken can assist in forensic investigations. In this study, a real-time PCR assay using melt curve analysis was developed and fully validated for forensic use. The presence or absence of three Elephantidae-specific and elephant species-specific melting peaks was used to identify the elephant species. Using 141 blood and ivory samples from the three extant elephant species, the assay demonstrated very high reproducibility and accuracy. The limit of detection was as low as 0.031ng of input DNA for conventional amplification and 0.002ng for nested amplification. Both DNA concentrations are typically encountered in forensic casework, especially for degraded samples. No cross-reactivity was observed for non-target species. Evaluation of direct amplification and nested amplification demonstrated the assay's flexibility and capability of analyzing low-template DNA samples and aged samples. Additionally, blind trial testing showed the assay's suitability application in real casework. In conclusion, wildlife forensic laboratories could use this novel, quick, and low-cost assay to help combat the continuing poaching crises leading to the collapse of elephant numbers in the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thitika Kitpipit
- Forensic Science Program, Department of Applied Science, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Thailand.
| | - Kitichaya Penchart
- Wildlife Forensic Science Unit, Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation, Thailand
| | - Kanita Ouithavon
- Wildlife Forensic Science Unit, Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation, Thailand
| | - Chutamas Satasook
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Thailand
| | - Adrian Linacre
- School of Biological Sciences, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Phuvadol Thanakiatkrai
- Forensic Science Program, Department of Applied Science, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Thailand
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Boehlke C, Pötschke S, Behringer V, Hannig C, Zierau O. Does diet influence salivary enzyme activities in elephant species? J Comp Physiol B 2016; 187:213-226. [PMID: 27580888 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-016-1028-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2016] [Revised: 08/05/2016] [Accepted: 08/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and African elephants (Loxodonta africana) are herbivore generalists; however, Asian elephants might ingest a higher proportion of grasses than Africans. Although some studies have investigated nutrition-specific morphological adaptations of the two species, broader studies on salivary enzymes in both elephant species are lacking. This study focuses on the comparison of salivary enzymes activity profiles in the two elephant species; these enzymes are relevant for protective and digestive functions in humans. We aimed to determine whether salivary amylase (sAA), lysozyme (sLYS), and peroxidase (sPOD) activities have changed in a species-specific pattern during evolutionary separation of the elephant genera. Saliva samples of 14 Asian and eight African elephants were collected in three German zoos. Results show that sAA and sLYS are salivary components of both elephant species in an active conformation. In contrast, little to no sPOD activity was determined in any elephant sample. Furthermore, sAA activity was significantly higher in Asian compared with African elephants. sLYS and sPOD showed no species-specific differences. The time of food provision until sample collection affected only sAA activity. In summary, the results suggest several possible factors modulating the activity of the mammal-typical enzymes, such as sAA, sLYS, and sPOD, e.g., nutrition and sampling procedure, which have to be considered when analyzing differences in saliva composition of animal species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolin Boehlke
- Policlinic of Operative and Pediatric Dentistry, Faculty of Medicine 'Carl Gustav Carus', TU Dresden, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307, Dresden, Germany.,Institute of Zoology, Molecular Cell Physiology and Endocrinology, TU Dresden, Zellescher Weg 20b, 01062, Dresden, Germany
| | - Sandra Pötschke
- Policlinic of Operative and Pediatric Dentistry, Faculty of Medicine 'Carl Gustav Carus', TU Dresden, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307, Dresden, Germany
| | - Verena Behringer
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Christian Hannig
- Policlinic of Operative and Pediatric Dentistry, Faculty of Medicine 'Carl Gustav Carus', TU Dresden, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307, Dresden, Germany.
| | - Oliver Zierau
- Institute of Zoology, Molecular Cell Physiology and Endocrinology, TU Dresden, Zellescher Weg 20b, 01062, Dresden, Germany
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Pursell T, Tan J, Peng R, Ling PD. Generation and validation of new quantitative real time PCR assays to detect elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses 1A, 1B, and 4. J Virol Methods 2016; 237:138-142. [PMID: 27542531 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2016.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2016] [Revised: 06/24/2016] [Accepted: 08/14/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHVs) can cause fatal hemorrhagic disease in Asian and African elephants. There are quantitative real time PCR (qPCR) tests that can detect seven known EEHVs (1A, 1B, 2-6) in mucosal secretions, tissue isolates, and blood samples. However, current qPCR tests are unable to distinguish between EEHV 1A and 1B or 3 and 4. To address these inadequacies, new qPCR assays were generated and validated to specifically detect EEHV 1A, 1B, and 4. Each assay demonstrated robust efficiency, a broad linear range, and low intra- and inter-assay variability. Each also proved to be specific for its EEHV target when tested against known banked samples from past EEHV cases. The EEHV1A and 1B assays were then used to characterize an eight-week, low level EEHV1 viremic event in a young Asian elephant. These new tests will allow veterinarians and researchers to pinpoint the specific species causing infection more rapidly. They will also allow veterinarians and elephant keepers to better characterize the EEHV status of each animal within their herd leading to more informed management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taylor Pursell
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77845, USA.
| | - Jie Tan
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, One Baylor Plaza, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| | - RongSheng Peng
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, One Baylor Plaza, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| | - Paul D Ling
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, One Baylor Plaza, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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Sripiboon S, Jackson B, Ditcham W, Holyoake C, Robertson I, Thitaram C, Tankaew P, Letwatcharasarakul P, Warren K. Molecular characterisation and genetic variation of Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus infection in captive young Asian elephants in Thailand. Infect Genet Evol 2016; 44:487-94. [PMID: 27503594 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2016.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 08/01/2016] [Accepted: 08/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus (EEHV) is emerging as a new threat for elephant conservation, since being identified as the cause of severe, often fatal, haemorrhagic disease in young Asian elephants. To describe positive cases and the molecular relatedness of virus detected in elephants in Thailand, we re-examined all available of EEHV samples occurring in young elephants in Thailand between 2006 and 2014 (n=24). Results indicated 75% (18/24) of suspected cases were positive for EEHV by semi-nested PCR. Further gene analysis identified these positive cases as EEHV1A (72%, 13/18 cases), EEHV1B (11%, 2/18) and EEHV4 (17%, 3/18). This study is the first to phylogenetically analyse and provide an overview of most of the known EEHV cases that have occurred in Thailand. Positive individuals ranged in age from one to nine years, with no sex association detected, and occurred across geographical locations throughout the country. All individuals, except one, were captive-born. No history of direct contact among the cases was recorded, and this together with the fact that various subtype clusters of virus were found, implied that none of the positive cases were epidemiologically related. These results concur with the hypothesis that EEHV1 is likely to be an ancient endogenous pathogen in Asian elephants. It is recommended that active surveillance and routine monitoring for EEHV should be undertaken in all elephant range countries, to gain a better understanding of the epidemiology, transmission and prevention of this disease.
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Nganvongpanit K, Siengdee P, Buddhachat K, Brown JL, Klinhom S, Pitakarnnop T, Angkawanish T, Thitaram C. Anatomy, histology and elemental profile of long bones and ribs of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Anat Sci Int 2016; 92:554-568. [PMID: 27491825 DOI: 10.1007/s12565-016-0361-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Accepted: 07/26/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
This study evaluated the morphology and elemental composition of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) bones (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula and rib). Computerized tomography was used to image the intraosseous structure, compact bones were processed using histological techniques, and elemental profiling of compact bone was conducted using X-ray fluorescence. There was no clear evidence of an open marrow cavity in any of the bones; rather, dense trabecular bone was found in the bone interior. Compact bone contained double osteons in the radius, tibia and fibula. The osteon structure was comparatively large and similar in all bones, although the lacuna area was greater (P < 0.05) in the femur and ulna. Another finding was that nutrient foramina were clearly present in the humerus, ulna, femur, tibia and rib. Twenty elements were identified in elephant compact bone. Of these, ten differed significantly across the seven bones: Ca, Ti, V, Mn, Fe, Zr, Ag, Cd, Sn and Sb. Of particular interest was the finding of a significantly larger proportion of Fe in the humerus, radius, fibula and ribs, all bones without an open medullary cavity, which is traditionally associated with bone marrow for blood cell production. In conclusion, elephant bones present special characteristics, some of which may be important to hematopoiesis and bone strength for supporting a heavy body weight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Korakot Nganvongpanit
- Animal Bone and Joint Research Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50100, Thailand.
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Center of Excellence in Elephant Research and Education, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50100, Thailand.
| | - Puntita Siengdee
- Animal Bone and Joint Research Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50100, Thailand
| | - Kittisak Buddhachat
- Animal Bone and Joint Research Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50100, Thailand
| | - Janine L Brown
- Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Center for Species Survival, 1500 Remount Road, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - Sarisa Klinhom
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Center of Excellence in Elephant Research and Education, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50100, Thailand
| | - Tanita Pitakarnnop
- Animal Bone and Joint Research Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50100, Thailand
| | - Taweepoke Angkawanish
- National Elephant Institute, Forest Industry Organization, Hangchat, Lampang, 52190, Thailand
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Center of Excellence in Elephant Research and Education, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50100, Thailand
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41
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Gürelli G. Intestinal ciliate fauna of the Asian elephant from Gaziantep, Turkey and the description of Brevitentaculum antebum n. g., n. sp. Eur J Protistol 2016; 56:26-31. [PMID: 27347811 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejop.2016.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2016] [Revised: 05/05/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The aims of this investigation were to identify and quantify ciliates inhabiting the large intestine of Asian elephants living in Gaziantep Zoo, Turkey, and to describe a new suctorian genus and species. Species composition and distribution of intestinal ciliates voided in the feces of two Asian elephants were examined. Fifteen species of intestinal ciliates, representing 7 genera, were identified. One new suctorian genus and species, Brevitentaculum antebum n. g., n. sp., was described. This new species has two short truncated terminal projections, with two longitudinally lined bands located between the two projections, near the convex surface of the cell. Short clavate-like tentacles are in two fascicles near each base of terminal projections on the flattened surface of the body. Ciliate densities in the two fecal samples were 4.5×104mL-1 and 10×104mL-1.
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42
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Javare Gowda AK, Dharanesha NK, Giridhar P, Byre Gowda SM. Cobboldia elephantis (Cobbold, 1866) larval infestation in an Indian elephant (Elephas maximus). J Parasit Dis 2016; 41:364-366. [PMID: 28615841 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-016-0805-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2015] [Accepted: 06/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present study, post-mortem was conducted on a female elephant aged about 37 years died at Rajeev Gandhi National Park, Hunsur, Mathigoodu Elephant Camp, Karnataka state. The animal suffered with diarrhoea, anorexia, dehydration and was unable to walk for about one week before death and was treated with antibiotics and fluid therapy for three days. The post-mortem examination revealed that, the gastric mucosa was severely congested, hyperaemic and numerous stomach bots attached to the mucosa. The bots were recovered from the gastric mucosa and processed for species identification. The posterior spiracles of the bots showed three longitudinal parallel slits in each spiracle, the abdominal segments had a row of belt like triangular shaped spines and the anterior end had two powerful oral hooks with cephalo-pharyngeal skeleton. Based on the above said morphological characters, the bots were identified as Cobboldia elephantis. This seems to be the first report of C. elephantis in free range wild elephant from Karnataka state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ananda K Javare Gowda
- Department of Veterinary Parasitology, Veterinary College, KVAFSU, Shimoga, 577204 India
| | - N K Dharanesha
- Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory and Information Centre, IAH&VB, KVAFSU, Dhanvantry Road, Mysore, 570001 India
| | - P Giridhar
- Disease Investigation and Research, Institute of Animal Health &Veterinary Biologicals, KVAFSU, Hebbal, Bangalore, 560 024 India
| | - S M Byre Gowda
- Institute of Animal Health &Veterinary Biologicals, KVAFSU, Hebbal, Bangalore, 560 024 India
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43
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Leblan V. Territorial and land-use rights perspectives on human-chimpanzee- elephant coexistence in West Africa (Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, nineteenth to twenty-first centuries). Primates 2016; 57:359-66. [PMID: 27038218 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-016-0532-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2016] [Accepted: 03/22/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The first part of this article compares the distribution of chimpanzee and elephant populations in reaction to human territorial dynamics of West African trade in parts of nineteenth century Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and Senegal. It answers for this specific region the question of whether present-day situations of close chimpanzee-human spatial proximity are stable or only temporary phenomena in long-term processes of environmental change, and shows that conservation policies centred on either of these two "flagship" species carry radically different ecological, political and territorial implications. The second part shifts to local-level perspectives on human-chimpanzee relationships, emphasizing the land rights contentions and misunderstandings created by the implementation of protected areas at Bossou and in the Boké region of Guinea. These case studies help to look at acts of resistance and local interpretations of primate conservation policies as opportunities to reconsider what is being protected, for what purpose, as whose heritage, and to move towards new and more legitimate opportunities for the implementation of conservation policies.
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Nganvongpanit K, Brown JL, Buddhachat K, Somgird C, Thitaram C. Elemental Analysis of Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) Teeth Using X-ray Fluorescence and a Comparison to Other Species. Biol Trace Elem Res 2016. [PMID: 26194819 DOI: 10.1007/s12011-015-0445-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Elemental composition in bone of the different species has variation depending on genetic and environmental factors especially their food habitat. The aims of this study were to conduct an elemental analysis of Asian elephant teeth, both deciduous (first molar, second molar, and tusk) and permanent (molar and tusk), and compare the elemental composition of permanent teeth among 15 species, mostly mammalian. These teeth were analyzed using X-ray fluorescence at two voltages: 15 and 50 kV. In Asian elephants, deciduous tusk showed a lower Ca/Zn ratio compared to permanent tusk, because of the lack of Zn in permanent molars. Ca/Fe ratio was higher in deciduous than permanent molars. For permanent teeth, elephant molars presented a high Ca/Pb ratio but no Ca/Zn, Ca/Sr, and Zn/Fe ratios because of the lack of Zn and Sr in the samples tested. The key elemental ratios for differentiating elephant deciduous and permanent tusk were Ca/P and Ca/Zn. The considerable variation in elemental ratio data across 15 species was observed. All tooth samples contained Ca and P, which was not surprising; however, Pb also was present in all samples and Cd in a large majority, suggesting exposure to environmental contaminants. From discriminant analysis, the combination of Ca/P+Ca/Zn+Ca/Pb+Ca/Fe+Ca/Sr+Zn/Fe can generate two equations that successfully classified six (dog, pig, goat, tapir, monkey, and elephant) out of 15 species at 100 % specificity. In conclusion, determining the elemental profile of teeth may serve as a tool to identify the tooth "type" of elephants and to potentially classify other species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Korakot Nganvongpanit
- Animal Bone and Joint Research Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50100, Thailand.
- Elephant Research and Education Center, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50100, Thailand.
| | - Janine L Brown
- Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Center for Species Survival, National Zoological Park, 1500 Remount Road, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA.
| | - Kittisak Buddhachat
- Animal Bone and Joint Research Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50100, Thailand.
| | - Chaleamchat Somgird
- Elephant Research and Education Center, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50100, Thailand.
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Elephant Research and Education Center, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50100, Thailand.
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Dupuis-Desormeaux M, Davidson Z, Pratt L, Mwololo M, MacDonald SE. Testing the effects of perimeter fencing and elephant exclosures on lion predation patterns in a Kenyan wildlife conservancy. PeerJ 2016; 4:e1681. [PMID: 26893967 PMCID: PMC4756753 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.1681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2015] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of fences to segregate wildlife can change predator and prey behaviour. Predators can learn to incorporate fencing into their hunting strategies and prey can learn to avoid foraging near fences. A twelve-strand electric predator-proof fence surrounds our study site. There are also porous one-strand electric fences used to create exclosures where elephant (and giraffe) cannot enter in order to protect blocs of browse vegetation for two critically endangered species, the black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) and the Grevy’s zebra (Equus grevyi). The denser vegetation in these exclosures attracts both browsing prey and ambush predators. In this study we examined if lion predation patterns differed near the perimeter fencing and inside the elephant exclosures by mapping the location of kills. We used a spatial analysis to compare the predation patterns near the perimeter fencing and inside the exclosures to predation in the rest of the conservancy. Predation was not over-represented near the perimeter fence but the pattern of predation near the fence suggests that fences may be a contributing factor to predation success. Overall, we found that predation was over-represented inside and within 50 m of the exclosures. However, by examining individual exclosures in greater detail using a hot spot analysis, we found that only a few exclosures contained lion predation hot spots. Although some exclosures provide good hunting grounds for lions, we concluded that exclosures did not necessarily create prey-traps per se and that managers could continue to use this type of exclusionary fencing to protect stands of dense vegetation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zeke Davidson
- Conservation Department, Marwell Wildlife , Winchester, Hampshire , United Kingdom
| | - Laura Pratt
- Conservation Department, Marwell Wildlife , Winchester, Hampshire , United Kingdom
| | - Mary Mwololo
- Research Depeartment, Lewa Wildlife Conservancy , Isiolo , Kenya
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Sudan V, Jaiswal AK, Shanker D. A rare documentation of Haematomyzus elephantis lice from elephants of Mathura. J Parasit Dis 2015; 39:793-4. [PMID: 26688656 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-014-0424-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2013] [Accepted: 01/13/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The present article deals with the rare documentation of elephant louse Haematomyzus elephantis from ceremonial elephants of Vrindavan, Mathura. The reports of this particular louse are very rare in literature as per the Indian context and before this, there is only one recent report of this parasite from India since the last decade. Interestingly, the louse found in a semi arid area, away from the natural habitat of elephants, where its existence in nature is very much a matter of debate. Finally, the morphology of the parasite, its feeding habit and its pathobiology are being described here in.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikrant Sudan
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Sciences & Animal Husbandry, U. P. Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go Anusandhan Sansthan (DUVASU), Mathura, 281001 India
| | - Amit K Jaiswal
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Sciences & Animal Husbandry, U. P. Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go Anusandhan Sansthan (DUVASU), Mathura, 281001 India
| | - Daya Shanker
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Sciences & Animal Husbandry, U. P. Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go Anusandhan Sansthan (DUVASU), Mathura, 281001 India
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Abstract
African elephants (Loxodonta africana) use unusual and restricted habitats such as swampy clearings, montane outcrops and dry rivers for a variety of social and ecological reasons. Within these habitats, elephants focus on very specific areas for resource exploitation, resulting in deep caves, large forest clearings and sand pits as well as long-established and highly demarcated routes for moving between resources. We review evidence for specific habitat exploitation in elephants and suggest that this represents socially learned cultural behaviour. Although elephants show high fidelity to precise locations over the very long term, these location preferences are explained neither by resource quality nor by accessibility. Acquiring techniques for exploiting specific resource sites requires observing conspecifics and practice and is evidence for social learning. Elephants possess sophisticated cognitive capacities used to track relationships and resources over their long lifespans, and they have an extended period of juvenile dependency as a result of the need to acquire this considerable social and ecological knowledge. Thus, elephant fidelity to particular sites results in traditional behaviour over generations, with the potential to weaken relationships between resource quality and site preferences. Illustrating the evidence for such powerful traditions in a species such as elephants contributes to understanding animal cognition in natural contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Fishlock
- Behaviour and Evolution Research Group, Psychology, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK.
| | - Christine Caldwell
- Behaviour and Evolution Research Group, Psychology, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK
| | - Phyllis C Lee
- Behaviour and Evolution Research Group, Psychology, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK
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48
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Baines L, Morgan ER, Ofthile M, Evans K. Occurrence and seasonality of internal parasite infection in elephants, Loxodonta africana, in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2015; 4:43-8. [PMID: 25830107 PMCID: PMC4356875 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2015.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2012] [Revised: 01/04/2015] [Accepted: 01/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The prevalence and density of internal parasite ova were recorded from wild elephants in the Okavango delta. Coccidian oocysts, and eggs of nematode and fluke parasites, were found to be common. Associations were found between infection and age, sex, group size composition, month and year of sampling. Coccidia appeared to be transmitted predominantly in the rainy and flood seasons. Formalin appeared to adversely affect recovery of all parasite taxa after prolonged storage.
It is known from studies in a wide range of wild and domestic animals, including elephants, that parasites can affect growth, reproduction and health. A total of 458 faecal samples from wild elephants were analysed using a combination of flotation and sedimentation methods. Coccidian oocysts (prevalence 51%), and nematode (77%) and trematode (24%) eggs were found. Species were not identified, though trematode egg morphology was consistent with that of the intestinal fluke Protofasciola robusta. The following factors were found to have a significant effect on parasite infection: month, year, sex, age, and group size and composition. There was some evidence of peak transmission of coccidia and nematodes during the rainy season, confirmed for coccidia in a parallel study of seven sympatric domesticated elephants over a three month period. Nematode eggs were more common in larger groups and nematode egg counts were significantly higher in elephants living in maternal groups (mean 1116 eggs per gram, standard deviation, sd 685) than in all-male groups (529, sd 468). Fluke egg prevalence increased with increasing elephant age. Preservation of samples in formalin progressively decreased the probability of detecting all types of parasite over a storage time of 1–15 months. Possible reasons for associations between other factors and infection levels are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia Baines
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, United Kingdom
| | - Eric R Morgan
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, United Kingdom
| | - Mphoeng Ofthile
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, United Kingdom
| | - Kate Evans
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, United Kingdom ; Elephants for Africa, P.O. Box HA148 HAK, Maun, Botswana
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49
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Abstract
Background There are three species of elephant that exist, the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) and two species of African elephant (Loxodonta africana and Loxodonta cyclotis). The populations of all three species are dwindling, and are under threat due to factors, such as habitat destruction and ivory hunting. The species differ in many respects, including in their morphology and response to disease. The availability of elephant genome sequence data from all three elephant species will complement studies of behaviour, genetic diversity, evolution and disease resistance. Findings We present low-coverage Illumina sequence data from two Asian elephants, representing approximately 5X and 2.5X coverage respectively. Both raw and aligned data are available, using the African elephant (L. africana) genome as a reference. Conclusions The data presented here are an important addition to the available genetic and genomic information on Asian and African elephants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akbar Dastjerdi
- Virology Department, Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Weybridge, KT15 3NB Addlestone, Surrey, UK
| | - Christelle Robert
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, EH25 9RG Easter Bush, UK
| | - Mick Watson
- Edinburgh Genomics, University of Edinburgh, EH25 9RG Easter Bush, UK
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50
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Landolfi JA, Miller M, Maddox C, Zuckermann F, Langan JN, Terio KA. Differences in immune cell function between tuberculosis positive and negative Asian elephants. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2014; 94:374-82. [PMID: 24836563 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2014.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2013] [Revised: 01/23/2014] [Accepted: 03/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis is an important health concern for Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) populations worldwide, however, mechanisms underlying susceptibility to Mycobacterium tuberculosis are unknown. Proliferative responses assessed via brominated uridine incorporation and cytokine expression measured by real-time RT-PCR were evaluated in peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) cultures from 8 tuberculosis negative and 8 positive Asian elephants. Cultures were stimulated with Mycobacterium bovis purified protein derivative (PPD-B), M. tuberculosis culture filtrate protein (CFP)-10, and Mycobacterium avium PPD (PPD-A). Following stimulation with PPD-B, proliferation was higher (α = 0.005) in positive samples; no significant differences were detected following CFP-10 or PPD-A stimulation. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-12, and interferon (IFN)-γ expression was greater in samples from positive elephants following stimulation with PPD-B (α = 0.025) and CFP-10 (α = 0.025 TNF-α and IL-12; α = 0.005 IFN-γ). Stimulation with PPD-A also produced enhanced IL-12 expression in positive samples (α = 0.025). Findings suggested that differences in immune cell function exist between tuberculosis positive and negative elephants. Proliferative responses and expression of TNF-α, IL-12, and IFN-γ in response to stimulation with PPD-B and CFP-10 differ between tuberculosis positive and negative elephants, suggesting these parameters may be important to tuberculosis immunopathogenesis in this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer A Landolfi
- University of Illinois, Zoological Pathology Program, Loyola University Medical Center, Building 101, Room 0745, 2160 South First Avenue, Maywood, IL 60153, USA.
| | - Michele Miller
- Rare Species Conservatory Foundation, 1222 E Road, Loxahatchee, FL 33470, USA.
| | - Carol Maddox
- University of Illinois, Department of Pathobiology, 1219 VMVSB, 2001 South Lincoln, Urbana, IL 61802, USA.
| | - Federico Zuckermann
- University of Illinois, Department of Pathobiology, 2834 VMBSC, 2001 South Lincoln, Urbana, IL 61802, USA.
| | - Jennifer N Langan
- University of Illinois, Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, 1008 West Hazelwood Drive, Urbana, IL 61802, USA; Chicago Zoological Society, Brookfield Zoo, Brookfield, IL 60513, USA.
| | - Karen A Terio
- University of Illinois, Zoological Pathology Program, Loyola University Medical Center, Building 101, Room 0745, 2160 South First Avenue, Maywood, IL 60153, USA.
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